Fundamentals of Momentum,

Heat, and Mass Transfer

5th Edition

James R. Welty
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Charles E. Wicks

Department of Chemical Engineering

Robert E. Wilson

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Gregory L. Rorrer

Department of Chemical Engineering

Oregon State University

BICENTENNIAL

\ 1 807 •

\ 2007b

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Contents

1. Introduction to Momentum Transfer 1

1.1 Fluids and the Continuum 1

1.2 Properties at a Point 2

1.3 Point-to-Point Variation of Properties in a Fluid 5

1.4 Units 8

1.5 Compressibility 9

1.6 Surface Tension 11

2. Fluid Statics 16

2.1 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid 16

2.2 Uniform Rectilinear Acceleration 19
2.3 Forces on Submerged Surfaces 20
2.4 Buoyancy 23

2.5 Closure 25

3. Description of a Fluid in Motion 29

3.1 Fundamental Physical Laws 29

3.2 Fluid-Flow Fields: Lagrangian and Eulerian Representations 29

3.3 Steady and Unsteady Flows 30

3.4 Streamlines 31

3.5 Systems and Control Volumes 32

4. Conservation of Mass: Control-Volume Approach 34

4.1 Integral Relation 34

4.2 Specific Forms of the Integral Expression 35

4.3 Closure 39

5. Newton's Second Law of Motion: Control-Volume Approach 43

5.1 Integral Relation for Linear Momentum 43

5.2 Applications of the Integral Expression for Linear Momentum 46

5.3 Integral Relation for Moment of Momentum 52

5.4 Applications to Pumps and Turbines 53

5.5 Closure 57

6. Conservation of Energy: Control-Volume Approach 63

6.1 Integral Relation for the Conservation of Energy 63

6.2 Applications of the Integral Expression 69

vii
 6.3 The Bernoulli Equation 72

6.4 Closure 76

7. Shear Stress in Laminar Flow 81

7.1 Newton's Viscosity Relation 81

7.2 Non-Newtonian Fluids 82

7.3 Viscosity 83

7.4 Shear Stress in Multidimensional Laminar Flows of a Newtonian Fluid 88

7.5 Closure 90

8. Analysis of a Differential Fluid Element in Laminar Flow 92

8.1 Fully Developed Laminar Flow in a Circular Conduit of Constant

Cross Section 92
8.2 Laminar Flow of a Newtonian Fluid Down an Inclined-Plane Surface 95
8.3 Closure 97

9. Differential Equations of Fluid Flow 99

9.1 The Differential Continuity Equation 99

9.2 Navier-Stokes Equations 101
9.3 Bernoulli's Equation 110
9.4 Closure 111

10. Inviscid Fluid Flow 113

10.1 Fluid Rotation at a Point 113

10.2 The Stream Function 114
10.3 Inviscid, Irrotational Flow about an Infinite Cylinder 116
10.4 Irrotational Flow, the Velocity Potential 117
10.5 Total Head in Irrotational Flow 119
10.6 Utilization of Potential Flow 119
10.7 Potential Flow Analysis—Simple Plane Flow Cases 120
10.8 Potential Flow Analysis—Superposition 121
10.9 Closure 123

11. Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 125

11.1 Dimensions 125

11.2 Dimensional Analysis of Governing Differential Equations 126
11.3 The Buckingham Method 128
11.4 Geometric, Kinematic, and Dynamic Similarity 131
11.5 Model Theory 132
11.6 Closure 134

12. Viscous Flow 137

12.1 Reynolds's Experiment 137

12.2 Drag 138
 Contents ix

12.3 The Boundary-Layer Concept 144

12.4 The Boundary-Layer Equations 145
12.5 Blasius's Solution for the Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate 146
12.6 Flow with a Pressure Gradient 150
12.7 von Karman Momentum Integral Analysis 152
12.8 Description of Turbulence 155
12.9 Turbulent Shearing Stresses 157

12.10 The Mixing-Length Hypothesis 158

12.11 Velocity Distribution from the Mixing-Length Theory 160
12.12 The Universal Velocity Distribution 161

12.13 Further Empirical Relations for Turbulent Flow 162

12.14 The Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate 163

12.15 Factors Affecting the Transition From Laminar to Turbulent Flow 165
12.16 Closure 165

13. Flow in Closed Conduits 168

13.1 Dimensional Analysis of Conduit Row 168

13.2 Friction Factors for Fully Developed Laminar, Turbulent,
and Transition Row in Circular Conduits 170

13.3 Friction Factor and Head-Loss Determination for Pipe Row 173

13.4 Pipe-Row Analysis 176

13.5 Friction Factors for Row in the Entrance to a Circular Conduit 179

13.6 Closure 182

14. Fluid Machinery 185

14.1 Centrifugal Pumps 186

14.2 Scaling Laws for Pumps and Fans 194

14.3 Axial and Mixed Flow Pump Configurations 197

14.4 Turbines 197

14.5 Closure 197

15. Fundamentals of Heat Transfer 201

15.1 Conduction 201

15.2 Thermal Conductivity 202

15.3 Convection 207

15.4 Radiation 209

15.5 Combined Mechanisms of Heat Transfer 209

15.6 Closure 213

16. Differential Equations of Heat Transfer 217

16.1 The General Differential Equation for Energy Transfer 217

16.2 Special Forms of the Differential Energy Equation 220

16.3 Commonly Encountered Boundary Conditions 221

16.4 Closure 222

 17. Steady-State Conduction 224

17.1 One-Dimensional Conduction 224

17.2 One-Dimensional Conduction with Internal Generation of Energy 230
17.3 Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces 233
17.4 Two- and Three-Dimensional Systems 240
17.5 Closure 246

18. Unsteady-State Conduction 252

18.1 Analytical Solutions 252

18.2 Temperature-Time Charts for Simple Geometric Shapes 261

18.3 Numerical Methods for Transient Conduction Analysis 263
18.4 An Integral Method for One-Dimensional Unsteady Conduction 266
18.5 Closure 270

19. Convective Heat Transfer 274

19.1 Fundamental Considerations in Convective Heat Transfer 274

19.2 Significant Parameters in Convective Heat Transfer 275
19.3 Dimensional Analysis of Convective Energy Transfer 276
19.4 Exact Analysis of the Laminar Boundary Layer 279
19.5 Approximate Integral Analysis of the Thermal Boundary Layer 283
19.6 Energy- and Momentum-Transfer Analogies 285
19.7 Turbulent Flow Considerations 287
19.8 Closure 293

20. Convective Heat-Transfer Correlations 297

20.1 Natural Convection 297

20.2 Forced Convection for Internal Row 305
20.3 Forced Convection for External Row 311
20.4 Closure 318

21. Boiling and Condensation 323

21.1 Boiling 323

21.2 Condensation 328
21.3 Closure 334

22. Heat-Transfer Equipment 336

22.1 Types of Heat Exchangers 336

22.2 Single-Pass Heat-Exchanger Analysis: The Log-Mean Temperature
Difference 339
22.3 Crossflow and Shell-and-Tube Heat-Exchanger Analysis 343
22.4 The Number-of-Transfer-Units (NTU) Method of Heat-Exchanger
Analysis and Design 347
22.5 Additional Considerations in Heat-Exchanger Design 354
22.6 Closure 356
 Contents xi

23. Radiation Heat Transfer 359

23.1 Nature of Radiation 359

23.2 Thermal Radiation 360
23.3 The Intensity of Radiation 361
23.4 Planck's Law of Radiation 363
23.5 Stefan-Boltzmann Law 365
23.6 Emissivity and Absorptivity of Solid Surfaces 367
23.7 Radiant Heat Transfer Between Black Bodies 370
23.8 Radiant Exchange in Black Enclosures 379
23.9 Radiant Exchange in
Reradiating Surfaces Present 380
23.10 Radiant Heat Transfer Between Gray Surfaces 381
23.11 Radiation from Gases 388
23.12 The Radiation Heat-Transfer Coefficient 392
23.13 Closure 393

24. Fundamentals of Mass Transfer 398

24.1 Molecular Mass Transfer 399

24.2 The Diffusion Coefficient 407
24.3 Convective Mass Transfer 428
24.4 Closure 429

25. Differential Equations of Mass Transfer 433

25.1 The DifferentialEquation for Mass Transfer 433

25.2 Special Forms of the Differential Mass-Transfer Equation 436
25.3 Commonly Encountered Boundary Conditions 438
25.4 Steps for Modeling Processes Involving Molecular
Diffusion 441

25.5 Closure 448

26. Steady-State Molecular Diffusion 452

26.1 One-Dimensional Mass Transfer Independent of Chemical Reaction 452

26.2 One-Dimensional Systems Associated with Chemical Reaction 463
26.3 Two- and Three-Dimensional Systems 474
26.4 Simultaneous Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer 479
26.5 Closure 488

27. Unsteady-State Molecular Diffusion 496

27.1 Unsteady-State Diffusion and Fick's Second Law 496

27.2 Transient Diffusion in a Semi-Infinite Medium 497

27.3 Transient Diffusion in a Finite-Dimensional Medium Under Conditions of

Negligible Surface Resistance 500

27.4 Concentration-Time Charts for Simple Geometric Shapes 509

27.5 Closure 512
28. Convective Mass Transfer 517

28.1 Fundamental Considerations in Convective Mass Transfer 517

28.2 Significant Parameters in Convective Mass Transfer 519

28.3 Dimensional Analysis of Convective Mass Transfer 521

28.4 Exact Analysis of the Laminar Concentration Boundary Layer 524

28.5 Approximate Analysis of the Concentration Boundary Layer 531

28.6 Mass, Energy, and Momentum-Transfer Analogies 533

28.7 Models for Convective Mass-Transfer Coefficients 542

28.8 Closure 545

29. Convective Mass Transfer Between Phases 551

29.1 Equilibrium 551

29.2 Two-Resistance Theory 554

29.3 Closure 563

30. Convective Mass-Transfer Correlations 569

30.1 Mass Transfer to Plates, Spheres, and Cylinders 569

30.2 Mass Transfer Involving Flow Through Pipes 580

30.3 Mass Transfer in Wetted-Wall Columns 581

30.4 Mass Transfer in Packed and Ruidized Beds 584

30.5 Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer in Stirred Tanks 585

30.6 Capacity Coefficients for Packed Towers 587

30.7 Steps for Modeling Mass-Transfer Processes Involving Convection 588

30.8 Closure 595

31. Mass-Transfer Equipment 603

31.1 Types of Mass-Transfer Equipment 603

31.2 Gas-Liquid Mass-Transfer Operations in Well-Mixed Tanks 605

31.3 Mass Balances for Continuous Contact Towers: Operating-Line Equations 611

31.4 Enthalpy Balances for Continuous-Contact Towers 620

31.5 Mass-Transfer Capacity Coefficients 621

31.6 Continuous-Contact Equipment Analysis 622

31.7 Closure 636

Nomenclature 641

APPENDIXES

A. Transformations of the Operators V and V2 to Cylindrical Coordinates 648

B. Summary of Differential Vector Operations in Various Coordinate Systems 651

C. Symmetry of the Stress Tensor 654

D. The Viscous Contribution to the Normal Stress 655

E. The Navier-Stokes Equations for Constant p and /i in Cartesian,

Cylindrical, and Spherical Coordinates 657

F. Charts for Solution of Unsteady Transport Problems 659

G. Properties of the Standard Atmosphere 672

H. Physical Properties of Solids 675

I. Physical Properties of Gases and Liquids 678

J. Mass-Transfer Diffusion Coefficients in Binary Systems

K. Lennard-Jones Constants 694

L. The Error Function 697

M. Standard Pipe Sizes 698

N. Standard Tubing Gages 700

Author Index 703

Subject Index 705