Networking Infrastructure

Chapter 12

Application Layer
Module Objectives
Module Title: Application Layer
Module Objective: Explain the operation of application layer protocols in providing support to end-user
applications.

Topic Title Topic Objective

Explain how the functions of the application layer, presentation layer, and
Application, Presentation, and Session session layer work together to provide network services to end user
applications.

Peer-to-Peer Explain how end user applications operate in a peer-to-peer network.

Web and Email Protocols Explain how web and email protocols operate.

IP Addressing Services Explain how DNS and DHCP operate.

File Sharing Services Explain how file transfer protocols operate.

12.1 Application, Presentation,
and Session
Application, Presentation, and Session
Application Layer
• The upper three layers of the OSI model
(application, presentation, and session)
define functions of the TCP/IP application
layer.

• The application layer provides the interface

between the applications used to
communicate, and the underlying network
over which messages are transmitted.

• Some of the most widely known application

layer protocols include HTTP, FTP, TFTP,
IMAP and DNS.
Application, Presentation, and Session
Presentation and Session Layer
The presentation layer has three primary functions:
•Formatting, or presenting, data at the source
device into a compatible format for receipt by the
destination device
•Compressing data in a way that can be
decompressed by the destination device
•Encrypting data for transmission and decrypting
data upon receipt
The session layer functions:
•It creates and maintains dialogs between source
and destination applications.
•It handles the exchange of information to initiate
dialogs, keep them active, and to restart sessions
that are disrupted or idle for a long period of time.
Application, Presentation, and Session
TCP/IP Application Layer Protocols
• The TCP/IP application protocols specify the format and control information necessary for many
common internet communication functions.
• Application layer protocols are used by both the source and destination devices during a
communication session.
• For the communications to be successful, the application layer protocols that are implemented on the
source and destination host must be compatible.

Name System Host Config Web

DNS - Domain Name System DHCP - Dynamic Host HTTP - Hypertext Transfer
(or Service) Configuration Protocol Protocol
• TCP, UDP client 53 • UDP client 68, server 67 • TCP 80, 8080
• Translates domain names, • Dynamically assigns IP • A set of rules for exchanging
such as cisco.com, into IP addresses to be re-used text, graphic images, sound,
addresses. when no longer needed video, and other multimedia
files on the World Wide Web
12.2 Peer-to-Peer
Peer-to-Peer
Client-Server Model
• Client and server processes are considered to be in the application layer.

• In the client/server model, the device requesting the information is called a client and the device
responding to the request is called a server.

• Application layer protocols describe the format of the requests and responses between clients
and servers.
Peer-to-Peer
Peer-to-Peer Networks
• In a peer-to-peer (P2P) network, two or more computers are connected via a network and can share
resources (such as printers and files) without having a dedicated server.
• Every connected end device (known as a peer) can function as both a server and a client.
• One computer might assume the role of server for one transaction while simultaneously serving as a
client for another. The roles of client and server are set on a per request basis.
Peer-to-Peer
Peer-to-Peer Applications
• A P2P application allows a device to act as both a client and a server within the same communication.

• Some P2P applications use a hybrid system where each peer accesses an index server to get the
location of a resource stored on another peer.
Peer-to-Peer
Common P2P Applications
With P2P applications, each computer in
the network that is running the application
can act as a client or a server for the other
computers in the network that are also
running the application.
Common P2P networks include the
following:
BitTorrent
Direct Connect
eDonkey
Freenet
12.3 Web and Email Protocols
Web and Email Protocols
Hypertext Transfer Protocol and Hypertext Markup Language
When a web address or Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is typed into a web browser, the web
browser establishes a connection to the web service. The web service is running on the server that is
using the HTTP protocol.

To better understand how the web browser and web server interact, examine how a web page is
opened in a browser.

Step 1
The browser interprets the three parts
of the URL:
• http (the protocol or scheme)
• www.cisco.com (the server name)
• index.html (the specific filename
requested)
Web and Email Protocols
Hypertext Transfer Protocol and Hypertext Markup Language (Cont.)
Step 2 Step 3
The browser then checks with a name In response to the request, the server sends
server to convert www.cisco.com into the HTML code for this web page to the
a numeric IP address, which it uses to browser.
connect to the server.

The client initiates an HTTP request

to a server by sending a GET request
to the server and asks for the
index.html file.
Web and Email Protocols
Hypertext Transfer Protocol and Hypertext Markup Language (Cont.)
Step 4
The browser deciphers the HTML code and formats the page for the browser window.
Web and Email Protocols
HTTP and HTTPS
HTTP is a request/response protocol
that specifies the message types used
for that communication.
The three common message types are
GET, POST, and PUT:
•GET - This is a client request for data.
A client (web browser) sends the GET
message to the web server to request
HTML pages.
•POST - This uploads data files to the
web server, such as form data.
•PUT - This uploads resources or Note: HTTP is not a secure protocol.
content to the web server, such as an For secure communications sent across
the internet, HTTPS should be used.
image.
Web and Email Protocols
Email Protocols
Email is a store-and-forward method of
sending, storing, and retrieving electronic
messages across a network. Email
messages are stored in databases on mail
servers. Email clients communicate with
mail servers to send and receive email.
The email protocols used for operation are:
•Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) –
used to send mail.
•Post Office Protocol (POP) & IMAP –
used for clients to receive mail.
Web and Email Protocols
SMTP, POP and IMAP
• When a client sends email, the client SMTP
process connects with a server SMTP
process on well-known port 25.

• After the connection is made, the client

attempts to send the email to the server
across the connection.

• When the server receives the message, it

either places the message in a local account,
if the recipient is local, or forwards the
message to another mail server for delivery.

• The destination email server may not be

online or may be busy. If so, SMTP spools
Note: SMTP message formats require a message
messages to be sent at a later time.
header (recipient email address & sender email
address) and a message body.
Web and Email Protocols
SMTP, POP and IMAP (Cont.)
POP is used by an application to retrieve mail from a mail server. When mail is
downloaded from the server to the client using POP the messages are then deleted on
the server.
• The server starts the POP service by
passively listening on TCP port 110 for
client connection requests.
• When a client wants to make use of the
service, it sends a request to establish
a TCP connection with the server.
• When the connection is established,
the POP server sends a greeting.
• The client and POP server then
exchange commands and responses Note: Since POP does not store messages, it is not
until the connection is closed or recommended for small businesses that need a centralized
aborted. backup solution.
Web and Email Protocols
SMTP, POP and IMAP (Cont.)
IMAP is another protocol that
describes a method to retrieve email
messages.
• Unlike POP, when a user connects
to an IMAP server, copies of the
messages are downloaded to the
client application. The original
messages are kept on the server
until manually deleted.
• When a user decides to delete a
message, the server synchronizes
that action and deletes the message
from the server.
12.4 IP Addressing Services
IP Addressing Services
Domain Name Service
• Domain names were created to
convert the numeric IP addresses
into a simple, recognizable name.
• Fully-qualified domain names
(FQDNs), such
as http://www.cisco.com, are much
easier for people to remember than
198.133.219.25.
• The DNS protocol defines an
automated service that matches
resource names with the required
numeric network address. It
includes the format for queries,
responses, and data.
IP Addressing Services
DNS Message Format
The DNS server stores different types of resource records that are used to resolve names. These
records contain the name, address, and type of record.

Some of these record types are as follows:

•A - An end device IPv4 address
•NS - An authoritative name server
•AAAA - An end device IPv6 address (pronounced quad-A)
•MX - A mail exchange record
When a client makes a query, the server DNS process first looks at its own records to resolve the name.
If it is unable to resolve the name by using its stored records, it contacts other servers to resolve the
name.
After a match is found and returned to the original requesting server, the server temporarily stores the
numbered address in the event that the same name is requested again.
IP Addressing Services
DNS Message Format (Cont.)
DNS uses the same message format between servers, consisting of a question, answer, authority, and
additional information for all types of client queries and server responses, error messages, and transfer
of resource record information.

DNS message section Description

Question The question for the name server

Answer Resource Records answering the question

Authority Resource Records pointing toward an authority

Additional Resource Records holding additional information

IP Addressing Services
DNS Hierarchy
• DNS uses a hierarchical system to create a
database to provide name resolution.
• Each DNS server maintains a specific database
file and is only responsible for managing name-
to-IP mappings for that small portion of the
entire DNS structure.
• When a DNS server receives a request for a
name translation that is not within its DNS zone,
the DNS server forwards the request to another
DNS server within the proper zone for
translation.

• Examples of top-level domains:

.com - a business or industry
.org - a non-profit organization
.au - Australia
IP Addressing Services
The nslookup Command
• Nslookup is a computer operating system utility
that allows a user to manually query the DNS
servers configured on the device to resolve a
given host name.
• This utility can also be used to troubleshoot name
resolution issues and to verify the current status of
the name servers.
• When the nslookup command is issued, the
default DNS server configured for your host is
displayed.
• The name of a host or domain can be entered at
the nslookup prompt.
IP Addressing Services
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
• The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
for IPv4 service automates the assignment of IPv4
addresses, subnet masks, gateways, and other IPv4
networking parameters.
• DHCP is considered dynamic addressing compared
to static addressing. Static addressing is manually
entering IP address information.
• When a host connects to the network, the DHCP
server is contacted, and an address is requested.
The DHCP server chooses an address from a
configured range of addresses called a pool and
assigns (leases) it to the host.
• Many networks use both DHCP and static
Note: DHCP for IPv6 (DHCPv6) provides similar
addressing. DHCP is used for general purpose
hosts, such as end user devices. Static addressing services for IPv6 clients. However, DHCPv6 does
is used for network devices, such as gateway not provide a default gateway address. This can
routers, switches, servers, and printers. only be obtained dynamically from the Router
Advertisement message of the router.
IP Addressing Services
DHCP Operation
The DHCP Process:
•When an IPv4, DHCP-configured device boots up or
connects to the network, the client broadcasts a DHCP
discover (DHCPDISCOVER) message to identify any
available DHCP servers on the network.
•A DHCP server replies with a DHCP offer
(DHCPOFFER) message, which offers a lease to the
client. (If a client receives more than one offer due to
multiple DHCP servers on the network, it must choose
one.)
•The client sends a DHCP request (DHCPREQUEST)
message that identifies the explicit server and lease
offer that the client is accepting.
•The server then returns a DHCP acknowledgment
(DHCPACK) message that acknowledges to the client
that the lease has been finalized.
• If the offer is no longer valid, then the selected server Note: DHCPv6 has a set of messages that is similar to those for
responds with a DHCP negative acknowledgment DHCPv4. The DHCPv6 messages are SOLICIT, ADVERTISE,
(DHCPNAK) message and the process must begin with INFORMATION REQUEST, and REPLY.
a new DHCPDISCOVER message.
IP Addressing Services
Lab – Observe DNS Resolution

In this lab, you complete the following objectives:

• Observe the DNS Conversion of a URL to an IP Address
• Observe DNS Lookup Using the nslookup Command on a Web Site
• Observe DNS Lookup Using the nslookup Command on Mail Servers
12.5 File Sharing Services
File Sharing Services
File Transfer Protocol
FTP was developed to allow for data transfers between a client and a server. An FTP client is
an application which runs on a computer that is being used to push and pull data from an FTP
server.
Step 1 - The client establishes the first connection to
the server for control traffic using TCP port 21. The
traffic consists of client commands and server replies.
Step 2 - The client establishes the second connection
to the server for the actual data transfer using TCP
port 20. This connection is created every time there is
data to be transferred.
Step 3 - The data transfer can happen in either
direction. The client can download (pull) data from the
server, or the client can upload (push) data to the
server.
File Sharing Services
Server Message Block
The Server Message Block (SMB) is a client/server,
request-response file sharing protocol. Servers can
make their own resources available to clients on the
network.

Three functions of SMB messages:

•Start, authenticate, and terminate sessions
•Control file and printer access
•Allow an application to send or receive
messages to or from another device
Unlike the file sharing supported by FTP, clients
establish a long-term connection to servers. After
the connection is established, the user of the client
can access the resources on the server as though
the resource is local to the client host.
12.6 Practice and Quiz