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Hermann Schlichting • Klaus Gersten

Boundary-Layer
Theory
With contributions
from Egon Krause and Herbert Oertel Jr.
Translated by Katherine Mayes

8th Revised and Enlarged Edition

With 287 Figures and 22 Tables

Springer
Contents

Introduction XIX

Part I. Fundamentals of Viscous Flows

1. Some Features of Viscous Flows 3

1.1 Real and Ideal Fluids 3
1.2 Viscosity 4
1.3 Reynolds Number 6
1.4 Laminar and Turbulent Flows 12
1.5 Asymptotic Behaviour at Large Reynolds Numbers 14
1.6 Comparison of Measurements
Using the Inviscid Limiting Solution 14
1.7 Summary 26

2. Fundamentals of Boundary—Layer Theory 29

2.1 Boundary-Layer Concept 29
2.2 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate at Zero Incidence .. 30
2.3 Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate at Zero Incidence. 33
2.4 Fully Developed Turbulent Flow in a Pipe 36
2.5 Boundary Layer on an Airfoil 38
2.6 Separation of the Boundary Layer 39
2.7 Overview of the Following Material 48

3. Field Equations for Flows of Newtonian Fluids 51

3.1 Description of Flow Fields 51
3.2 Continuity Equation 52
3.3 Momentum Equation 52
3.4 General Stress State of Deformable Bodies 53
3.5 General State of Deformation of Flowing Fluids 57
3.6 Relation Between Stresses and Rate of Deformation 62
3.7 Stokes Hypothesis 65
3.8 Bulk Viscosity and Thermodynamic Pressure 66
3.9 Navier-Stokes Equations 68
X Contents

3.10 Energy Equation 69

3.11 Equations of Motion
for Arbitrary Coordinate Systems (Summary) 73
3.12 Equations of Motion
for Cartesian Coordinates in Index Notation 76
3.13 Equations of Motion in Different Coordinate Systems 79

4. General Properties of the Equations of Motion 83

4.1 Similarity Laws 83
4.2 Similarity Laws for Flow with Buoyancy Forces
(Mixed Forced and Natural Convection) 86
4.3 Similarity Laws for Natural Convection 90
4.4 Vorticity Transport Equation 91
4.5 Limit of Very Small Reynolds Numbers 93
4.6 Limit of Very Large Reynolds Numbers 94
4.7 Mathematical Example of the Limit Re —> oo 96
4.8 Non-Uniqueness of Solutions of the Navier-Stokes Equations. 99

5. Exact Solutions of the Navier-Stokes Equations 101

5.1 Steady Plane Flows 101
5.1.1 Couette-Poiseuille Flows 101
5.1.2 Jeffery- Hamel Flows
(Fully Developed Nozzle and Diffuser Flows) 104
5.1.3 Plane Stagnation-Point Flow 110
5.1.4 Flow Past a Parabolic Body 115
5.1.5 Flow Past a Circular Cylinder 115
5.2 Steady Axisymmetric Flows 116
5.2.1 Circular Pipe Flow (Hagen-Poiseuille Flow) 116
5.2.2 Flow Between Two Concentric Rotating Cylinders . . . . 117
5.2.3 Axisymmetric Stagnation Point Flow 118
5.2.4 Flow at a Rotating Disk 119
5.2.5 Axisymmetric Free Jet 124
5.3 Unsteady Plane Flows 126
5.3.1 Flow at a Wall Suddenly Set into Motion
(First Stokes Problem) 126
5.3.2 Flow at an Oscillating Wall
(Second Stokes Problem) 129
5.3.3 Start-up of Couette Flow 130
5.3.4 Unsteady Asymptotic Suction 131
5.3.5 Unsteady Plane Stagnation-Point Flow 131
5.3.6 Oscillating Channel Flow 137
5.4 Unsteady Axisymmetric Flows 139
5.4.1 Vortex Decay 139
5.4.2 Unsteady Pipe Flow 139
5.5 Summary 141
 Contents XI

Part II. Laminar Boundary Layers

6. Boundary-Layer Equations in Plane Flow;

Plate Boundary Layer 145
6.1 Setting up the Boundary-Layer Equations 145
6.2 Wall Friction, Separation and Displacement 150
6.3 Dimensional Representation
of the Boundary-Layer Equations 152
6.4 Friction Drag 155
6.5 Plate Boundary Layer 156

7. General Properties and Exact Solutions

of the Boundary-Layer Equations
for Plane Flows 165
7.1 Compatibility Condition at the Wall 166
7.2 Similar Solutions of the Boundary-Layer Equations 167
7.2.1 Derivation of the Ordinary Differential Equation 167
A Boundary Layers with Outer Flow 169
B Boundary Layers Without Outer Flow 172
7.2.2 Wedge Flows 172
7.2.3 Flow in a Convergent Channel 174
7.2.4 Mixing Layer 175
7.2.5 Moving Plate 177
7.2.6 Free Jet 177
7.2.7 Wall Jet 180
7.3 Coordinate Transformation 182
7.3.1 Gortler Transformation 182
7.3.2 v. Mises Transformation 183
7.3.3 Crocco Transformation 184
7.4 Series Expansion of the Solutions 184
7.4.1 Blasius Series 184
7.4.2 Gortler Series 186
7.5 Asymptotic Behaviour of Solutions Downstream 187
7.5.1 Wake Behind Bodies 187
7.5.2 Boundary Layer at a Moving Wall 190
7.6 Integral Relations of the Boundary Layer 191
7.6.1 Momentum Integral Equation 191
7.6.2 Energy-Integral Equation 192
7.6.3 Moment-of-Momentum Integral Equations 194

8. Approximate Methods for Solving the Boundary—Layer

Equations for Steady Plane Flows 195
8.1 Integral Methods 196
XII Contents
8.2 Stratford's Separation Criterion 202
8.3 Comparison of the Approximate Solutions
with Exact Solutions 202
8.3.1 Retarded Stagnation-Point Flow 202
8.3.2 Divergent Channel (Diffuser) 204
8.3.3 Circular Cylinder Flow 205
8.3.4 Symmetric Flow past a Joukowsky Airfoil 207

9. Thermal Boundary Layers

Without Coupling of the Velocity Field
to the Temperature Field 209
9.1 Boundary-Layer Equations for the Temperature Field 209
9.2 Forced Convection for Constant Properties 211
9.3 Effect of the Prandtl Number 215
9.4 Similar Solutions of the Thermal Boundary Layer 218
9.5 Integral Methods for Computing the Heat Transfer 223
9.6 Effect of Dissipation;
Distribution of the Adiabatic Wall Temperature 226

10. Thermal Boundary Layers

with Coupling of the Velocity Field
to the Temperature Field 231
10.1 Remark 231
10.2 Boundary- Layer Equations 231
10.3 Boundary Layers with Moderate Wall Heat Transfer
(Without Gravitational Effects) 233
10.3.1 Perturbation Calculation 233
10.3.2 Property Ratio Method (Temperature Ratio Method) . 237
10.3.3 Reference Temperature Method 240
10.4 Compressible Boundary Layers
(Without Gravitational Effects) 241
10.4.1 Physical Property Relations 241
10.4.2 Simple Solutions of the Energy Equation 244
10.4.3 Transformations of the Boundary-Layer Equations . . . 246
10.4.4 Similar Solutions 249
10.4.5 Integral Methods 258
10.4.6 Boundary Layers in Hypersonic Flows 263
10.5 Natural Convection 265
10.5.1 Boundary Layer Equations 265
10.5.2 Transformation of the Boundary-Layer Equations . . . . 270
10.5.3 Limit of Large Prandtl Numbers (Tw = const) 271
10.5.4 Similar Solutions 273
10.5.5 General Solutions 277
10.5.6 Variable Physical Properties 278
10.5.7 Effect of Dissipation 280
 Contents XIII
10.6 Indirect Natural Convection 281
10.7 Mixed Convection 284
11. Boundary-Layer Control (Suction/Blowing) 291
11.1 Different Kinds of Boundary-Layer Control 291
11.2 Continuous Suction and Blowing 295
11.2.1 Fundamentals 295
11.2.2 Massive Suction 297
11.2.3 Massive Blowing 299
11.2.4 Similar Solutions 302
11.2.5 General Solutions 307
1. Plate Flow with Uniform Suction or Blowing 307
2. Airfoil 309
11.2.6 Natural Convection with Blowing and Suction 310
11.3 Binary Boundary Layers 311
11.3.1 Overview 311
11.3.2 Basic Equations 312
11.3.3 Analogy Between Heat and Mass Transfer 316
' 11.3.4 Similar Solutions 317
12. Axisymmetric and Three-Dimensional Boundary Layers . . 321
12.1 Axisymmetric Boundary Layers 321
12.1.1 Boundary Layer Equations 321
12.1.2 Mangier Transformation 323
12.1.3 Boundary Layers
on Non-Rotating Bodies of Revolution 324
12.1.4 Boundary Layers on Rotating Bodies of Revolution . . . 327
12.1.5 Free Jets and Wakes 331
12.2 Three-Dimensional Boundary Layers 335
12.2.1 Boundary-Layer Equations 335
12.2.2 Boundary Layer at a Cylinder 341
12.2.3 Boundary Layer at a Yawing Cylinder 342
12.2.4 Three Dimensional Stagnation Point 344
12.2.5 Boundary Layers in Symmetry Planes 345
12.2.6 General Configurations 345

13. Unsteady Boundary Layers 349

13.1 Fundamentals 349
13.1.1 Remark 349
13.1.2 Boundary-Layer Equations 350
13.1.3 Similar and Semi-Similar Solutions 351
13.1.4 Solutions for Small Times (High Frequencies) 352
13.1.5 Separation of Unsteady Boundary Layers 353
13.1.6 Integral Relations and Integral Methods 354
13.2 Unsteady Motion of Bodies in a Fluid at Rest 355
XIV Contents
13.2.1 Start-Up Processes 355
13.2.2 Oscillation of Bodies in a Fluid at Rest 362
13.3 Unsteady Boundary Layers in a Steady Basic Flow 365
13.3.1 Periodic Outer Flow 365
13.3.2 Steady Flow with a Weak Periodic Perturbation 367
13.3.3 Transition Between Two Slightly Different Steady
Boundary Layers 369
13.4 Compressible Unsteady Boundary Layers 370
13.4.1 Remark 370
13.4.2 Boundary Layer Behind a Moving
Normal Shock Wave 371
13.4.3 Flat Plate at Zero Incidence with Variable Free Stream
Velocity and Wall Temperature 373
14. Extensions to the Prandtl Boundary-Layer Theory 377
14.1 Remark 377
14.2 Higher Order Boundary-Layer Theory 379
.14.3 Hypersonic Interaction 389
•14.4 Triple-Deck Theory 392
14.5 Marginal Separation 403
14.6 Massive Separation 408

Part III. Laminar Turbulent Transition

15. Onset of Turbulence (Stability Theory) 415

15.1 Some Experimental Results
on the Laminar-Turbulent Transition 415
15.1.1 Transition in the Pipe Flow 415
15.1.2 Transition in the Boundary Layer 419
15.2 Fundamentals of Stability Theory 424
15.2.1 Remark 424
15.2.2 Fundamentals of Primary Stability Theory 425
15.2.3 Orr Sommerfeld Equation 427
15.2.4 Curve of Neutral Stability
and the Indifference Reynolds Number 434
a Plate Boundary Layer 436
b Effect of Pressure Gradient 445
c Effect of Suction 457
d Effect of Wall Heat Transfer 460
e Effect of Compressibility 463
f Effect of Wall Roughness 467
g Further Effects 472
15.3 Instability of the Boundary Layer
for Three-Dimensional Perturbations 473
 Contents XV
15.3.1 Remark 473
15.3.2 Fundamentals of Secondary Stability Theory 476
15.3.3 Boundary Layers at Curved Walls 479
15.3.4 Boundary Layer at a Rotating Disk 483
15.3.5 Three-Dimensional Boundary Layers 485
15.4 Local Perturbations 491

Part IV. Turbulent Boundary Layers

16. Fundamentals of Turbulent Flows 497

16.1 Remark 497
16.2 Mean Motion and Fluctuations 499
16.3 Basic Equations for the Mean Motion of Turbulent Flows . . . . 502
16.3.1 Continuity Equation 502
16.3.2 Momentum Equations (Reynolds Equations) 503
.- 16.3,3 Equation for the Kinetic Energy
of the Turbulent Fluctuations (/c-Equation) 505
16.3.4 Thermal Energy Equation 508
16.4 Closure Problem 509
16.5 Description of the Turbulent Fluctuations 510
16.5.1 Correlations 510
16.5.2 Spectra and Eddies 511
16.5.3 Turbulence of the Outer Flow 513
16.5.4 Edges of Turbulent Regions and Intermittence 514
16.6 Boundary Layer Equations for Plane Flows 515

17. Internal Flows 519

17.1 Couette Flow 519
17.1.1 Two-Layer Structure of the Velocity Field
and the Logarithmic Overlap Law 519
17.1.2 Universal Laws of the Wall 524
17.1.3 Friction Law 536
17.1.4 Turbulence Models 538
17.1.5 Heat Transfer 541
17.2 Fully Developed Internal Flows (A — const) 543
17.2.1 Channel Flow 543
17.2.2 Couette-Poiseuille Flows 544
17.2.3 Pipe Flow 549
17.3 Slender-Channel Theory 554
18. Turbulent Boundary Layers
Without Coupling of the Velocity Field
to the Temperature Field 557
18.1 Turbulence Models 557
XVI Contents
18.1.1 Remark 557
18.1.2 Algebraic Turbulence Models 559
18.1.3 Turbulent Energy Equation 560
18.1.4 Two-Equation Models 562
18.1.5 Reynolds Stress Models 565
18.1.6 Heat Transfer Models 568
18.1.7 Low-Reynolds-Number Models 570
18.1.8 Large-Eddy Simulation
and Direct Numerical Simulation 571
18.2 Attached Boundary Layers 572
18.2.1 Layered Structure 572
18.2.2 Boundary-Layer Equations Using
the Defect Formulation 574
18.2.3 Friction Law and Characterisitic Quantities
of the Boundary Layer 577
18.2.4 Equilibrium Boundary Layers 580
18.2.5 Boundary Layer on a Plate at Zero Incidence 582
-18.3 Boundary Layers with Separation 589
18.3.1 Stratford Flow 589
18.3.2 Quasi-Equilibrium Boundary Layers 591
18.4 Computation of Boundary Layers Using Integral Methods . .. 594
18.4.1 Direct Method 594
18.4.2 Inverse Method 597
18.5 Computation of Boundary Layers Using Field Methods 598
18.5.1 Attached Boundary Layers 598
18.5.2 Boundary Layers with Separation 601
18.5.3 Low-Reynolds-Number Turbulence Models 602
18.5.4 Additional Effects 604
18.6 Computation of Thermal Boundary Layers 606
18.6.1 Fundamentals 606
18.6.2 Computation of Thermal Boundary Layers
Using Field Methods 609
19. Turbulent Boundary Layers
with Coupling of the Velocity Field
to the Temperature Field 611
19.1 Fundamental Equations 611
19.1.1 Time Averaging for Variable Density 611
19.1.2 Boundary-Layer Equations 613
19.2 Compressible Turbulent Boundary Layers 617
19.2.1 Temperature Field 617
19.2.2 Overlap Law 619
19.2.3 Skin-Friction Coefficient and Nusselt Number 621
19.2.4 Integral Methods for Adiabatic Walls 623
 Contents XVII
19.2.5 Field Methods 625
19.2.6 Shock-Boundary-Layer Interaction 625
19.3 Natural Convection 627

20. Axisymmetric and Three-Dimensional

Turbulent Boundary Layers 631
20.1 Axisymmetric Boundary Layers 631
20.1.1 Boundary-Layer Equations 631
20.1.2 Boundary Layers Without Body Rotation 632
20.1.3 Boundary Layers with Body Rotation 635
20.2 Three-Dimensional Boundary Layers 637
20.2.1 Boundary-Layer Equations 637
20.2.2 Computation Methods 641
20.2.3 Examples 643
21. Unsteady Turbulent Boundary Layers 645
21.1 Averaging and Boundary-Layer Equations 645
21.2 Computation Methods 648
21.3 Examples 649
22. Turbulent Free Shear Flows 653
22.1 Remark 653
22.2 Equations for Plane Free Shear Layers 655
22.3 Plane Free Jet 659
22.3.1 Global Balances 659
22.3.2 Far Field 660
22.3.3 Near Field 665
22.3.4 Wall Effects 665
22.4 Mixing Layer 667
22.5 Plane Wake 669
22.6 Axisymmetric Free Shear Flows 671
22.6.1 Basic Equations 671
22.6.2 Free Jet 672
22.6.3 Wake 674
22.7 Buoyant Jets 675
22.7.1 Plane Buoyant Jet 675
22.7.2 Axisymmetric Buoyant Jet 677
22.8 Plane Wall Jet 677
XVIII Contents

Part V. Numerical Methods in Boundary-Layer Theory

23. Numerical Integration of the Boundary Layer Equations . 683

23.1 Laminar Boundary Layers 683
23.1.1 Remark 683
23.1.2 Note on Boundary-Layer Transformations 684
23.1.3 Explicit and Implicit Discretisation 685
23.1.4 Solution of the Implicit Difference Equations 689
23.1.5 Integration of the Continuity Equation 691
23.1.6 Boundary-Layer Edge and Wall Shear Stress 691
23.1.7 Integration of the Transformed Boundary-Layer
Equations Using the Box Scheme 692
23.2 Turbulent Boundary Layers 695
23.2.1 Method of Wall Functions 695
23.2.2 Low-Reynolds-Number Turbulence Models 700
23.3 Unsteady Boundary Layers 701
Z 23.4 Steady Three-Dimensional Boundary Layers 703

List of Frequently Used Symbols 709

References 717

Index 795