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Prometheus Revisited

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Table of Contents

1- Introduction 2

2- The Mythological Archetypal Approach Applied to the Promethean Spirit 4

3- Poems and Plays that Tackle the Revolutionary Spirit 10

4- +HVLRG¶VTheogony 11

5- $HVFK\OXV¶VPrometheus Bound 13

6- *RHWKH¶VPrometheus 15

7- 6KHOOH\¶VPrometheus Unbound 18

8- %\URQ¶VPrometheus 25

9- Al-6KDE\¶VThe Song of the Titan: or Thus Prometheus Sang 27

10- 7HG+XJKHV¶VPrometheus on His Crag 29

11-Conclusion 32

12-Works Cited 34

5HDGHU¶V1RWHV 37
 Ϯ

Prometheus Revisited: The Fire Bringer & the Rebirth of Creative Revolutionary Spirit

Yasser K. R. Aman

Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, KSA & Minia University, Egypt.

Introduction

The myth of Prometheus has been dealt with throughout the ages. It illustrates the ongoing

rebirth of the creative revolutionary spirit though it is sometimes muzzled and muffled by

tyrannical forces. My goal in this paper is to prove that all these below mentioned writers

have reflected a creative mainstream of rebellion against tyranny, hinting from time to time to

the Egyptian 25th January Revolution. Many Greek and Roman authors discussed the

Prometheus myth stressing two points: the creation of man out of clay, and the theft of fire.

Other modern writers stressed this revolutionary spirit. Throughout their works, Hesiod,

Aeschylus, Goethe, Shelley, Byron, Al-Shaby, Hughes and many others build up a series of

images of this spirit. During the Greek war of independence, Prometheus represented the

creative revolutionary spirit and hope. HesiRG¶s Theogony shows Prometheus as a

transgressor DQGSRUWUD\V=HXVDVDZLVHDQGMXVWUXOHU+RZHYHU$HVFK\OXV¶s Prometheus

Bound portrays Prometheus as the benefactor of mankind. *RHWKH¶VSRHPPrometheus

illustrates a defiant creative spirit that seeks self-assertion. The romantic rebellious spirit

shows itself iQ6KHOOH\¶VPrometheus Unbound%\URQ¶VPrometheus and Al-6KDE\¶VThe

Song of the Titan: or thus Prometheus Sang. 7HG+XJKHV¶VPrometheus on His Crag reshapes

the revolutionary spirit.

My paper is organized into three sections. Section one discusses the application of the

mythological/archetypal approach to the stages of the development of the Promethean spirit

stressing the absence and emergence of some features of the myth, the adaptation attempted
 ϯ

by each poet to fit his purposes. Section two, which examines some plays and poems that

WDFNOHWKHUHYROXWLRQDU\VSLULWLQFOXGHVGLIIHUHQWVXEVHFWLRQV+HVLRG¶VTheogony,

$HVFK\OXV¶VPrometheus Bound*RHWKH¶VPrometheus6KHOOH\¶VPrometheus Unbound,

%\URQ¶VPrometheus, Al-6KDE\¶VThe Song of the Titan: or Thus Prometheus Sang, and

+XJKHV¶VPrometheus On His Crag. Section three summarizes the findings and concludes the

paper.
 ϰ

THE MYTHOLOGICAL ARCHETYPAL APPROACH APPLIED TO THE

PROMETHEAN SPIRIT

It should be known that establishing a satisfactory definition of myth is almost impossible;

DQG³QRVLQJOHWKHRU\RIP\WKFDQFRYHUDOONLQGVRIP\WKV´ 0RUIRUGDQG/HQDUGRQ  For

the purpose of this paper, I would embrace the definition of Morford and Lenardon of the

FODVVLFDOP\WKZKLFKLV³DVWRU\WKDWWKURXJKLWVFODVVLFDOIRUPKDVDWWDLQHGDNLQGRI

immortality because its inherent archetypal beauty, profundity, and power have inspired

rewarding renewal and transformation by successiYHJHQHUDWLRQV´  The Promethean

figure shows interesting mythological elements: the ritual of sacrifice, the origin of fire and

the divine/heroic trickster (Morford and Lenardon 60).

Northrop )U\HPDLQWDLQV³P\WKLVDQDUWRILPSOLFLt metaphorical idHQWLW\´  DQG

GLVWLQJXLVKHV³WKUHHRUJDQL]DWLRQVRIP\WKDQGDUFKHW\SDOV\PEROVLQOLWHUDWXUH´WKH

undisplaced myth of two worlds of gods and demons represented by the apocalyptic and the

GHPRQLFUHVSHFWLYHO\URPDQFHRU³LPSOLFLWP\WKLFDOSDWWHUQVLn a world more closely

DVVRFLDWHGZLWKKXPDQH[SHULHQFH´DQGUHDOLVP³WRWKURZWKHemphasis on content and

UHSUHVHQWDWLRQUDWKHUWKDQRQWKHVKDSHRIWKHVWRU\´ -40). Frye develops a strategy of

DQDO\]LQJP\WKDQGDUFKHW\SHVLQOLWHUDWXUHYL]WR³VWDQGEDFN´  IURPDZRUNRIDUWVR

as to better analyze the myth and archetypes found in it.

For Frye, apocalyptic imagery is based on the biblical apocalyptic world (divine

world, human world, animal world, vegetable world, mineral world) which is united in

Christ. In apocalyptic symbolism, man passes not only by earth and air but by water and fire

as well. ³,Q&ODVVLFDOP\WKRORJ\WKHVWRU\RI3URPHWKHXVLQGLFDWHVDVLPLODUSURYHQDQFHIRU

fire, as does the association of Zeus with the thunderbolt of fire and lightning. In short,

KHDYHQLQWKHVHQVHRIWKHVN\«LVXVXDOO\LGHQWLILHGZLWKRUWKRXJKWRIDVWKHSDVVDJHWRWKH
 ϱ

heaven of the apocalyptic word´ (145). ,WVKRXOGEHQRWHGWKDW³ILUHLQWKHLQQRFHQWZRUOGLV

XVXDOO\DSXULI\LQJV\PERO´ (151), despite the fact that it is symbolically often seen as ironic

DQGGHVWUXFWLYH³,QWKHLQGXVWULDODJHKRZHYHU3URPHWKHXVZKRVWROHILUHIRUPDQ¶VXVHLV

one of the favorite, if not the actual favoriteP\WKRORJLFDOILJXUHVDPRQJSRHWV´  

The demonLFLPDJHU\LVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKKHOO3DURG\LVRQHRIGHPRQLFLPDJHU\¶V

central themes. Tension resulting from loyalty to the group or the leader is at the core of

demonic human world. Such tension either diminishes the individual or puts his pleasure and

duty and honor in contrast.

In the sinister human world one individual pole is the tyrant-leader, inscrutable,

ruthless, melancholy, and with an insatiable will, who commands loyalty only if he is

ego-centric enough to represent the collective ego of his followers. The other pole is

represented by the pharmakos, or sacrificed victim, who has to be killed to strengthen

the others. In the most concentrated form of the demonic parody, the two become the

same (Frye 148).

The mob, often assuming animal images, is looking for a pharmakos. Monsters, such as the

dragon, and beasts of prey, such as vultures, represent the animal world. A forest, a heath or

an enchanted garden may represent the vegetable world. Similarly, deserts, rocks and waste

land may represent the inorganic world. Malignant demons represent the world of fire, while

the water of death refers to the world of water. +RZHYHULQWKHLQQRFHQWZRUOG³ZDWHU

symbolism features chiefly fountains and pools, fertilizing rains, and an occasional stream

VHSDUDWLQJDPDQIURPDZRPDQDQGVRSUHVHUYLQJWKHFKDVWLW\RIHDFK´ -3).

As a tragic hero, Prometheus combines divine and human aspects since he cannot die

EXWVWLOOKHVKDUHVGHDGHQLQJVXIIHULQJZLWKPRUWDOV)U\PDLQWDLQV³3URPHWKHXVEHLQJDJRG
 ϲ

FDQQRWGLHEXWKHVXIIHUVIRUKLVV\PSDWK\IRU³WKHG\LQJRQHV´ EURWRL RU³PRUWDOPHQ´DQG

HYHQVXIIHULQJKDVVRPHWKLQJVXEGLYLQHDERXWLW´  For Frye, most of the time the

P\WKRVRIWUDJHG\LVELQDU\³7KHUHYHQJH-tragedy is a simple tragic structure, and like most

simple structures can be a powerful one, often retains as a central theme even in the most

complex tragedies. Here the original act provoking the revenge sets up an antithetical or

counterbalancing movement, and the completion of the mRYHPHQWUHVROYHVWKHWUDJHG\´

(209). Nemesis happens when the nature is disturbed. The tragic action is caused either by an

external fate or a violation of a moral law. 6RPHWLPHVWUDJHG\SUHVHQWVWKH³WKHPHRI

narrowing comparatively free life into a process of causation. This happens to Macbeth when

he accepts the logic of usurpation, to Hamlet when he accepts the logic of revenge, to Lear

ZKHQKHDFFHSWVWKHORJLFRIDEGLFDWLRQ´ (212), and to Prometheus when he accepts the logic

RIEHWWHULQJPRUWDOV¶OLYHs. +RZHYHU³IRUWKHFUXFLILHG3URPHWKHXVWKHKXPLOLDWLRQRI

exposure, the horror of being watched, is a greater misery than the pain. Derkou Theama

EHKROGWKHVSHFWDFOHJHW\RXUVWDULQJRYHUZLWK LVKLVELWWHUHVWFU\´  If thought of

archetypally, tragedy in literature includes a mimesis of sacrifice.

In the introduction of the Prometheus theme in English and French Literature: A

Study of Literary Influences, Awad relates the myth of Prometheus, with its alterations

WKURXJKRXWDJHVWR³the problHPRI2ULJLQDO6LQ´  Sometimes Prometheus is described as

³WKH)DWKHURI0DQNLQG´  ³WKH)ULHQGRI0DQ´  ³WKH)RXQGHURI&LYLOL]DWLRQ´  DQG³

WKHSLFWXUHRIWKH5HGHHPHU  +RZHYHUVRPH³GHSLFWHGKLPDVWKHLPDJHRI/XFLIHU´  

since he oSSRVHGWKH³All father´ ³DQGDVVRFLDWHGKLPZLWKWKH6HUSHQW´ (7). In some

interpretations Zeus (Mind) and Prometheus (Necessity) represent two antithesis that emanate

from one Thesis. When Zeus binds Prometheus, mind wins over necessity. Herakles, who

symbolizes final reconciliation, represents the ultimate synthesis of those contending

 ϳ

opposites (15). 8QELQGLQJ3URPHWKHXVE\+HUDNOHVDVRQPLJKWLHUWKDQKLVVLUHVDYHV=HXV¶

throne and prevents his fall (24).

The distinction between archetypes and myth has often been blurred so much that

myth critics have widely been using archetypal vocabulary (Reeves). LéYL6WUDXVV¶V

DVVXPSWLRQ³DOOKXPDQEHKDYLRULVEDVHGRQFHUWDLQXQFKDQJLQJSDWWHUQVZKRVHVWUXFWXUHLV

WKHVDPHLQDOODJHVDQGLQDOOVRFLHWLHV´ Morford and Lenardon 9), endorses the applicability

of the mythological interpretation of the Promethean figure to the modern situation. The

Promethean figure has contradictory characteristics: he is the archetype of culture god or hero

responsible for all arts and science and at the same time the archetype of the divine or heroic

trickster (Morford and Lenardon 60). A catholic marriage is attempted between the image and

the idea in mythic conception. Therefore, the Promethean image, ignites an idea and strikes a

FKRUGLQKXPDQEHLQJVHYHU\ZKHUHDQGWKURXJKRXWWLPH0RUHRYHU³WKHSXUSRVHRIP\WKLV

WRSURYLGHDORJLFDOPRGHOFDSDEOHRIRYHUFRPLQJDFRQWUDGLFWLRQ´ 5HHYHV VRPHWKLQJ

typical of the human mind and recurrent in the Promethean dilemma.

Works dealing with Prometheus myth are compared in order to uncover the

archetypes, ³the universal symbols´ $OL\HYD that refer to reality. In all works, the

Promethean figure advocates a sense of spiritual unity, a mandala. The contradictory forces

that characterize the Promethean figure-he is a culture god and a divine trickster- is

reminiscent of yang-yin, a Chinese symbol of unity of opposing forces. Prometheus-causing

his own torment, since he was bound by his fear of the tyrant, and his rebellion against the

tyrant echoes ouroboros, a symbol signifying the eternal cycle of life, unity of opposing

forces. However, opposition between two entities that can be reconciled into one unifying

ZKROHDVPHQWLRQHGLQ$ZDG¶VThe Theme of Prometheus, does not fit for the modern spirit
 ϴ

DQGLVUHSODFHGE\)U\H¶VRSSRVLQJIRUFHV WKHW\UDQW-leader and the pharmakos) in the sinister

human world. This point can be better illustrated by the following figures:

$ZDG¶VUHFRQFLOLDWLRQPRGHO

Thesis

Antithesis

Zeus (mind) Prometheus (Necessity)

Herakles

Synthesis (final reconciliation)

)U\H¶VRSSRVLQJIRUFHVPRGHO

Demonic/Sinister human world

Tyrant-leader pharmakos

Throughout history, the Promethean myth has gradually lost the reconciliation model and

developed a creative revolutionary model based on opposing forces never to be reconciled.

Studying the development of the Promethean myth crystallizes what the creative

revolutionary spirit can achieve in the future. On 13th November 2012 at the 11th

6\PSRVLXP³&UHDWLYLW\DQG5HYROXWLRQ´)DFXOW\RI$UWV&DLUR8QLYHUVLW\ Bill Ashcroft

gave the first keynote DGGUHVVWLWOHG³)XWXUH7KLQNLQJ7KH8WRSLD)XQFWLRQRIWKH&UHDWLYH

6SLULW´stressing the function of creativity as it inspires hope: "hope for change, hope for

freedom, hope for the future" (Ashcroft 1). The belief in the future does not stop with
 ϵ

revolution. Revolution evolves and revolves with time which is seen from a threefold

perspective: time as succession, time as duration and time as reality. Ashcroft maintains that

(UQVW%ORFK¶VWKH³,Q-Front-of-8V´"is always a possibility of emerging from the past, not as

nostalgia but as renewal" (Ashcroft 8). In "The Principle of Hope", thinking which, for Bloch,

PHDQVUHDOYHQWXULQJEH\RQG³JUDVSV the New as something that is mediated in what exists

and is in motion, although to be revealed the New demands WKHPRVWH[WUHPHHIIRUWRIZLOO´

(Bloch). (IIRUWVEHLWSK\VLFDORUVSLULWXDOVKRXOGEHH[HUWHGLQRUGHUIRUWKH³1HZ´WREH

realized. The concOXGLQJZRUGVRI$VKFURIW¶VOHFWXUHKROGJRRGKHUH³Creative works

confirm a fundamental truth of revolution: that no future is achieved unless it is first

LPDJLQHG´ (Ashcroft19). That is why the myth of Prometheus has been revisited throughout

history.
 ϭϬ

POEMS AND PLAYS THAT TACKLE THE REVOLUTIONARY SPIRIT

The myth of Prometheus, the fire bringer and the revolutionary spirit, has been tackled

throughout time, gaining features from each epoch according to its social and political events.

Dougherty maintains that:

As rebel, traitor, culture hero, and protector of mankind, Prometheus embodies the

human condition with all its potential for brilliant innovation and for cruel suffering.

Throughout the centuries since the Prometheus myth first captured the popular

imagination, the fire that he steals for mortals has come to represent the spirit of

technology, forbidden knowledge, the conscious intellect, political power, and artistic

inspiration. (3)

)URPD³ZLO\WKLHI´ 0RQDJKDQ WRDUHYROXWLRQDU\ILgure, the Promethean myth has

witnessed great changes through the works of Hesiod, Aeschylus, Goethe, Byron, Shelley, Al

Shaby and Hughes. Influenced by the defiant feature of the Promethean myth, Goethe wrote

two works: an unfinished two-act drama Prometheus LQDQGDSRHPWLWOHG³3URPHWKHXV´

in 1774. In the drama, Prometheus was portrayed as a sculptor. As a creative spirit, the power

RI3URPHWKHXVVWHPVIURPZLWKLQ7KHHQQREOHPHQWRIFUHDWLYLW\DJDLQDSSHDUHGLQ9ROWDLUH¶V

RSHUD³3DQGRUD´ RX3URPHWKHH +HUHIXWHG³WKHQRWLRQRIRULJLQDOVLQDQGDJROGHQ

DJHLQWKHSDVW«SURPRWLQJ3URPHWKHXVDVDIRUFHIRULQWHOOHFWXDOPDWHULDODQGFUHDWLYH

LQGHSHQGHQFHIURPWKHJRGV´ 0RQDJKDQ 
 ϭϭ

+HVLRG¶V7KHRJRQ\

+HVLRG¶VTheogony DQG$HVFK\OXV¶VPrometheus Bound follow the reconciliation

model which is not fit for modern rebels. Theogony is not just a poem written by Hesiod who

was allegedly inspired by the muses. Like his other works, Theogony has strong philosophical

EHDULQJV³+LVZRUNVHYLQFHDPLQGVtriving to work out the subtleties of natural and moral

philosophy through the medium of mythology. This is especially true with his epic poem, the

Theogony´ /LOEXUQH  The basic theme focuses on a series of usurpations of power, which is

similar to what has been happening in the modern world. Mubarak has usurped the power

and the will of the Egyptians for thirty years. ³,QWKHTheogony, Hesiod discloses the history

of the cosmos1, telling of the birth of each cosmic entity in its turn. He traces the passing of

cosmic ages, characterizing them as successive usurpations of divine royalty. The tale

culminates in the ultimate holy order under the reign of Zeus, the final usurper, in which

mankind finds LWVHOI´ (Lilburne).

+HVLRG¶VP\WKRORJLFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRns can well be said to reflect or mirror political

events within an established social fabric. Zeus's accession to the throne, establishing a new

world order can be taken to represent mankind's shift from savagery to civilization and the

state. This may paUDOOHO0XEDUDN¶VWDNLQJRIILFHDIWHUWKHDVVDVVLQDWLRQRI6DGDWWKXVVDYLQJ

Egypt from the negative effects of political vacuum, though temporary. After defeating

Chronos, Zeus couples with Themis. Thus authority (of the state) is married to natural order,

ϭ
/ŶĨĂĐƚ͕,ĞƐŝŽĚŐĂǀĞĂŶŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚĂĐĐŽƵŶƚŽĨŶĂƚƵƌĂůŚŝƐƚŽƌLJƚŚƌŽƵŐŚƚŚĞƉƌĞƐĞŶƚĂƚŝŽŶŽĨĂŶƚŚƌŽƉŽŵŽƌƉŚŝnjĞĚ
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 ϭϮ

whose literal children are lawfulness (Eunomia), Justice (Dike), and Peace (Eirene). And

through his coupling with Msemonye, he begets the Muses (who can be thought of as the arts

themselves). Thus the supposed boons of civilization and the state are born, after generations

of savagery (Lilburne).

Prometheus offered =HXVWZRSLOHVRIR[¶VERG\DQGWULFNHG him into choosing the

bone-and-fat pile, keeping meat for man; a trick because of which Zeus deprived mankind

from using fire which Prometheus stole IRUWKHVDNHRIPDQNLQG7KHILUVWVWHSRI=HXV¶

revenge was the creation of the first woman, Pandora, and then he went on to punish

3URPHWKHXV+HVLRG¶V=HXVLVDOONQRZLQJ-he knows Prometheus¶V plan beforehand- and is

just since he begot justice itself. ³+HVLRG¶V3URPHWKHXVGHVFULEHVKXPDQH[LVWHQFHDVD

GHFOLQHIURPGD\VRIIRUPHUZHDOWKDQGHDVH´ 'RXJKHUW\ Rebels of the 25th January

Revolution tried to debunk the ox trick, but Mubarak and his entourage were clever enough to

outmaneuver them and aborted any attempt of political reform. Because they lacked

sufficient experience and a clear vision, it was foretold that they would be imprisoned and

received punishment as terrible as that of Prometheus, while it is ³0XEDUDN VJHQHUDOVDQG

policemen who KDYHWKHODVWODXJK´ $OH[DQGHU 

 ϭϯ

$HVFK\OXV¶V3URPHWKHXV%RXQG

Whether the trilogy of Prometheus Pound, Prometheus Unbound and Prometheus the

Fire Bringer were written by Aeschylus or not (Ruffell 14-5), Prometheus Bound reflects

both a rebellious spirit and a belief in human progress. Though Prometheus was against the

tyrant, they were eventually reconciled,Q$HVFK\OXV¶WULORJ\Prometheus Bound,

Prometheus is portrayed as the benefactor of mankind since he had greatly contributed to the

creation RIWKHLUFXOWXUH,Q3URWDJRUDVRQHRI3ODWR¶VGLDORJXHV3URPHWKHXV³VWROHWKH

mechanical arts of Hephaestus and Athene, and fire with them . . . and gave them to man . . .

Prometheus is said to have been afterwards prosecuted for theft, owing to the blunder of

(SLPHWKHXV´ 3ODWR 7KHP\WKRI3URPHWKHXVDQGKXPDQSURJUHVVZDVXVHGE\3ODWRWR

defend the idea that political excellence can be taught (Ruffell 71).

Overall, whether the play is by Aeschylus, a revised version of an Aeschylean

model, or post-Aeschylean pastiche, its central theme of tyranny and rebellion,

materialism, technological progress and cultural optimism, and a self-conscious

approach to spectacle, and political grandstanding are all particularly pointed in the

years around and following the reforms of Ephialtes and the final moves towards a

radical democracy«3URPHWKHXVVWROHILUHWREULQJVXFFRXUWRKXPDQLW\ (Ruffell

23-8).

3URPHWKHXVUHIXVHGWRUHYHDOWR+HUPHV=HXV¶PHVVHQJHUWKHQDPHRIWKHmother

who would give birth to the child that would topple Zeus over. For this reason Prometheus

received severe punishment in the form of a vulture eating his liver daily. Refusal to tell the

PRWKHU¶VQDPHPD\HFKRLQWKHDWWHPSWVGRQHE\Egyptian security state officers, who

resemble Hermes in this case, to force members of political groups to divulge secrets of their
 ϭϰ

plans and names of members. Therefore, they were punished severely. Moreover, there is

another reason for using punishment and torture:

Just as the unfortunate experiences of the twentieth century have shown, in such

regimes as 3LQRFKHW¶V&KLOH3RO3RW¶V&DPERGLDRU0XJDEH¶V=LPEDEZHWRUWXUH

is not only a method of extracting information (unreliably) from victims, but also a

way of attacking and breaking resistance and opposition to a regime ( Ruffell 29).

Resistance in the twentieth century has witnessed a shift from the reconciliation model to the

opposing forces one. The tyrant-leader tortures the UHEHOQRZD³pharmakos´ in order to

protect his regime.

 ϭϱ

*RHWKH¶V3URPHWKHXV

The Romantic Movement, particularly its Storm and Stress (Sturm und Drang) phase,

ZLWQHVVHGDQ³RXWEXUVWRI3URPHWKHDQLVP,WWRRNWKHIRUPRIGHILQLWHFXOWZKRVHKLJK-

priest was Goethe in Germany, Shelley in England and Edgar Quinet in France.. Between

Thomas Morell and Elizabeth Barrett the history of Promethean Scholarship and criticism´

ZDVULFKHUWKDQ³WKH$XJXVWDQ$JH´DQG³SDUDOOHOWRWKHPRQXPHQWDOZRUNRIWKH

5HQDLVVDQFH´(Awad. The Theme of Prometheus. 151-4).

*RHWKH¶VPrometheus was considered an incomplete drama. The myth has developed

IURPD³SKDUPDNRV´WKDWLVILQDOO\UHFRQFLOHGZLWKWKHW\UDQW-leader to a defiant rebellious

spirit that sees the leader as an opposing force, never to be reconciled with. Prometheus

points out to Zeus that he fears nothing. ³7KHUHEHOOLRXVWLWDQ«EHOLWWOHVWKHJRG¶VSLWLDEO\

DEVWUDFWPDMHVW\´ZKLFKLV³WKHXOWLPDWHDIILUPDWLRQRIVHOIDQGWKHXOWLPDWHVHOI-image of

the Storm ad Stress genius´ Saul 27-28). The poem highlights the defiance of a

revolutionary spirit; in fact it represents ³6SLQR]D¶VDWKHLVP´ (Awad. The Theme of

Prometheus. 175).)RU*RHWKH3URPHWKHXVLVD³Firebringer...following the Calderonian

WUDGLWLRQ´KRZHYHU*RHWKHGLGQRWDFFHSW³&DOGHURQ¶VWKHRU\RILQQRFHQWVLQQLQJQRU

6KDIWHVEXU\¶VWKHRU\RIXQLYHUVDOKDUPRQ\DQGD³MXVW3URPHWKHXV´ ).

Most writers ofStorm and Stress phase, a precursor of European Romanticism, wrote

about the image of Prometheus. Their approach glorified revolt beyond all measures and

³IUDQNO\LGHQWLILHGWKHDUFK-UHEHOZLWKWKH*RRG3ULQFLSOHDQG³tyrannical´DXWKRULW\ZLWKWKH

(YLORQH´ Awad. The Theme of Prometheus. 177). Moreover, Prometheus criticized both the

selfish nature of the gods and the naivety of mankind, of children and beggars3URPHWKHXV¶

address to Jupiter is an index of the development of the mythological figure into a defiant

VSLULW³I know of no poorer thing/ Under the sun, than you gods!´ *oethe 11). The Storm
 ϭϲ

and Stress age departed dramatically from the two afore-mentioned theories, those of

reconciliation with the tyrant and opposing him, almost to embrace atheistic tendencies.

Prometheus dares insulting gods:

I should respect you? For what?

Have you ever soothed

The pain that burdened me?

Have you ever dried

My terrified tears?

Was I not forged as manhood

By almighty Time

And everlasting Destiny,

My masters and yours? (Goethe 13)

The rebellious spirit sides with the people against the tyrant and, according to Frye, the

³SKDUPDNRV´DQG³WKHW\UDQWOHDGHUXQLWHYL]WKHW\UDQWLVWKHRQHZKRZLOOEHVDFULILFHGIRU

the public good and in order to strengthen the others.

The mythological figure that shows defiant/atheistic spirit develops an undivided will

reminiscent of Odysseus LQ7HQQ\VRQ¶V³7KHLoto-Eaters´WKDW stands independent from any

power:

Here I sit, making men

In my own image,
 ϭϳ

And heed you no more

Than I do! (Goethe 13)

The Storm and Stress age heralded a new generation imaged on the Promethean figure who

gives no head to the gods and asserts his own will.

 ϭϴ

6KHOOH\¶V3URPHWKHXV8QERXQG

In his translation of Prometheus Unbound, titled ˱ΎϘϴϠραϮϴΛϮϣϭήΑ/HZLV$ZDG¶V

definition of the self-made man, with the emergence of the bourgeoisie stratum, collides as

much as it coincides with the rebellious spirit, since the former can topple over whoever

stands in his way, achieving his individual aims, despite the undivided will which

characterizes the rebellious spirit. Later, the development of the bourgeoisie was reflected in

such literary works as Robinson Crusoe ZKRLOOXVWUDWHGWKHFRQFHSWRIWKHZKLWHPDQ¶V

burden (15-43). With the Romantic Movement, concepts such as the poet prophet, which

Shelley advocated in his Defence, appeared on the literary arena (65). Awad sees that

6KHOOH\¶VPrometheus Unbound is an example of social reform, which Shelley called for in

his Defence (87-90), expressing the philosophy of the bourgeoisie ( $HVFK\OXV¶V

Prometheus is VLPLODUWR&KULVW¶VILJXUHPRUHWKDQ6KHOOH\¶VVLQFHWKHODWWHUOHGDSROLWLFDO

revolution against Jupiter (112).

British romantic poets, such as Shelley and Byron, focused on the political part of the

3URPHWKHDQP\WK6HHQ³DVDPRGHORIUHVLVWDQFHWRGLvine tyranny and a powerful symbol of

suffering, Prometheus offered a way to think about the complexities of a tumultuous political

ZRUOG´ 'RXJKHUW\  Byron, Shelley and Keats dealt with the Promethean theme

creatively:

[T]he Romantics developed certain interpretations of the symbol which they inherited

from the Enlightenment and contributed new ones which only they could read in the

myth. Like their predecessors they saw in the myth an allegory of the Fall of Man and

DQ DOOHJRU\ RI WKH &UHDWLYH $UWLVW« the real contribution of the Romantics to the

theme of Prometheus is the Manichean interpretation of the friend of Man as a figure

akin to the Redeemer or the Man of Light (the Messiah of Gnostic literature) who
 ϭϵ

combats the Evil Principle, overthrows him, and restores the Golden Age (Awad. The

Theme of Prometheus. 155).

Because it discussed such recurrent themes of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries as

W\UDQQ\DQGVXIIHULQJ$HVFK\OXV¶Prometheus Unbound was popular and attractive to the

romantic poets. 6KHOOH\¶VSRHPVKRZVGXDOLVPZKHUHWKH7KHVLVDQG$QWLWKHVLV

LQGHSHQGHQWO\FRHWHUQDOO\H[LVWWKHUHIRUHUHDOSHDFHFDQQRWEHDWWDLQHG³H[FHSWE\WKHWRWDO

GHVWUXFWLRQRIRQHRUWKHRWKHU´ $ZDGThe Theme of Prometheus. 206).

$HVFK\OXV¶3URPHWKeus influenced many Romantics such as Byron and Shelley. In

IDFW³DOOXVHVRIWKH3URPHWKHXVP\WKLQWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\GHULYHGLUHFWO\IURP

Aeschylus--the dominant motif in the Romantic era is Prometheus as rebel against the

injustices of a Jehovah/Zeus . . . From this metaphysical basis, Prometheus becomes the rebel

DJDLQVWDOOIRUPVRIRSSUHVVLRQVRFLDOSROLWLFDOUHOLJLRXV´ 0RQDJKDQ 6HHQE\6KHOOH\LQ

Prometheus Unbound, as the type of the highest perfection of moral and intellectual nature,

Prometheus is the archetype of the Romantic Rebel. This rebellious figure would not

reconcile with his oppressor of mankind. Demogorgon represented the great force needed to

HIIHFWSHUIHFWLRQ+HZDVJLYHQELUWKWRDIWHU=HXV-XSLWHU¶VXQLRQZLWK7KHWLV 0Rnaghan).

6KHOOH\¶VWKRXJKWVIOXFWXDWHGEHWZHHQHPSLULFLVPDQG3ODWRQLVP+RZHYHUDIWHU

1816, a marked tendency towards the latter was obvious. The Promethean figure endorses

Shelley as an empiricist, D³GHYHORSPHQWIURPDFRQFHUQZLWKWKHH[WHUQDOREMHFWs to a

FRQFHUQZLWKWKHLQWHUQDOVXEMHFWVRIH[SHULHQFH´ /HIHEYUH 6KHOOH\¶VSROLWLFDODQG

religious ideas are crystallized in an image full of aspiration towards the sublime and hidden

power, a potential political idealism, realized only through revolution (Aman 37). Though

Prometheus and Jupiter represent the champion and the tyrant of mankind, Prometheus was

actually unbound once he realized that he creates the tyranny that bound him, his fear of the
 ϮϬ

curse. Prometheus is saved by Christian teachings, by love and forgiveness:

It doth repent me: words are quick and vain;

Grief for a while is blind, and so was mine.

I wish no living thing to suffer pain.

( Act I : 303 - 305 )

Prometheus Unbound GLGQRWSURYH6KHOOH\¶VDWKHLVPDVPDQ\FODLPHG7he poem

demonstrates a message of love and forgiveness which is at the heart of the Christian

teachings. $FWXDOO\³WKHYLVLRQRI3URPHWKHXVJUDGXDOO\FKDQJHVLQWRWKHVKDSHRI&KULVW¶V

&URVV´ 2¶'RQRJKXH  This resemblance to Christ has been noted by many critics,

ZKLFKVXJJHVWVWKDW³3URPHWKHXVLVKHURLFDOO\VXSHULRUWRKLVSXQLVKPHQW´DQGKHKDV

unshakable faith in the future of humanity despite his torment (Grigorian 44). Act I shows

two worlds: one is fake and the other real. This idea is Platonic in nature; however, it

resembles the political and social division of the world in Arab Spring countries before the

revolution which comes to realize the ideal one.

Be it noted that resorting to force means fighting against truth, an act always done by

all tyrants. Throughout his career, Shelley first focused on the omnipresence of the tyrannical

powers-the tyrant-leader- and the defeat of the hero/victim-³WKHSKDUPDNRV´- whose own

weakness is essential to his defeat. However, in Prometheus Unbound, Shelley asserts the

revolutionary forces that lie in the deep reaches of the human soul. The phantasm of Jupiter

VSHDNV3URPHWKHXV¶VWKRXJKWV

Fiend, I defy thee! With a calm fixed mind,

All that thou canst inflict I bid thee do;

 Ϯϭ

Foul tyrant both of Gods and human-kind,

One only being shalt thou not subdue.

Rain then thy plagues upon me here,

Ghastly disease, and frenzying fear;

And let alternate frost and fire

Eat into me, and be thine ire

lightening and cutting hail and legioned forms

of furies , driving by upon the wounding storms

Ay, do thy worst. Thou art omnipotent.

2¶HUDOOWKLQJVEXWWK\VHOI,JDYHWKHHSRZHU. (Act I: 262 - 272)

The same defiant spirit showed itself in the rebels who protested against unjust political

practices by Mubarak in Egypt, Bin Aly in Tunisia, Gaddafi in Libya, Saleh in Yemen and

Al Asad in Syria.

These revolts were foretold by the semi chorus I that speak what Prometheus beholds:

the uprising and its failure, particularly in Egypt. They:

See a disenchanted nation

Spring like day from desolation;

To Truth its state is dedicate;

And Freedom leads it forth, her mate;

A legioned baned of linked brothers

 ϮϮ

Whom love calls children -

( Act I : 567 - 572 )

+RZHYHUWKH³%URWKHUV´RI(J\SWGRQRWZDQWWRJHWDQ\RQHRXWVLGHWKHJURXSLQYROYHGLQ

rebuilding Egypt. Like the French Revolution, WKH(J\SWLDQRQH³GLGQRWDOWHUWKHPHQWDO

attitude that kept Jupiter/ The Freedom and Justice Party, that ruled from behind closed doors

in H[LVWHQFH´(Frye 118 qtd. in Aman 41).

Prometheus gave us a recurrent scene of Tahrir Square and many other squares that

have become famous for its politically bloody scenes:

The nations thronged around, and cried aloud,

As with one voice, Truth, Liberty, and Love!

Suddenly fierce confusion fell from heaven

Among them: there was strife, deceit and fear:

Tyrants rushed in, and did divide the spoil.

This was the shadow of the truth I saw. (Act I: 648-55 )

The same cry has been recurrent not only in Tahrir Square, in 2011, but in other squares

throughout Egypt as well. Tyrants have taken many forms: bullies, political opponents,

mercenaries, and the so called third party. They created an image RI³VWULIHGHFHLWDQGIHDU´

ZKLFKRYHUVKDGRZVWKH³WUXWK´

Throughout thirty years of unjust dictatorial rule, Egyptian activists have

undergone excruciating suffering which had been intentionally unnoticed till the revolution

erupted. Their resistance was heard by the whole world. They cried in the face of the tyrant as
 Ϯϯ

Prometheus did:

Remit the anguish of that lighted star;

Close these wan lips; let that thorn -wounded brow

Stream not with blood; it mingles with thy tears!

Fix, fix those tortured orbs in peace and death,

So thy sick throes shake not that crucifix,

So those pale fingers play not with thy gore.

O, horrible! Thy name I will not speak,

It hath become a curse. I see, I see

The wise, the mild, the lofty, and the just,

Whom thy slaves hate for being like to thee. (Act, I, 597-606)

Of course the cry is not against Christ or true teachings of any religion. Rather, it is a cry

against those who misuse these teachings in order to achieve personal interests particularly in

Arab countries as simple-minded Arab people are easily taken in by any religious call,

regardless of the FDOOHU¶VSXUSRVH

However, in Act IV, which I see as an unjustified excess since actions do not progress

after the unbinding of Prometheus, Shelley gives an image of the ideal world that a successful

revolution should realize:

These are the spells by which to reassume

$QHPSLUHR¶HUWKHGLVHQWDQJOHGGRRP

To suffer woes which Hope thinks infinite;

 Ϯϰ

To forgive wrongs darker than death or night;

To defy power, which seems omnipotent ;

To love, and bear; to hope till Hope creates;

From its own wreck the thing it contemplates;

Neither to change, nor falter, nor repent;

This, like the glory, Titan, is to be

Good great and joyous, beautiful and free;

This is alone life, Joy, Empire, and Victory. (Act IV: 567 - 278)

Since hope in the Egyptian revolution has not created from its wreck most of what it has been

contemplating, the revolution can truly be said to be not completely successful.

 Ϯϱ

Byron¶V Prometheus

7KHLQQDWHNLQVKLSEHWZHHQ*RRGDQG(YLOLVH[SUHVVHGLQ%\URQ¶V3URPHWKHXV

(Awad. The Theme of Prometheus. 199), a three-stanza poem. %\URQ¶V poem follows the

RSSRVLQJIRUFHVWKHRU\3URPHWKHXV¶ZLOORXWGLGWKHVXIIHULQJWKHWLWDQLQIOLFWVXSRQKLP7KH

UHEHOOLRXVVSLULW¶VVWDPLQDFRQWUROVWKHLQIHUQRDQGIOLQJVLWEDFNLQWKHIDFHRI=HXVWKH

creator.

All that the Thunderer wrung from thee

Was but the menace which flung back

On him the torments of thy rack;

The fate thou didst so well foresee,

But would not to appease him tell;

And in thy Silence was his Sentence,

And in his Soul a vain repentance,

And evil dread so ill dissembled,

That in his hand the lightnings trembled. (Byron 265)

7KHSXQLVKPHQWLV³IOXQJEDFN´RQWKHWRUPHQWRUVLQFHWKHUHYROXWLRQDU\VSLULWILQGVVHOI

satisfaction and asserts his individuality in undergoing this ordeal. ,QIDFW%\URQVHHV³the

reign of Jupiter DVDQHYLOLQWHUUHJQXPZKLFKZLOOILQDOO\YDQLVK´ $ZDGThe Theme of

Prometheus. 202).
 Ϯϲ

3URPHWKHXVWHDFKHVKXPDQLW\HQGXUDQFHDQGVWULNHVDJRRGH[DPSOHRI³LPSHQHWUDEOH

6SLULW´ ). +HLV³DV\PERODQGVLJQ´  ZKLFKLQGLFDWHVIXWXULVWLFYLVLRQpeople should

HPEUDFH6LQFH³0DQLVLQSDUWGLYLQH  ³Man in portions can foresee/His own funereal

destiny (266). 7KH3URPHWKHDQILJXUHRSSRVHV=HXVDQGRXWPDQHXYHUVSXQLVKPHQW³And

Making Death a Victory´(Byron 266). The free will of the rebellious figure finds it

LPSRVVLEOHWRUHFRQFLOHZLWKWKHW\UDQWDQGKLJKOLJKWVWKHRWKHUIDFHRIWKHFRLQWKHUHEHO¶V

existence depends on the demolition of the tyrant.

 Ϯϳ

Al-6KDE\¶VThe Song of the Titan: or Thus Prometheus Sang

Al-Shaby uses the Promethean figure in so different a way that the figure is more of a

human being than a titan. The poem opens with an assertion that Prometheus is going to live

despite pain and enemies. He addresses Fate, which may equal Zeus or the misused political

power, stressing a defying and revolutionary spirit:

To Fate that relentlessly inflicts my hopes with woes2

³1HLWKHUZDYHVRIVDGQHVVQRr winds of disaster extinguish fire LQP\EORRG´

³%UHDNP\KHDUWLI\RXFDQIRULWZLOOEHDQDGDPDQWURFN´ Al-Shaby 441-2).

Defiance of Al-Shaby¶VWLWDQLOOXVWUDWHVDQHZUHYROXWLRQDU\WUHQGWKDWZDVQHZWRKLVDJH+H

was charged with blasphemy for expressing such opinions. The reaction of the Promethean

figure in this poem asserts his true human nature; for all that, he will play his flute and sing.

³'HVSLWHWKLV,ZLOOgo playing my flute and singing/ I will go as a dreaming spirit glittering

LQWKHGDUNQHVVRISDLQVDQGLOOQHVVHV´3(Al- Shaby 443). Prometheus, representing

revolutionary power of the people in Egypt, Tunisia and the rest of the Arab Spring countries,

tells all corrupt people who are eager to curb the revolution in its bud, that he is immortal, not


Ϯ
dƌĂŶƐůĂƚŝŽŶŽĨǀĞƌƐĞƐĨƌŽŵƌĂďŝĐŝŶƚŽŶŐůŝƐŚŝƐŵŝŶĞ͘

˶˯ϼΑϝϛΑϲϟΎϣ΁ΏέΣϥϋϲϧΛϧϳϻϱΫϟ΍έΩϘϠϟϝϭϗ΃ϭ 

˯΍ίέϷ΍ϑλ΍ϭϋϭˬϰγϷ΍˵ΝϭϣϲϣΩϲϓΞ˴ Ο΅ϣϟ΍ΏϬϠϟ΍˯ϰϔρϳϻ
˴ 

˯Ύϣλϟ΍ΓέΧλϟ΍ϝΛϣϥϭϛϳγϪϧΈϓˬ ˴ΕόρΗγ΍ΎϣϱΩ΍΅ϓϡΩϫΎϓ

 ϰϰϮϰϰϭϲΑΎηϟ΍  



ϯ
ϲ΋ΎϧϐΑ˱ ΎϣϧέΗϣˬϲΗέΎΛϳϗ˱ ΎϓίΎϋˬϙϟΫϡϏέϲηϣ΃ϝυ΄γ

 ϰϰϯϲΑΎηϟ΍ ˯΍ϭΩϷ΍ϭϡϻϵ΍ΔϣϠυϲϓ˶ΝϭΗϣˬϡϟΎΣ

˶ ˶ΡϭέΑϲηϣ΃
 Ϯϴ

because he belongs to the titans or due to any supernatural element, but because his teaching

and preaching will affect generations to come.

Al-6KDE\¶V3URPHWKHXVKDVEXWIHZIHDWXUHVRI$eVFK\OXV¶VRU6KHOOH\¶VVLQFHKHLVD

day-dreaming poet never tied to a rock with a vulture eating his daily renewed liver. Al-

6KDE\¶V3URPHWKHXVinvolves in a monologue reminiscent of the monologue of the phantasm

of Jupiter iQ6KHOOH\¶VPrometheus Unbound: in both the defiant spirits are so expressive. In

addition, kinds of punishment that might have been inflicted on both figures were similar

(Aman 44-7).
 Ϯϵ

7HG+XJKHV¶V3URPHWKHXVRQ+LV&UDJ

A twenty-one poem sequence, Prometheus on His Crag records speculations of a

revolutionary spirit that is reshaped by the same thing it shapes: creative revolution. Tied to

his crag, Prometheus feels his plight. ³Chained to his crag for stealing fire and giving it (and

therefore life) to humans, Prometheus is visited each day by a vulture that eats his

OLYHU«Prometheus tries to understand the paradox of his predicament´ (Gifford 44).

However, he feels self satisfaction:

And now, for the first time

Relaxing

Helpless

The Titan feels his strength. (Hughes 286)

Prometheus, tied as he is, believes in his cause. He shouts in order to end the old order and

VWDUWDQHZRQH+RZHYHU³$ZRUOGRf holy, happy notions shattered/By the shout/That

EURXJKW3URPHWKHXVSHDFH$QGZRNHWKHYXOWXUH´   The violent image of tearing

3URPHWKHXV¶VOLYHULVIXUWKHUVWUHVVHGE\WKHSKUDVH³DIUHVKVWDUW´  ZKLFKFRQWDLQVWKH

germinating seeds of ongoing torture.

3URPHWKHXV¶VGUHDPWKDW³KHKDGEXUVWWKHVXQ¶VPDVV$QGHPHUJHGLPPRUWDO´  

sheds light on the plausibility and possibility of achieving impossible hopes. The implausible

action of achievement is made possible through an image of effacemeQW³+HKDGUHVROYHG

*RG$VDFRZVZDOORZVLWVDIWHUELUWK´  7KHLPSOLFDWLRQLVWKDWGod-like tyrants can be

toppled over if they are debunked. In poem 8, Prometheus feels defeated at a point of his

VSHFXODWLRQ+H³Oay astonished all his preparations/ For his humanity/ Were disablements he
 ϯϬ

OD\GLVDEOHG´  +RZHYHUKLVUHYROXWLRQDU\VSLULWJHWVRYHUWKLVVWXPEOLQJDVWRQLVKPHQW

³+HVSRNHLWZDVDVFUHDP´  

In poem 12, Prometheus gives an artistic expression to his speculation. Like Al-

Shab\¶V³hHKDGEHJXQWRVLQJ$OLWWOHEHIRUHGDZQ$VRQJWRKLVZRPEV´  ,QSRHP

DQLPDJHRIDYLFLRXVFLUFOHRIPXWXDOZKLSSLQJVRQHDUWKLVIRUPHG+H³6HHVWKHZLQG

Whip all things to whip all things/ The light whips the water the water whips the light/ And

men and women are whipped%\LQYLVLEOHWRQJXHV´  7LPHDQGDJDLQLQSRHPWKH

revolutionary spirit expresses an undying desire for freedom despite his torture:

«%XWKHFRXOGVHH

Himself wading escaping through dark nothing

From aeon to aeon, prophesying Freedom±

,WZDVKLVVRXO¶VVOHHSZDONLQJDQGKHGUHDPHGLW

Only waking when the vulture woke him

In a new aeon

to the old chains

and the old agony (292-3).

Compared to reality, the dream creates a balance, a psychological prop important for a rebel

in order for him to go on fighting and protesting against tyranny. The antithetical relation

EHWZHHQ³GUHDPW´DQG³ZDNLQJ´FUHDWHVWZRZRUOGVEHWZeen which Prometheus faOWHUV³In

3RHPµ(YHQDVWKHYXOWXUHEXULHGKLVKHDG¶DOL]DUGVD\VWR3URPetheus, µ/XFN\\RXDUH

OXFN\WREHKXPDQ¶7KHILQDl lines of the sequence reach for a suggestion for the reintegrated

relationship with the world...µ+HWUHDGV2QWKHGXVWy peacock film where the world IORDWV¶´

(Gifford 44).The final step ends this falter and Prometheus is free to go. Similarly, rebels
 ϯϭ

fight and protest, sometimes winners other times losers, till they realize their freedom and

reshape the world.

In fact 3URPHWKHXV³LVDOLQNEHWZHHQKHDYHQDQGHDUWKFRQYHUVLQJZLWKERWKWKHJRGV

RI2O\PSXVDQGWKHPHQRI$WKHQV´ 6DJDU  Actually the sequence ends with the

UHYROXWLRQDU\VSLULWWULXPSKDQW3URPHWKHXVLVUHVKDSHG³,QWKHILQDOSRHPKHLVUHERUQWR

freedom, a changed person . . . He treads with a new awareness and a responsibility for his

footprint on the delicate, fragile, beautiful and dusty world´ (Gifford. The Cambridge

Companion to Ted Hughes 9).

 ϯϮ

CONCLUSION

Each of the above discussed poems presents a distinct facet of the Promethean myth. Seen

together, all facets crystallize an image of the revolutionary spirit that has been, and will

always be, shaped and reshaped by creativity. +HVLRG¶V3URPHWKHXVPDUNVWKHVHSDUDWLRQRI

mankind frRPJRGV+HVLRG¶VTheogony asserted that a revolutionary spirit needs power

specially when fighting a strong invincible tyrant as Zeus/any tyrant-leader. Therefore,

+HVLRG¶VSRHPFDn be said to represent the first stages of resistance and protest against the

then so strong tyrant-leader$HVFK\OXV¶VPrometheus Bound represents another stage in the

struggle against the tyrant. Reconciliation between titan and tyrant symbolizes the temporary

pseudo peaceful periods that occurred when promises had been made by a tyrant regime.

*RHWKH¶VPrometheus underscores the importance of human creativity and asserts an

overwhelming desire for SURWHVWLQWKHIDFHRIWKHW\UDQW7KLVVWDJHUHIOHFWVSHRSOH¶VGHVSDLU

after promises had been unfulfilled. Therefore, the rebellious spirit/Prometheus shows

adamant will for GHILDQFHDJDLQVWJRGVUXOHUV6KHOOH\¶VPrometheus Unbound endorses the

LPSRUWDQFHRIVHWWLQJRQHVHOIIUHHIURPRQH¶VRZQIHDUZKLFKELQGVDQGUHQGHUVDSHUVRQ

unable to rebel. The confrontation with the phantasm of Jupiter let Prometheus give full vent

to his feelings. This is reminiscent of every confrontation between tyrants and rebels in

FRXQWULHVRIWKH$UDEVSULQJDQGHYHU\ZKHUHHOVH%\URQ¶VPrometheus focuses on the praise

due to rebels everywhere. It stresses the benefits of endurance as an effective tool in

achieving victory over tyrannical powers. Al-6KDE\¶V³The 7LWDQ¶V6RQJRU7KXV3URPHWKHXV

Sang´SUHVHQWVDPDQ-made Prometheus, a romantic figure that overcomes problems by

singing and mingling with nature. However, he warns all corrupt regimes that his teachings

ZLOOODVWIRUHYHULQRUGHUWRHPSRZHUUHYROXWLRQDU\VSLULWV7HG+XJKHV¶VVHTXHQFH

Prometheus on His Crag portrays Prometheus while pondering his punishment. He found a
 ϯϯ

creative solution to his predicament: endurance. This reshapes his spirit and finally sets him

free to go and start anew. All these facets discussed above, which together form a gem of the

revolutionary spirit, prove that the Promethean myth is ageless, suitable for all peoples and,

therefore, deserves to be revisited.

 ϯϰ

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 ϯϲ

Morford, Mark P. O. andRobert J. Lenardon. Classical Mythology. Oxford: Oxford

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