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Chemistry - is the science that studies the properties of substances and how substances react with one another.
- concerns itself with the composition and properties of matter and the properties of matter and the
principles governing the change which matter may undergo
- from Greek word “chemia” meaning the art of metal working
- is often referred to as “the central science” because it is crucial to all other sciences (Biology, Plant
Sciences, Environmental Science, Geology, Astronomy, Physics, Nuclear Chemistry, Medicine and Allied
Health Sciences, Biochemistry)

*Importance of Chemistry
Science and its Method
Experiment - is an operation carried out under controlled conditions in order to gain information for some purpose.
Observation - the witnessing of an event under controlled conditions.
e.g. watching the melting of the ice in the container under the heat of the sun

3 levels of Chemistry
1. Observational – is the level at which chemist makes observations of what actually takes place in an experiment.
e.g. temperature rise, color change, gas evolution
2. Representational – is the level at which chemist records and describes an experiment in scientific language using
special formulas and equations. Such language helps to simplify the description which establishes a common
base for chemists to communicate with one another.
3. Interpretational – is the level that deals with the explanation of the phenomena.

Scientific method – is a systematic approach to the generation of new knowledge.

- includes planned techniques followed in the solution of problems. These are not used only in Science
subjects but also for any problems, including personal problems.

The Steps:
1. Definition of the Problem/hypothesis
2. Gathering Controlled Observations
3. Classification and Generalization of Facts
4. Forming and testing Working Hypotheses
5. Forming Theories from Tested Hypotheses

Data – the bits of information

The informations obtained maybe both:

a. qualitative – consists of general observations about the system (WHAT?)
b. quantitative – comprises numbers obtained by various measurements of the system (HOW MUCH?)

HYPOTHESIS – is a tentative explanation for a set of observations, this can be formulated when enough information
has been gathered. Further experiments then are devised to test the validity of the hypothesis in as
many ways as possible.
- may lead to verification, modification or rejection
THEORY – is a verified hypothesis which consists of a set of assumptions by which factual evidence and laws may be
verified.
LAW – is a concise statement or mathematical equation between phenomena that is always the same under same
conditions.

History of Chemistry
- modern chemistry emerged late in the 18 th century, took hundred of years to develop. The
development can be divided into 5 periods.
1. Practical Arts (--- to 600 BC) – are ancient arts. Ancient Egyptians were skilled in these crafts, but how and when
the crafts first developed are not known.
ex. production of metal ores manufacture of pottery
brewing baking
prep’n of dyes & drugs

 The development was base on practical experiments alone. Egyptians did not know why these crafts
worked and what actually occurred during the process.

2. Greek theory (600 BC to 300 BC)

2 theories:
a. a concept that all substances found on earth are composed of four elements – earth, air, fire, water
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b. a theory that matter consist of separate and distinct units called atoms

3. Alchemy (300 BC to 1650 BC)

- combination of the ancient arts of the Egyptians and the Greeks
- a science concern with the transmutation(change) of any element into gold

4. Phlogiston theory (1650 BC to 1790 BC)

- was proposed by Georg Ernst Stahl
phlogiston – described as a substance in combustible material that is given off when the material burns.
Ex. wood when burned will produce ashes and phlogiston

5. Modern Chemistry (1790 BC to ----)

Antoine Laurant Lavoisier – father of modern chemistry
Contributions:
 theory of combustion – oxygen is necessary for combustion
 showed that water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen
 proposed the theory of indestructibility of matter
 proposed a system of nomenclature
 showed that air contains oxygen

Matter and its Changes

Element – simple substance that compose a matter.
Matter – is anything that occupy space and has mass. Ex. rocks, soil, air, water, pencil
Atom – smallest particle of an element
Mass – is a measure of quantity of matter
Weight – is the gravitational force exerted by the earth on a body
Ex. a body will weigh less on the moon than it does on the earth, but the mass of the body is the same (1/6 moon:
earth)

Physical states of matter:

1) solid – is a form of matter characterized by rigidity; it is relatively incompressible and has fixed shape and has
volume.
2) Liquid - it is relatively incompressible and has fixed volume but no fixed shape.
3) Gas – is a form of matter that is easily compressible at a given quantity of gas will fit into a container of any size
and shape.

Compressibility – the ability to be squeezed into a smaller volume by the application of pressure.
Rigidity – is the ability to maintain their shapes when subjected to outside force.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Matter

pure substances mixture

elements compounds heterogeneous homogeneous

metals nonmetals metalloids acids bases salts

Pure substance – is a kind of matter that cannot be separated into other kinds of matter by any physical processes.

2 types
1. element – is a substance that cannot be decomposed by any chemical reaction into simpler substances

-each element is represented by a symbol which is the abbreviation of the name.

- First letter should always be capitalized
- Second and third letter is always small letter
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Ex. H – hydrogen Ca – calcium Mg - magnesium
N – nitrogen Cl – chlorine F – fluorine
O – oxygen Al - aluminum

There are some whose symbols which are assigned on the basis of their Latin names.
Symbol English name Latin name Symbol English name Latin name
Sb Antimony Stibium Hg Mercury Hydrargum
Cu Copper Cuprum Ag Silver Argentum
Au Gold Aurum Na Sodium Natrium
Fe Iron Ferrum K Potassium Kalium
Pb Lead Plumbum Sn Tin Stannum
W Tungsten Wolfram*
*German Name
3 types of elements:
A. metals
- ductile
- malleable
- high melting point and density
- good conductor of heat and electricity
ex. Li, Na, Be, Ca, Au, Ag, Hg, etc.
B. nonmetal
- nonductile
- nonmalleable
- brittle
- low melting point and density
- poor conductor of heat and electricity
ex. S, N, O, P, C, H, all noble gases

C. metalloid / semimetal
- an element that is not clearly a metal and nonmetal but has the property of both.
Ex. B, Si, Ge, Sb, Te
Ductility – is a property of metal which allows them to be drawn into a wire
Malleability – is a property of metal which allows them to be hammered or rolled into shape.

2. Compound – is a pure substance which may be broken down or decomposed by chemical change into two or
more pure substances.
- is a substance composed of more than one element chemically combined in fixed proportions.
Ex. water (H2O) – is a compound substance since it may be decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen by an electric
current.
Sucrose or table sugar (C12H22O11)

Mixture – is a combination of two or more substances with variable composition in which substances retain their
identity.
- is a material that can be separated by physical means into two or more substances

2 kinds of mixture
1. heterogeneous – is a mixture that consists of physically distinct parts with different properties.
- the individual components remain physically separated and can be seen as separate components
ex. sugar and sand halo-halo

2. homogeneous – is a mixture that is uniform in their properties throughout given samples

- is also called solution; forms only one phase
ex. gaseous mixture – air
liquid mixture – salt and water (salt solution)
solid mixture – alloys such as brass – mixture of 90% Cu and 10% Zn
bronze - mixture of 80% Cu and 20% Sn

phase – is a physically distinct portion of matter that is uniform throughput in composition and properties

Changes in matter
1. physical change – is a change which takes place without modifying the composition of matter
- is a change that does not involve the production or formation of new chemical species
ex. melting of ice, tearing of paper, breaking of glass, grinding of wheat
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2. chemical change – is a change which involves alteration of composition of matter
- is a change in which one or more kinds of matter are transformed into a new kind of matter or
several new kinds of matter.
- is always accompanied by either the liberation or the absorption of heat energy
ex. spoiling of food, souring of milk, digestion of food, decay of animals

Forms of chemical change

1. Exothermic change – is a change which is accompanied by the liberation of heat energy; warms the reaction
vessel
Ex. heat release by burning of wood, dissolving Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in water

2. Endothermic change - is a change which is accompanied by the absorption of heat energy; cools the reaction
vessel
Ex. dissolving ammonium chloride in water

Properties of matter
1.) physical property – is a characteristic that can be measured and observed for a material without changing the
composition or chemical identity of a substance
- is associated with physical changes which can be detected by our senses.
- it tells how a material....
* looks – ex. blackness of a charcoal compared with the yellow color of sulfur
* feels – ex. hardness of a stone compared with the softness of cotton
* smells – ex. the odor of sour milk or scent of a rose
* tastes – sugar vs. salt

Physical properties measured in the laboratory:

1. Temperature – is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body
a. boiling point – is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the
atmospheric pressure
b. melting point – is the temperature at which a crystalline solid changes to liquid
2. Density – is the mass per unit volume of a substance or solution

2.) chemical property – is a characteristic of a material involving its chemical change

ex. sodium reacts vigorously with chlorine and water

2 Categories of all measurable properties of matter

1. extensive property – depends on how much is being considered
ex. mass, length, volume, size
2. intensive property – it does not depend on how much is being considered.
Ex. temperature

5 Branches of Chemistry
1. organic chemistry – is the chemistry of the compounds of carbon except for few that are classed as inorganic
compounds, ex. CO2
2. inorganic chemistry – is the chemistry of all elements except carbon
3. analytical chemistry – is the chemistry of the identification of the composition both qualitative and quantitative of
a substance
4. physical chemistry – is the study of the physical principles that underlie the structure of matter and chemical
transformations
5. biochemistry – is the chemistry of living system both plants and animals

Laws of chemical change

1. Law of Conservation of Mass – Lavoisier, 1765
- states that in an ordinary reaction, mass is neither created nor destroyed i.e., the total mass or
weight of the substances entering into the chemical change is equal to the total weight of the
substances produced as a result of the change.
Example:.
Wood ------------- ashes + CO2(g) + H2O(g)


2. Law of Definite Proportions – Joseph Proust, 1799

Ex. if we analyze samples of carbon dioxide gas obtained from different sources, we would find in each sample the
same ratio by mass of carbon and oxygen.
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Some types of compounds

1. acid – is a compound having hydrogen combined with nonmetals
ex. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) – acid present in gastric juices in the stomach
Carbonic acid (H2CO3) – contained in carbonated water
Nitric acid (HNO3) – has been used for immediate treatment of animal bites and to remove warts
Boric acid (H3BO3) – antiseptic (formerly) but highly poisonous
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) – used to acidify softdrinks, and to prepare dental cements
Acetic acid (HC2H3O2) – component of vinegar (5% or less)
Acetylsalicylic acid (H3C6H5O7) – aspirin
Ascorbic acid (H2C6H6O6) – vitamin C
Citric acid (H3C6H5O7) – present in lemon juice
2. base – also called hydroxide or alkali
- is a combination of a metal with hydroxide written last in the formula
ex. Sodium hydroxide - NaOH
Calcium hydroxide – Ca(OH)2
3. salt – is often a compound of a metal with a single nonmetal atom
ex. Sodium chloride – NaCl
Potassium bromide – KBr

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES

Acid Base
1. sour taste bitter
2. turns blue litmus paper to red turns red litmus paper to blue
3. aqueous acid solutions conduct electricity aqueous basic solutions conduct electricity

UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
Measurement – is the comparison of a physical quantity to be measured with a unit of measurement i.e., with a fixed
standard measurement.
Precision – refers to the closeness of the set of values obtained from identical measurements of a quantity
Accuracy – refers to the closeness of a single measurement to its true value.

Example. Suppose three students are asked to determine the mass of a piece of copper wire of mass 2.000 grams.
The results of two successive weighing by each student are the ff.

Student A Student B Student C

Trial 1 2.500 1.900 2.000
Trial 2 2.500 2.100 2.000
Average 2.500 2.000 2.000

NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Significant figure – refer to the number of digits reported to the value of a measured or calculated quantity.
- are the meaningful digit in a measured or calculated quantity

GUIDELINES FOR USING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

1. All digits are significant except zeros at the beginning of the number and possibly terminal zeros(zeros at the end
of a number)
Ex. 9.12 cm
0.912 cm (all contain 3 significant figures)
0.00912 cm
2. Terminal zeros ending at the right of the decimal point are significant.
Ex. 9.00 cm
9.10 cm (all contain 3 significant figures)
90.0 cm
3. Terminal zeros ending to the left of the decimal point may or may not be significant.
Ex. When a measurement is given as 900 cm, we do not know whether one, two or three significant figures were
intended unless it is explicitly stated. Any uncertainty can be removed by expressing the measurement in
scientific notation.

Scientific notation – is the representation of a number in the form A x 10 n, where A is a number with a single
nonzero digit to the left of the decimal point and n is an integer or whole number.
Ex. 9.0 x 102 cm – two significant figures
9.00 x 102 cm – three significant figures
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SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN CALCULATION
1. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION – When adding or subtracting measured quantities, we should give the same
number of decimal places in the answer as there are in the measurement with the least number of decimal
places.
Ex. a. 89.332 + 1.1 = 90.432 = 90.4
b. 2.091 – 0.12 = 1.971 = 1.97
2. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION – When multiplying or dividing measured quantities, we should give as many
significant figures in the answer as there are in the measurement with the least number of significant figures.
Ex. a. 1.112 x 1.1 = 1.2232 = 1.2
b. 2.442  2.2 = 1.11 = 1.1

ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS

Rounding – is the procedure of dropping nonsignificant digits in a calculation result and the last digit reported.
Procedure:
1. If the number to be dropped is greater than 5, increase by one the value of the last figure to be retained. Drop all
digits to the right.
Ex. round off 1.216 to three significant figures = 1.22
2. If the figure to be dropped is less than 5, the last figure to be retained should not be change.
Ex. round off 1.2143 to three significant figures = 1.21

3. If the number to be dropped is 5, the last figure to be retained is increased by one if it is odd and retained as it
is , if it is even.
Ex. round off 1.225 to three significant figures = 1.22
round off 1.235 to three significant figures = 1.24

SI UNITS – INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

SI prefix – a group of letters placed in front of the SI unit to indicate a power of ten.

7 SI BASE UNITS
QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL
Length Meter M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole Mol
Time Second S
Electric current Ampere A
Luminous intensity Candela Cd

SI Prefixes
Multiple Prefix Symbol Multiple Prefix Symbol
1018 exa E 10-1 deci d
1015 peta P 10-2 centi c
1012 tera T 10-3 milli m
109 giga G 10-6 micro u
106 mega M 10-9 nano n
103 kilo K 10-12 pico p
102 hecto H 10-15 femto f
10 deca Da 10-18 atto a
Meter (m) – is the base unit for length Second (s) – is the base unit for time
Kilogram (kg) – is the base unit for mass
Metric Units Equivalents
linear weight
1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 meter (m) 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000.0 g
1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 meter (m) 1 milligram (mg) = 0.001 g
1 decimeter (dm) = 0.1 meter (m) 1 centigram (cg) = 0.01 g
1 kilometer (km) = 1000.0 meter (m) 1 decigram (dg) = 0.1 g
1 micrometer (um) = 0.000001 meter (m)
1 nanometer (nm) = 0.000000001 meter (m) volume
1 angstrom (A) = 0.0000000001 meter (m) 1 liter (L) = 1000 milliliter
= 1000 cc
English-Metric Equivalents
length volume
1 inch (in) = 2.54 cm 1 liter (L) = 1.057 quarts (qts)
1 yard (yd) = 0.9144 m 1 gallon (gal) = 3.785 L
1 mile (mi) = 1.609 km 1 gallon (gal) = 4 qts
1 mile (mi) = 5280 ft 1 pint (pt) = 473 mL
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1 meter (m) = 39.37 in 1 quart (qt) = 0.9464 L
1 foot (ft) = 12 in
1 yard (yd) = 36 in
mass
1 pound (lb) = 0.4536 kg = 453.6 g = 16 ounces (oz)
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.204 lb

FACTOR-LABEL METHOD – is the method of calculation in which one carries along the units for quantities.
CONVERSION FACTOR – is a ratio equal to one that converts a quantity expressed in one unit to one expressed in
another unit.
Exercises (blackboard)
DERIVED SI UNITS – are units derived by combining SI base units.
1. Volume – is defined as length cubed and has the SI unit of cubic meter.
1 cm = 0.01 m
(1 cm)3 = (0.01 m)3 (1 dm)3 = (0.1 m)3
1 cm = 1 x 10 m
3 -6 3
1 dm3 = 1 x 10-3 m3
other equivalents:
1 L = 1 dm3 1 L = 1000 mL
1 mL = 1 x 10-3 L 1 mL = 1 cm3

2. Density – is the mass of the object divided by its volume

mass
density = ----------------------
volume
 most common unit is gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm 3) and its equivalent gram per milliliter (g/mL).
 kg / m3 – too large for most chemical application
3. Pressure – is defined as force exerted per unit area of surface
Pressure = force / area
Force = mass x acceleration
Acceleration – is the rate of change of speed. The SI unit for speed is meter/second(m/s), so the SI unit for
acceleration is m/s2. Thus,

SI unit of force = kg x m/s2 ; 1 kg x m/s2 = 1 N(newton)

kg x m/s2 kg
SI unit of pressure = --------------- = 1 kg /(ms2) = 1 Pa (Pascal)
m2 ms2
4. Energy – is defined as the potential or capacity to move matter or produce change.
2 forms:
a. Kinetic Energy (KE)– is the energy associated with an object by virtue of its motion.
Ek = ½ mv2 where, Ek = kinetic energy
m = mass of object
v = velocity or speed
b. Potential Energy (PE)- is the energy associated with an object by virtue of its position.
Ep = mgh where, Ep = kinetic energy
m = mass of object
g = 9.8 m / s2; acceleration due to gravity
h = height (m)
SI unit of energy = SI unit of force x SI unit of distance
= kg m2 / s2
Heat – is the energy that has been transferred from one object to another because of difference in their
temperatures.

Temperature – is the measure of hotness or coldness of a body

4 temperature scales:
1. Celsius scale (formerly centigrade)- oC, Anders Celsius, 1742
- based upon the assignment of exactly 0oC as the normal freezing point of water and exactly 100 oC as the normal
boiling point of water.

2. Fahrenheit scale - oF, Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit

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- based upon the assignment of exactly 32 oC as the normal freezing point of water and exactly 212 oC as the normal
boiling point of water.

3. Absolute / Kelvin scale - K (the absolute temperature)

- Lord Kelvin, 1848
- lowest possible temperature of the universe
4. Rankine - oR

FORMULAS:
o
C = 5/9 (oF – 32) K= 0C + 273
o
F = 9/5oC + 32 R = F + 460

ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

Atomic Theory of Matter

Democritus – a Greek philosopher who expressed the belief that matter is composed of very small indivisible
particles which he named “atoms” meaning uncuttable or indivisible.

Aristotle – a philosopher who did not accept Democritus idea of “atomism”

John Dalton – an English scientist and schoolteacher who formulated a more precise definition of atoms, which could
be supported by the experimental evidence.

Principle postulates of Dalton’s theory (1804)

1. Substances are composed of tiny, indivisible particles called “atoms”

2. Atoms of any given substances are identical and have the same weight, size, form and chemical properties. The
atom of one element differs from the atoms of other elements.
3. The atoms of elements are permanent and cannot be decomposed.
4. The atom is the smallest part of an element, which can undergo chemical change.
5. Compounds are types of matter composed of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions.
The relative numbers of two kinds of atom in a compound occur in simple ratios.
6. A chemical reaction consists of the arrangement of the atoms present in the reaction substances to give new
chemical combinations present in the substances formed by the reaction. Atoms are not created nor destroyed
or broken into smaller particles by any chemical reaction.

Laws of Chemical Change (Quantitative aspect of Dalton’s Theory)

1. Law of Conservation of Mass – state that there is no detectable change in mass during the course of a chemical
reaction. In other words, the total mass of all substances entering into a chemical reaction equals the total mass of
all the products of the reaction.
2. Law of Definite Proportion- states that a pure compound always contains the same proportions by mass.
3. Law of Multiple Proportions – states that when two elements A and B, form more than one compound, the
amounts of A that are combined in these compounds with fixed amount of B are in small whole number ratio.

Structure of the Atom

2 Basic Kinds of Particles consisting atoms
( Rutherford’s Atomic Model)

1. Nucleus – is the central core of an atom. Most of the mass and all of the positive charge of the atom are
concentrated in the nucleus.
2. Electron – is a very light particle that carries a unit negative electric charge and exists in the region around 6 th
positively charged nucleus.

Two particles inside the nucleus

1. Proton – has a positive electric charge equal in magnitude, positive in sign to that of the electron.
2. Neutron – has a mass nearly identical of that of the proton and has no electric charge (electrically neutral)

Main Subatomic Particle of matter/ Major particles in Atom Building

Particle Mass (amu) Charge Discoverer Year
1. Electron 0.00055 - JJ. Thompson 1897
2. Proton 1.0073 + E. Goldstein 1886
3. Neutron 1.0087 0 J. Chadwick 1932
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Discovery of the electrons

Electrons – were discovered with cathode rays which are emitted by the cathode in a gas discharge tube

The Nuclear Atom

Certain atoms are unstable combination of the subatomic particles. These atoms are spontaneously emit
rays and this way change into atoms with a different chemical identity is called RADIOACTIVITY (Henri Becquerel,
1896)

Radioactivity – is the spontaneous breakdown of an atom by emission of particles and /or radiation.

Radiation – is the term used to describe the emission and transmission of energy through space in the form of waves.
Ray Symbol Composition Charge of
Component
Alpha α 2 proton & 2 neutron 2+
Beta β Electrons 1-
Gamma γ Very short wavelength: 0
Electromagnetic radiation

Atomic Symbols
An atom is identified by two numbers, the atomic number and mass number.
1. Atomic number Z, - is the number of unit positive charges on the nucleus. Since the proton has a + charge, the
atomic number is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.
2. Mass Number, A – is the total number of protons and neutrons (collectively called nucleons) in the nucleus of
the atom.

A = number of neutrons + number of Protons

A = number of neutrons + Z

The mass number is the total number of nucleons in a nucleus and not the mass of the nucleus.

Nuclide is any particular nucleus characterized by definite atomic number and mass number

Mass number (superscript) - A

Atomic number (subscript) - Z

Example: 19 A = 19
F Z=9
9 p=9
e=9
n = 10

IONS – is a charged particle containing one or more atoms

MONOATOMIC ION – is formed from a single atom by the loss or gain of one or more electrons.

Charge ion = no. of protons – no. of electrons

Insert Exercises:

STOICHIOMETRY, PART I: CHEMICAL FORMULAS

Stoichiometry – Greek stoicheion, meaning “ element’ and metron meaning to measure

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- is the branch of chemistry that deals with the quantitative relationships between the elements in the formation of
compounds and between the elements and compounds involved in chemical reaction

ATOM and MOLECULE

Atom – is the smallest particle of an element that can be combine with the atoms of other elements to form
compounds.
Molecule- is a definite group of atoms of atoms that are chemically bonded together – that is, tightly connected by
attractive forces.

Chemical formula – indicates the atomic composition of a substance.

Molecular formula – the formula that describes the composition of a molecule
Diatomic molecule – molecules that contain two atoms joined together
Ex. H2 , Cl2 , O2
Structural formula – a separate symbol is used to indicate each atom, and dashes are used to show how these atoms
are joined.
Ex. NH3 , H2O

Ions – is a particle that is made up of an atom or a group of atoms and that bears an electric charge.
1. cation- has a positive charge
2. anion – has a negative charge

Empirical Formula or simplest formula – a formula that is written using the simplest whole- number ratio
Ex. H2O2 ----------- HO
C2H6 ----------- CH3

Exercises:
1. Derive the empirical formula of the following compounds for which formulas are given:
a.) ethane, C2H6 b.) glucose, C6H12O6 c.) propane, C3H8 d.) cyclobutane, C4H8.

Atomic Weights
Atomic weight – is the average mass of atoms of an element relative to the mass of 12
C atom taken to be exactly 12
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atomic mass unit (amu)

Atomic mass unit (amu) – is defined as 1/12 the weight of one atom of the most
abundant isotope of carbon to which has been assigned a weight of 12 amu.

Ex. A sulfur (S) atom is 2 2/3 as heavy as a carbon atom

2 2/3 x 12 = 32 amu (atomic weight of S)
An atom of Fe is approximately 4 2/3 as heavy as carbon atom.
2/3 x 12 = 56 amu (atomic weight of Fe)

Formula Weights , Molecular Weights

The formula weight of a substance is the sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in the formula of the
substance. The formula weight of H2O, for example, can be calculated as follows:

2 (atomic weight H) = 2(1.0) = 2.0

atomic weight O = 16.0
_____________
formula weight H2O = 18.0

Note: Formula weight may also be called a molecular weight

Molecular weight – is the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms that constitute a molecule.

Exercises:
1. Calculate the formula weight of aluminum sulfate, Al 2(SO4)3. Use atomic weights to the first decimal places.
2. H2SO4 4. ZnCl2
3. Na2SO4 5. CCl4

Mole (mol) – is defined as the quantity of a given substance that contains as many molecules or formula units as the
number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon 12.
Molar Mass – is the mass of one mole of the substance
- also called gram formula weight or gram molecular weight.
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Ex. ethanol, C2H5OH, has a molecular weight of 46.1 amu and a molar mass of 46.1 g/mol.

Avogadro’s Number – is the number of atoms in 12-g sample of C

- by Amadeo Avogadro
- is determined experimentally to be equal to 6.022 x 10 23

ex. 1 mol of Mg = 24.305 g Mg = 6.022 x 1023 atom

1 mol of F2 = 32.0 g F2 = 6.022 x 10 23 molecule

1 mol of Cl- = 35.0 g Cl- = 6.022 x 10 23 ion

Substance Given Substance Sought Conversion Factor
mol Grams Formula weight( g/mol)
grams Mol 1/ Formula weight( mol/g)
mol Atom Avogadro’s no. (atom/mol)
mol Molecules Avogadro’s no. (molecule/mol)
mol Ions Avogadro’s no. (ion/mol)

Problems:
1. What number of moles of aluminum is present in 125 g of Al?
2. How many grams of sulfuric acid, H2SO4, must be taken in order to get 0.2500 mol of H2SO4?
3. How many carbon atoms are there in a 1.00 carat diamond? Diamond is pure carbon and one carat is
exactly 0.2g?

Percentage Composition of Compounds

The percentage of a given element is 100 times the mass of the element divided by the mass of a mole of the
compound.

Ex.1.What is the percentage of Fe in Fe2O3 calculated to three significant figures?

2. Arrange the following formulas in order of increasing percentage of sulfur:
a. CaSO4 b.) SO2 c.) H2S d. Na2S2O3

The percentage composition of a compound can be used to find the empirical formula of the compound.

Derivation of Empirical Formulas

1. If the data are given in terms of percentage composition, base the calculation on a 100.0 gram sample of
the compound. In this instance, the number of grams of each element present in the sample will be
numerically equal to the percentage
of that element present in the compound. There is no need to find the percentages if the data are given
in terms of the number of grams of each element present in a sample of the compound.
2. Convert the number of grams of each element present in the sample to the number of moles of atoms of
each element. The conversion factors needed are derived from the fact that 1 mol of atoms of an
element (numerator) of an atomic weight in grams (denominator).
3. Divide each of the values obtained in step 2 by the smallest value. If every number obtained in this way
is not a whole number, multiply each number by the same simple integer in such a way that whole
numbers will result.
4. A ratio by moles of atoms is the same as a ratio by atoms. The whole numbers obtained in step 3 are the
subscripts of the empirical formula.

Problems:
1. Nicotine is a compound that contains carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. If a 2.50g sample of nicotine is
burned in oxygen, 6.78g, 1.94g of H2O, and 0.432g of N2 are the products of the combustion. What is the
percentage composition of nicotine?
2. What is the empirical formula of a compound that contains 43.6% P and 56.4% O?
3. Caffeine, which occurs in coffee, tea, and kola nuts, is a stimulant for the central nervous system. A pure
caffeine contains 49.5% C, 5.15% H, 28.9% N and 16.5% O by mass. What is the empirical formulas of
caffeine?
 12
The molecular formula of a compound can be derived from the empirical formula if the molecular weight of
the compound is known.

Problems:
1. The molecular weight of caffeine is 194 and the empirical formula of caffeine is C 4H5N2O. What is the
molecular formula of caffeine?
2. Glucose , a simple sugar, is a constituent of human blood and tissue fluids and is a principal source of
energy for cells. The compound contains 40.0% C, 6.73% H, and 53.3% O and has a molecular weight of
180.2. What is the molecular formula of glucose?

Drills on Stoichiometry I

1. Determine the mass (in grams) of

a. 5.00 x 10 25 CO2 molecules
b. 5.00 x 10-2 mol CO2
2. Arrange the following formulas in order of increasing percentage of Sulfur:
a. CaSO4 c. H2S
b. SO2 d. Na2S2O3
3. What mass of lead is theoretically obtained from 1.5 kg of galena,that is 72% PbS?
4. Cinnamaldehyde, a compound found in cinnamon oil, contains carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. The combustion of a 6.50 g sample of the compound yields 19.49 g of CO2
and 3.54 g H2O, what is the percentage composition of cinnamaldehyde?
5. Determine the molecular formulas to which the following empirical formula and
formula weights pertain.
a. SNH , 188.32
b. PF2 , 137.94
c. CH2 , 70.15
d. NO2 , 46.01
e. C2NH2 , 120.15
6. A compound contains 22.85% sodium, 21.49% boron, and 49.96%oxygen. What is the empirical formula of the
compound?
7. Myristic acid, obtained from coconut oil , is 73.61% carbon, 12.38% hydrogen and 14.01% oxygen. What is the
empirical formula of myristic acid?
8. A compound contains 31.29% calcium, 18.75% carbon and 49.96% oxygen.
What is the empirical formula of the compound?
9. The molecular weight of saccharin is 183.18 and the compound is 45.90% C, 2.75% H, 26.20 oxygen, 17.50%
sulfur and 7.65% Nitrogen. What is the molecular formula of saccharin.?
10. The molecular weight of cholesterol is 386 and the compound contains 83.9% Carbon, 12% Hydrogen and 4.1%
Oxygen. What is the molecular formula of cholesterol?
11. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is 41.09% Carbon , 5.53% hydrogen , 9.58 % nitrogen and 43.80%
oxygen. What is the empirical formula of EDTA?

STOICHIOMETRY, PART II: Chemical Equations

Chemical Equations – are representations of chemical reactions in terms of the symbols and formulas of the
elements and compounds involved.

Reactant – the substances that enter into a reaction

Products – the substances formed in a reaction

A 2 + B2 2AB
 13
Reactant yield product
(s) – solids , (l) – liquid , (g) – gas , (aq) - aqueous
Coefficient – the numbers appearing before the formulas
- indicate the number of molecules of each type involved in the reaction.
Balance chemical equation – follows the law of conservation of mass
- the same number of atoms of each type must be indicated on both the left side and the
right side of the equation.
****** Insert the Balancing Equation Rules *******
Combustion in Oxygen
Products:
C ----CO2 H------H2O
S----SO2 N ---- N2
Example:
1. C2H6(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Problems Based on Chemical Equations

(determine the stoichiometric factor/relationship)

Ex. 2 mol H2 + 1 mol O2 2 mol H2O

Stoichiometric Relationship: 2 mol H2 = 2 mol H2O
2 mol O2 = 2 mol H2O
Steps in Solving:
1. The amount of the substance given in the problem is converted from grams to moles by using the
formula weight of the substance.
2. The stoichiometric ratio derived from the coefficients of the chemical equation (which is a mole ratio) is
used to convert the moles of substance given into moles of substance sought.
3. The value for moles of substance sought is converted into grams of substance sought by using the
formula weight of the substance sought.
Problems:
1. Determine the number of moles of O2(g) that are required to react with 5.00 mol of C 2H6(g) according to
the equation:

2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)

SR: 2 mol C2H6 = 7 mol O2

7 mol O2 = 4 mol CO2
(4 more SR)
2. Chlorine can be prepared by the reaction:
MnO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) MnCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) + 2H2O

a. How many grams of HCl are required to react with 25.0 g of MnO2?
b. How many grams of Cl2 are produced by the reaction?
3. The amount of carbon monoxide in a sample of a gas can be determined by the reaction
I2O5(s) + 5CO(g) I2(s) + 5 CO2(g)
How many grams of I2O5 is required to react with 10.0g of CO?

Limiting Reactants
- the substance that limits the reaction and determines how much product will be formed.

Steps:
1. For each reactant, calculate the number of moles supplied from the amounts given in the problem.
2. Divide each of these values by the coefficient that, in the chemical reaction, precedes the formula of the
reactant being considered.
3. The smallest number obtained in step 2 pertains to the reactant that limits the extent of the reaction.

Problem:
1. How many moles of H 2 can theoretically be prepared from 4.00 mol of Fe and 5.00 mol of H 2O? The
chemical equation for the reaction is:
3Fe(s) + 4 H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4 H2(g)

2. How many grams of N 2F4 can theoretically be prepared from 4.00 g of NH 3 and 14.0 g of F2? The chemical
equation for the reaction is
2NH3(g) + 5 F2(g) N2F4(g) + 6HF9(g)

Percent Yield – relates the amount of product that is actually obtained to the amount of product that theory
would predict.
 14
a. actual yield- actually obtained from the experiment
b. theoretical yield – calculated
Ex. If 4.80 g of N2F4 is obtained from the experiment described in problem number 1, what is the percent
yield?
Molar Solutions
Concentration – is the amount of a substance (called solute) dissolved in a given quantity of solvent
- or the amount of solute present in a given quantity of solution

Molarity, M – of a solution – is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of solution.
Dilution – preparing solutions with lower concentration from concentrated reagents.
M1V1 = M2V2
Composition of some common concentrated reagents
Reagent Formula Formula Percent by Molarity
Weight Mass
Acetic acid HC2H3O2 60.05 100 17.5
Hydrochloric acid HCl 36.46 37 12.0
Nitric acid HNO3 63.01 70 15.8
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 98.00 85 14.7
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 98.07 96 18
Ammonia NH3 17.03 28 14.8

Problems:
1. What mass of NaOH is required to prepare 0.250L of 0.300M solution of NaOH?
2.a. Determine the number of moles of AgNO3 in 25.0 ml of 0.6 M AgNO3 solution.
b.What volume of this solution must be taken in order to get 0.05 mol of AgNO3
3. What volume of concentrated HC; should be used to prepare 500 ml of a 3.00M HCl solution?

Activity No.
Drills on Stoichiometry II
1. Use the equation:

2 NaNH2(l) + N2O(g) NaN3(s) + NaOH(s) + NH3(g)

to determine the number of grams of NaNH 2(l) and of N2O(g) that are required to prepare 50.0 g of
NaN3(s) , assuming complete reaction.

2. What is the maximum number of grams of SF 4(g) that can be prepared from 6.0 g of SCl 2(g) and 3.50 g of
NaF(s)? The equation for the reaction is :

3 SCl2(g) + 4 NaF(s) SF4(g) + S2Cl2(l) + 4 NaCl(s)

3. In an experiment, 5.00 g of LiBH 4(s) was reacted with excess NH 4Cl(s), and 2.16 g of B3N3H6(l) was isolated.
The equation for the reaction is:

3LiBH4(s) + 3 NH4Cl(s) B3N3H6(l) + 9 H2(g) + 3LiCl(s)

What was the percent yield of B3N3H6(l)?

4. Calculate the Molarity of each of the following solutions:

a. 4.0g of NaOH in exactly 250 ml of solution

b. 13.0 g of NaCl in 1.50 L of solution

5. Calculate the number of moles of solute in each of the following samples of solution:

A. 1.2 L of 0.050 M Ba(OH)2

B.25.0 ml of 6.00M H2SO4

6. What mass of solute should be used to prepare each of the following solutions?

a. 500.0ml of 0.020M KMnO4

 15
b. 2.0L of 1.5MKOH

7. How many milliliters of each concentrated reagent should be used to prepare each of the following
solutions?

a. 0.250 L of 0.600 M HCl

b. 1.50 L of 0.50 M HNO3

THE ELECTRONIC STUCTURE OF ATOM

The electronic structure of atoms is concerned with the arrangement of electrons, the number and
energies of the electron in an atom. In large measure, it is the electronic structure of an atom that determines the
chemical properties of the atom.
Much of the theory of electronic structure has been derived from experiment that involved
electromagnetic radiation.

Electromagnetic Radiation
- is a form of energy transmission through a vacuum (empty space) or a medium ( such as
glass) in which electric and magnetic fields are propagated as waves.
- One of the ways that energy travels through space.
- Travels in a wave motion.
Ex. visible light x-rays radio waves
Microwave infrared waves

Wave- is a disturbance that transmits energy through a medium

Characteristics of waves:
1. wavelength, (, lambda) – is the distance between two similar points or two successive waves ( such as
the distance from crest to crest or trough to trough).
3. Amplitude, a - is the height of a crest ( or the depth of a through).
4. Intensity or brightness of radiation – is proportional to the square of amplitude, a 2.
5. Speed of light, c – the speed traveled by electromagnetic waves. Where c = 2.9979 x 10 8 m/s
6. Frequency, (nu) – is the number of waves that pass a given spot in a second.

Units = 1/s 1Hz = 1/s

Note : v = c
therefore v = c/
1Ao = 0.1 nm 1nm = 10Ao Ao = angstrom

Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10-12 10-10 10-8 4x10-7 7x10-7 10-4 10-2 102 104
gamma x-ray UV VISIBLE Infrared Microwave Radiowave
 16

violet indigo blue green yellow orange red

390 450 500 550 600 650 700 ^ (nm)

Problem Solving:
1. What is the frequency of a.) red light with a wavelength of 700 nm and b.) violet light with a wavelength of 400.0
nm?

Quantum Theory
- introduced by Max Planck in 1900.

Quanta – quantity of radiant energy that could be absorbed or given off.

E = hv = hc/^
Where h= Planck’s constant , 6.6262 x 10-34 J.s

Problem Solving:
1. What is the energy of quantum of a.) red light with a frequency of 4.29 x 10 14/s and b.) violet light with a
frequency of 7.50 x 1014/s?

In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed that electromagnetic radiation is itself quantized and can be viewed as a stream of
“particles” called photons.

Theory of Relativity
E = mc2

Where m=mass, c =speed of light

Note: The main significance of this equation is that energy has a mass.

Therefore m=E/c2 = h/^c

Planck and Einsteins’ work.

1. Energy is quantized. It can occur only in discrete units called quanta.
2. Electromagnetic radiation exhibits both wave and particulate of matter. This phenomena is sometimes referred
to as the dual nature of light.

Illustration: - wave phenomenon

- stream of photons ( discontinuous bits of energy)

In 1923, young French physicist named Louis de Broglie showed that matter ( particulate) exhibit wave properties.

M = h/^v

Rearranging, ^ = h/mv ---- de Broglie equation – allows to calculate the wavelength of a particle

Atomic Spectra
Continuous spectrum - spectrum containing light of all wavelength
– the results when light is passed through a prism
- spectrum containing light of all wavelength
Ex. Rainbow (ROYGBIV) – dispersed by droplets
Spectra – are pattern of lights produced by the dispersal of a light beam into its component wavelengths.
For gases or vapors:

Ex. H2 (H-H) – has greater energy ( excited)

- should be released by emitting light of various wavelength to produce hydrogen

emission spectrum.

Line spectrum – in a spectrum containing only certain colors or specific wavelength of light.

Note: Each element has different sets of lines.

THE BOHR THEORY

Rutherford Model – does not indicate how electron are arranged outside the nucleus of an atom.
 17
In 1913, a Danish physicist named Neils Bohr, developed a quantum model for hydrogen atom. Bohr proposed that
the electron in a hydrogen atom moves around the nucleus only in certain allowed circular orbits. Bohr Theory
includes the following points.

1. The electron of the hydrogen atom can exist only in certain circular orbits (which are also called energy
levels or shells). These shell are arranged concentrically around the nucleus. Each shell is designated by a
letter (K,L,M,N,O) or a value of n (1,2,3,4,5)

2. The electron has a definite energy characteristic of the orbit in which it is moving. The K level (n=1), the
shell closer to the nucleus has the smallest radius.

3. When the electrons of an atom one as close as to the nucleus as possible (for hydrogen, one electron in
the K shell), they are in the condition of lowest possible energy called the ground state. When the atoms
are heated in an electric arc or Bunsen flame, electrons absorb energy and jump to outer levels, which
are higher energy states. The atom are said to be in excited state.

4. When an electron falls back to a lower level, it emits a definite amount of energy. The energy difference
between the high-energy state and lower energy state is emitted in the form of a quantum light. The
light quantum has a characteristic spectral line.

5. In the Bohr approach, the electron was regarded as a charged particle in motion. In order to predict the
path of a moving body, we must know both its position and velocity at the same time.

Orbital – wave function of electrons

-corresponds to definite energy state for the electron and pertains to a region where electrons may be
found.

(psi)2 = density electron cloud

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle- by Wolfgang Pauli

- states that no two electrons in the same atom may have identical sets of all four quantum number even if two
electrons have the same values from n, l, ml, they will differ in their ms values.

Ex. 1s ( 1,0,0,+1/2)

(1,0,0,-1/2)

Max no. of electrons/shell = 2n2

Maximum number of electrons for the subshells of the first four shells
Subshell Notation Orbitals per Electrons per Electrons per Shell
Subshell(2l + 1) Subshell 2(2l+1) (2n2)
1s 1 2 2
2s 1 2 8
2p 3 6
3s 1 2 18
3p 3 6
3d 5 10
4s 1 2 32
4p 3 6
4d 5 10
4f 7 14

Exercises:

1. Give the values for all four quantum numbers for each electron in the ground state of the 7N.Use positive values
of ml amd ms first.
Electron n-- l ml ms
1st 1 0 0 +1/2
2nd 1 0 0 -1/2
3rd 1 1 +1 +1/2
4th 1 1 0 +1/2
5th 1 1 -1 +1/2
 18
6th 1 1 +1 -1/2
7th 1 1 0 -1/2

2. Give the values for all four quantum numbers for each electron in the ground state of the sodium atom. Use
positive values of ml amd ms first.

3. Each electron in an atom may be characterized by a set of four quantum numbers. For each of the following
parts, tell how many different sets of quantum numbers are possible, such that each set contains all the values
listed:

a.) n= 4 b.) n=2, l =2 c.) n=2 , l=0 d.) n=4, l= 2, ml = +3 e.) n=4 , l=3, ml= -2

4. Each electron in an atom may be characterized by a set of four quantum numbers. For each of the following
parts, tell how many different sets of quantum numbers are possible, such that each set contains all the values
listed:

a.) n= 3 b.) n=4, l =3 c.) n=3 , l=4 d.) n=4, l= 2, ml = 0 e.) n=3 , l=0, ml= +1

5. Identify the atoms that have the following ground state electronic configurations in their outer shell or shells:

a.) 3s23p5 b.)3s23p64s2 3d3 c.) 4s24p6 d.) 3s23p64s1

Orbital Filling and Hund’s rule

Electronic configuration – the way electrons are arranged in an atom.

Two Ways:

1. Orbital diagram – each orbital is indicated by a dash and an electron is represented by an arrow
either pointing up, or pointing down to represent the opposite direction.

2. Electronic notation – the symbol 1s, 2s, 2p are used to indicate subshells and superscript are
added to indicate the number of electrons in each subshell.

Electronic Configurations of the first ten elements

Element Orbital Diag ram Electronic
1s 2s 2p Notation
1H _____ ___ ____ ____ 1s1
2He _____ ___ ____ ____ 1s2
3Li _____ ___ ____ ____ 1s2 2s1
Be ____ _____ ___ ____ ____ 1s2 2s2
5B ____ _____ ___ ____ ____ 1s2 2s22p1
6C ____ _____ ___ ____ ____ 1s2 2s22p2
7N ____ _____ ___ ____ ____ 1s2 2s22p3
8O ____ _____ ___ ____ ____ 1s2 2s22p4
9F ____ _____ ___ ____ ____ 1s2 2s22p5
10Ne ____ _____ ___ ____ ____ 1s2 2s22p6

Hund’s Rule of maximum Multiplicity

-states that the electrons are distributed among the orbitals of a subshell in a way that gives maximum number of
unpaired electrons with parallel spin.

Paramagnetic substance – a substance that is repelled by a magnetic field. Such substances contain unpaired
electrons

Diamagnetic substance – a substance that is repelled by a magnetic filed. In such a substance all electrons are paired.

Valence shells- the outermost shells of the atom and electrons in them are called valence electrons

Representative elements ( members of A groups in the table) – the number of valence electron is the same as the
group number.

Noble gases (group 0) – have eight valence electrons with the exception of helium which has two.
 19
Electronic Structure of the Elements

Aufbau method – ( aufbau means ‘ building up in German)

-a method of deriving the electronic configurations of atoms in which electrons are a successively added (on the
basis of orbital energies) until the desired configuration is obtained.
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
7s

Electronic Notation: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 ….

Differentiating electron – the electron added in going from one element to the next in the aufbau procedure.

Exercises:

1. Give the orbital diagram for the electronic configuration of 28Ni and the corresponding electronic
notation by subshells.

2. Give the electronic notation by subshells of 34Se , 86Rn , 58Ce.

3. Write the notations by subshells for the ground state electronic configurations of the following atoms

a. 73Rb b. 51Sb c. 25Mn d. 79Au

4. State the number of unpaired electrons in each of the atoms listed in Problem #3. Which atoms are
paramagnetic.

Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table:

Types of Elements:

1. The noble gases – they are colorless monatomic gases which are chemically unreactive and diamagnetic.
It has an outer configuration of ns2np6.

2. The representative elements – differentiating electron is an s or p electron.

3. Transition element – differentiating electron is a d electron added to the shell that is next to the
outermost shell.

4. Inner transition element – differentiating electron is an f electron.

Quantum Numbers

1 Principal Quantum number, n

-it defines the shell, or level to which the electron belongs.

-Relates to the energy and most probable distance of an electron from the nucleus

-These shells are regions where the probability of finding an electron is high

n= 1 2 3 4

K L M N

The larger the value of n, the farther the shell is from the nucleus and the higher the energy of the electron in that
shell.

Shell- is a collection of orbitals with the same value of n.

 20

2.Angular momentum/Azimuthal/ Subsidiary Quantum Number, l

-tells us the shape of the orbitals, it can have any integer value from 0 to n-1.

s – occupies a spherical shape p – occupies a dumbbell shape

d- occupies a four lobe shape f- occupies an 8 lobe

letter s, p, d, f, g

l 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

ex. 2p denotes a subshell with quantum number n=2 and n=1.

Subshell – is a collection of an electron shell characterized by a particular value of l.

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

- describes the orientation of the orbital in space

- may have the value from +1 to –1 including 0

m+ = +l , (l-1) …. 0 …. –(l-1) , -l

Note: Each subshell consist of one or more orbitals

Number of orbitals = 2l+1 (per subshell)

The orbitals of the first four shells

Shell, n Subshell , l (n-1) Orbital, ml Subshell No. of Orbitals

Notation
Per subshell

1 0 0 1s 1

2 0 0 2s 1

1 +1 2p 3

1 0 2p

1 -1 2p
 21

3 0 0 3s 1

1 +1 3p 3

1 0 3p

1 -1 3p

1 +2 3d 5

2 +1 3d

2 0 3d

2 -1 3d

2 -2 3d

Magnetic spin quantum number, m(s)

- indicates the spin of the electron about its own axis in a clockwise (written +) or counter
clockwise (written -) direction

ms = + ½ or –1/2

Note: Each orbital can hold two electrons with opposed spins
 22

The Periodic Table

History of the Periodic Table

The periodic table was originally constructed to represent the patterns in the chemical properties of the elements.

1. Johann W. Dobreiner ( 1817 & 1829)

- examined the properties of sets of elements that he called triads
- (Ca, Sr, Ba) , (Li, Na, K) , (Cl,Br,I), (Si,Se,Te)
- the elements of a set have similar properties and the atomic weight of the second
element of a set is the average of the atomic weights of the other elements of the set.
2. John A. R. Newlands ( 1863-66)
- he proposed and developed his “laws of octaves”
- stated that when the elements are listed by increasing atomic weight, the eight
elements are similar to the first, the ninth to the second and so forth.
- Compared this relationship to octaves of musical notes
3. Julius Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Mendeleev (1869)
- conceived the modern periodic table
Mendeleev – proposed a periodic law
- when the elements are studied in order of increasing atomic weight, similarities in
properties recur periodically.
4. Sir William Ramsay
- a British chemist who discovered the noble gases Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, He, Rn
5. Henry G.J. Moseley
- performed x-ray experiments that showed the manner in which the number of proton
per nucleus varied progressively from element to element
- redefined the periodic law: the chemical and physical properties of the elements are
periodic functions of atomic number.
 23
The Periodic Law
-states that the physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their number. In
other words,

1. the properties of the elements go thru a pattern change

2. elements of similar properties occur at certain intervals provided the elements are arranged in a periodic
table in order of increasing atomic number.

Arrangement of the Modern Periodic Table

Periodic Table – is an arrangement of the atoms in increasing order of their atomic numbers that collects
atoms with similar properties in vertical columns

Form:
1. American – form (A & B )
2. IUPAC System (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ) – 1-18

Parts:

1. Period or series – a horizontal row of block on the periodic table

period 1 to Period 7
2. Group or family – vertical columns
- divided into two: A and B subgroups

A. Group A or the Representative groups

1. Group I A - Alkali metals

2. Group II A - Alkaline earth metals
3. Group III A - Boron Family
4. Group IV A - Carbon Family
5. Group V A - Nitrogen Family
6. Group VI A - Oxygen family
7. Group VII A - Halogen Family
8. Group VIIIA - Group O , noble gases ( inert)

B. Group B or the Transition Elements

Classification according to their atomic structures:

1. Noble gases – are the last group in the periodic table
- contain a series of elements with a very stable configuration
- noble gas implies that it will not react with other elements
- have complete filled sets of s and p orbitals expect helium
ex. Ne = 2s22p6 Kr = 4s24p6

Ar = 3s23p6 Xe= 5s25p6

Representative elements
- outermost energy level is incomplete
- electrons are occupying s or p orbitals
- electronic configuration : ns1 to np5

ex. Group I A Group IIA Group IIIA

H= 1s1 Be= 2s2 B=2s22p1
2. Transition elements
- are the series in which a set of d orbitals is being filled
Ex. Sc = 4s2 3d1
Cd = 5s2 4d10
Four Transition series:
a. First transition series - Sc thru Cu : 3d subshell filling
b. Second transition series - Y thru Ag : 4d subshell filling
c. Third transition series- La thru Hf : 5d subshell filling
d. Fourth transition series- incomplete

3. Inner transition elements

Two Types
a. First Inner transition series - Ce thru Lu : 4f suubshell
 24
Lanthanide series
b. Second Inner transition series- Th thru Lw : 5f subshell filling
-Actinide series

Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties

1. Atomic radius – the distance from the nucleus within which 90% of all the electron charge is found.

General Trends
a. period – the atomic radius tends to decrease with increasing atomic number ( nuclear charge)
left to right -- decreasing

As the atomic number increases, the effective nuclear charge, Z eff increases, this increased nuclear charge
attracts the electrons more forcibly, pulling them closer to the nucleus and thus shrinking the atom.

Note: Transition series – tend to be about the same across a period

b. Group – the atomic radius tends to increase from top to bottom

Top to bottom --- increasing

The more electronic shell in an atom, the larger the atom. Or as the number of protons in the nucleus
increases, so does the size of the atom.

Ex. determine the largest: Sc, Ba or Se

As, I or S
Ga , K , Ca
Rb, Br, Kr
Sr, Ca, Rb
2. Ionic Radius
A. Cation
When a metal atom loses one or more electron to form a positive ion, there is an excess of nuclear
charge over the number of electron in the resulting cation. The nycleus draws the electrons in closer, as a
consequence.

Cations are smaller than the atoms from which they are formed.

Ex. Na and Na+ Mg and Mg+2

Isoelectronic (the same charge) – have equal number of electrons

Ex. Na+ and Mg+2 ------ both has the same no of electrons, 10 e-

The more positive the charge, the smaller the ionic radius.

Ex Mg+2 and Na+

B. Anion
When a nonmetal atom gains one or more electrons to form a negative ion (anion), the nuclear
charge remains constant, but Zeff is reduced because of the additional electrons. The electrons are not held
as tightly. Repulsions among the electrons is increase. The electrons spread out more, and the size of the
atom increases.

Anions are larger than the atoms from which they are formed.

Isoelectronic anions- the more negative the charge, the larger the ionic radius

Ex. Inreasing size:

Ar, K+ , Cl- , S-2 , Ca+2
3.Ionization Energy – is the quantity of energy a gaseous atom ,must absorb so that an electron is stripped from the
atom. The electron lost is the most loosely held.

First ionization energy – is the amount of energy required to remove the most loosely held bound from a
gaseous atom or ion. The electron lost is the most loosely held electron.

Second ionization energy – is the energy required to remove the second loosely bound electron.
 25
Ex. Al (g) ---------- Al+(g) + e- I1 = 580 kJ/mol
Al+(g) ---------- Al+2+(g) + e- I2 = 1,815 kJ/mol

General Trends:

a. Period – the ionization energy increases because the atoms become smaller and the effective nuclear
charge increases. Removal of the electron becomes more and more difficult

Left to right --------- increasing

b. Group – ionization energy decreases because the nuclear charge increases. The atoms become larger
and the electron that is removed comes from a higher energy level. Removal of the electron becomes
easier and ionization energy decreases.

Top to bottom ----- decreasing

Ex. Arrange in increasing I1: Sr , Sn , Br
Ar, Kr, He
Sb, Te, Sr
Rb,K,Ca
Xe,I,Cs

4. Electron Affinity – is a measure of the energy change that occurs when a gaseous atom gains an electron.

e- + A(g) --------- A(g)

Trend:

a. Period – Such as Nitrogen to Fluorine, the electron affinity increases due to the fact that the
valence electrons are in the same energy level but the nuclear charge becomes greater.

b. Group – such as halogens the electron affinity decreases due to the fact that going down the
group, the valence electrons are further the nucleus and therefore, not as much energy is
released when an atom is accepted into the valence shell.

5. Electronegativity – is defined as the general tendency of that atom to attract electron toward itself in a compound

General Trend:

a. Period – the electronegativity increases. The least number of valence electrons, the less is the
attractive force. From left to right it will increase. From top to bottom, it will decrease.

b. Group – electronegativity decreases.

Summary Table for Atomic Properties

Properties Top to Bottom Left to Right

( Group) (Period)

1. Atomic Radius Increasing Decreasing

2. Ionic Radius Decreasing Increasing

3. Ionization Energy Decreasing Increasing

4. Electron Affinity Decreasing Increasing

5. Electron Negativity Decreasing Increasing

 26

Oxidation Number or Oxidation State

(Refer to the Table of cations and Anion)

Refers to the number of changes an atom would have in a molecule if the electrons were transferred completely in a
direction indicated by the difference in electronegativity.

RULES IN ASSIGNING OXIDATION NUMBERS OF THE ATOMS

1. Any uncombined atom or any atom in a molecule of an element is assigned an oxidation number zero.

2.The sum of the oxidation numbers of the atom in a compound is zero, since compounds are electrically neutral.

3.The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is the same as the charge on an ion. In their compounds, group IA
metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs) always have oxidation number of +1+, group II A elements always have +2.

4.The sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms that constitute a polyatomic ion equals the charge on the ion.

3. The oxidation number of fluorine. The most electronegative element, is –1 in all fluorine-containing compounds.

4. In most oxygen-containing compounds, the oxidation number of oxygen is –2.There are however, a few
exceptions:

a. In peroxides each oxygen has an oxidation number of –1. The two O atoms of the peroxide ion, O 2-2 , are
equivalent. Each must be assigned an oxidation number of –1 so the sum equals the charge on the ion.

b. In the superoxide ion, O2 , each oxygen has an oxidation number of –1/2.

c. In OF2 the oxygen has an oxidation numbers of +2.

5. The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1+ in all its compound except the metallic hydrides ( CaH 2 and NaH are
examples), in which hydrogen is in the –1 oxidation state.

6. In a combination of two nonmetals (either a molecule or a polyatomic ion) the ox no. of the more
electronegative element is negative and equal to the charge on the common nonatomic ion of that element. In
PCl3, for example the oxidation number of Cl is –1 and P +3. In CS2 , the oxidation number of S is –2 and C is +4.

Example: Determine the oxidation number of all the elements found in the chemical formula. KMnO 4 2.CrO4-
2
3. Cr2O7-2 4.P4 5. Al2O3 6. NaH 7. H2O2 8. Fe3O4 9. MnO4- 10. CO3-2

Chemical Bonding I: Basic Concepts

These are form when atoms combine. The result of changes in electron distribution.
Lewis Theory: An Overview
1. Electrons, especially those of the outermost (valence) electronic shell, play a fundamental role in
chemical bonding.
2. In some cases electrons are transferred from one atom to another. Positive and negative ions are
formed and attract each other through electrostatic forces called ionic bonds.
 27
3. In other cases one or more pairs of electrons are shared between atoms; this sharing of electrons is
called covalent bond.
4. Electrons are transferred, or shared, in such a way that each atom acquires an especially stable electron
configuration. Usually this is a noble gas configuration, one with eight outer shell electrons , or an octet.

Lewis Symbols and Lewis Structures

Lewis Symbol – consists of a chemical symbol to represent the nucleus and core (inner shell) electrons of an
atom, together with dots placed around the symbol to represent the valence ( outer shell) electrons.

Example: Write the Lewis symbol for the following elements: As, Sb , Bi , Al , I , Se , Ar

Ex. Write the Lewis structure of the following elements:

a. Li c. B e. Be
b. Na d. Mg f. C

Note: For main group elements the number of valence electrons and the hence the number of dots
appearing in a Lewis symbol, is equal to the periodic table group number.

Lewis Structure – is a combination of Lewis symbols that represents either the transfer or the sharing of
electrons in a chemical bond.

Ionic bonding
(transfer of electrons) Na + Cl -------- [Na]+ [Cl]-
Lewis Symbol Lewis Structure
Covalent bonding
(sharing of electrons) H + Cl -------- H Cl

The IONIC BOND

Terms:
1. An ion – is a particle that is made up of an atom or a group of atoms and that bears an electric charge.
a. A cation – has a positive charge (because on or more electrons have been lost).
b. An anion – has a negative charge (because one or more electrons have been gained)
2. A monatomic ion – is formed from single atom
a. an atom of a metal forms a cation.
b. An atom of a nonmetal forms an anion.
3. A polyatomic ion –is a charged particle that contains more than one atom. Polyatomic ions may be either
cations (NH4+ and H3O+ for example) or anions.
4. Ionic compounds – are made up of large numbers of cations and anions arranged in a geometric pattern
to form a crystal. The crystal is held together by the plus-minus attractions of the ions.

The Ionic-Bonding Model

Octet Rule – when atoms bond, they lose or gain or share electrons to attain a filled outer shell of eight or
two electrons

Ex. 1. Na and Cl ---------- Na+ + Cl-

Metals – gives off non-metal - gain

In all cases of ionic bonding, the total number of electrons lost by the metal atoms equals the total number
of electrons gained by the non-metal atoms.

Note: Isoelectronic – the same in electronic configuration.

Na ---same with Neon
Cl --- same with Argon
3. LiF
4.Na2O
5.MgCl2

The COVALENT BOND

When atoms of nonmetals interact, electron transfer does not occur, because the atoms are similar
in their attraction for electrons. Instead of the transfer of electrons, electrons are shared and molecules are
formed.

Molecular Structure:
Lewis Structure or valence-bond structure (named after Gilbert N. Lewis)
 28
- emphasizes the attainment of a noble-gas electronic configuration on the part of atoms
in covalent molecules.
- For most atoms this means the attainment of an octet.
- For hydrogen, the two-electron configuration of helium is stable.

Ex.1. F—F
2. Cl -Cl
3. H-H
4. H-F
Terms:
Bond Pair – a pair of electrons in covalent bond
Lone Pair – electrons that are not involved in bonding

A. Types of Bonds and Bond Order

( number of electron pairs being shared between any bonded atoms)

1. Single Covalent bond – consists of a pair of electrons ( with opposite spin) that is assumed to occupy
orbitals of both atoms involve in the bond.

Ex. H---H --- Bond order of one

2. Multiple Bonds – more than one electron pair may be shared by two atoms
a. double bond- two shared electron pairs ( BO = 2)

ex. O + C + O ----------
2H + C + C + 2H ----------

b. triple bond – three shared electron pairs ( BO= 3)

N + N -------
H + C + C + H ------------

Max .No. of Bonds

a. Group VII A --- one covalent bond
b. Group VI A - two
c. Group V A - three
d. Group IVA - four

B. Bond Energy – is the energy required to overcome nucleus electron attraction and electron-electron and
nucleus- nucleus repulsion.
- always positive
-
C. Bond Length – the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms.

Note: A higher bond order results in a shorter bond length and a higher bond energy.

Ex. Bond Order Bond Length (pm) Bond Energy (KJ/mol)

C-O 1 143 358

C=O 2 123 745
C=O 3 113 1070

Transition between Ionic and Covalent Bonding

Ionic – metal and nonmetal
Covalent – identical element
Electronegativity – is a measure of the relative ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself
- Refer to the periodic table

Percent Ionic character of Bonds

Differences in Percent Differences in Percent Ionic
Electronegativit Ionic Electronegativit Character
y Character y
0.1 0.5 1.7 51
0.3 2 1.9 59
0.5 6 2.1 67
 29
0.7 12 2.3 74
0.9 19 2.5 79
1.1 26 2.7 84
1.3 34 2.9 88
1.5 43 3.1 91

Note: 1.7 = 50% ionic

 ionic
< covalent

ex. Cl2 HCl NaCl

covalent covalent ionic
nonpolar polar ionic

Assessing Electronegativity Differences and the Polarity of Bonds

a. Which bond is more polar, H-Cl; or H-O?
b. What is the percent ionic character of each of these bonds?
Solution: ENH = 2.1 ENCl = 3.0 ENO = 3.5

Covalent Bond:
A. nonpolar – atoms has the same affinity for electrons, giving rise to an electrically symmetrical molecule.
B. Polar – whenever two different atoms are joined by a covalent bond, the electron density of the bond is
not symmetrically distributed around the two nuclei.

How to Diagram Lewis Structure

Skeleton Structure
a. central atom – is bonded to two or more other atom
- it has the lowest electronegativity
b. terminal atom – is bonded to just one other atom
Note: H atom are always terminal atoms and carbon atoms are almost always central atom
1. Find the total number of valence electrons supplied by all the atom in the structure. The number supplied by
each A family element is the same as the group number of the element:
a. For a negative ion, increase the number by the charge of the ion.
b. For a positive ion, decrease the number by the charge of the ion.
2. Determine the number of electrons that would be required to give two electrons to each H atom individually and
eight electrons to each of the other atoms individually:
Num. e- for individual atoms = 2(num. H atoms) + 8 ( num. other atoms)
3. The number obtained in step 2 minus the number obtained in step 1 is the number of electrons that must be
shared in the final structure:
Num. bonding e- = (num. e- for individual atoms) - ( total num. e-)
4. One-half the number of bonding electrons (step 3) is the number of covalent bonds in the final structure:
Num. e- pair bonds = (num. bonding e- ) /2
5. Identify the central atom. This is most often the atom with the lowest electronegativity. Hydrogen, however is
never a central atom.
6. Write the skeleton structure, and join the atoms in this structure by single covalent bonds.
7. With the valence electrons remaining, first complete the octets of the terminal atoms. Then, to the extent
possible, complete the octets of the central atom
8. At this point, if the central atom lacks an octet, form multiple covalent bonds by converting lone pair electrons
from terminal atoms into bond pairs
9. The total number of electrons ( step 1) minus the number of bonding electrons ( step 3) is the number of
unshared electrons:
Num. unshared e- = (total num. e- ) - ( num. bonding e-)
10. Indicate the formal charges of the atoms where appropriate, and evaluate the structure.

Formal Charges

The formal charge of an atom in a Lewis structure can be calculated by use of the formula

Formal charge = + (num. valence e- ) – ½ ( num. shared e-) – ( num. unshared e-)
1. In a molecule, the sum of the formal charges is zero. In an ion, the formal charges add up to the charge
of the ion.
2. An atom in a Lewis structure that has the number of bonds except on the basis of its group number has
no formal charge. If possible , a Lewis structure should be drawn so that all atoms have these numbers
of bonds. Frequently, however, this not possible.
 30
3. Atoms that are bonded to each other in a structure should not have formal charges with the same sign. A
Lewis structure in which this adjacent of charge rule is violated is usually not an accurate description of
the molecule or ion.

Example: Write the Lewis structure of the following:

1. CH4
2. ClO3-
3. PH4+
4. SO2
5. HCN

Considerations that pertains to resonance forms:

1. All resonance forms for a given molecule or ion has the same configurations of nuclei. The resonance
forms of a given species differ in the arrangement of electrons and nor in the arrangement of nuclei.

2. Two atoms that are bonded together should not have formal charges with the same sign. Resonance
forms in which this adjacent charge rule is violated usually do not contribute significantly to the
resonance hybrid.

3. The most important resonance forms of a given resonance hybrid have the smallest number of formal
charges and the lowest values for these charges. The best forms have no formal charges at all.

4. Usually all the resonance forms of a given resonance hybrid have the same number of unshared
electrons, the largest number possible.

5. In most important resonance forms of a given resonance hybrid, the distribution of positive and negative
formal charges should be in agreement with the electronegativities of the atoms. The most
electronegative atom in the structure for example should not carry a positive formal charge.

Example:
Resonance Structure:
1. SO2
2. O3
3. OCN-
4. CO3-2
5. N2

MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
-Refers to the three- dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule
-it can predict the approximate bond angles around a central atom.

Note: Theory of Covalent Bonding- has some shortcomings.

1. Lewis Structure – based on Octet rule, cannot be drawn for some molecules or for some covalently bonded
polyatomic ion.
 31

Exceptions to the Octet Rule - “Expanded” Octets

Certain ions do not have noble-gas configurations that some of these ions are relatively stable. Some molecules also
have atoms with configurations other than those that octet principle would lead us to expect.

Example: PCl5 : P has10 electrons in the valence shell

BF3 : B has six val e-
SF6 : S has 12 val e-
 Octet rule is violated
2. It does not give us the shape of the molecule

The Shape of Molecule

When we write the Lewis structure of water

H : O : H --- straight line

Experiment: water is bent not linear

Shape is important for the following reason:
a. bent shape of water molecules helps to account for the fact water is a liquid rather than a gas at room
temperature.
b. Accounts for the ability of liquid water to dissolve so many different substances.

Terminology:
Molecular Shape – is the geometric figure resulted by joining the nuclei of bonded atoms by straight line.
Bond lengths – the distance between the nuclei of bonded atoms
Bond angles – the angles between adjacent lines representing bonds.

A. Diatomic molecule – has only one bond and no bond angle

- linear
B. Triatomic molecule – has 2 bonds and one bond angle
Ex. angle = 1800 linear
Angular
Bent
V-shaped

Valence – shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory, pronounced as vesper.

VESPR - accounts for the geometric arrangement of electron pairs around a central atom in terms of the repulsion
between electron pairs
- focuses on pairs of electron in the valence electronic shell
- electron pairs repel each other, whether they are in chemical bonds ( bond pairs) or
unshared (lone pairs).
- Electron pairs assume orientations about an atom to minimize repulsion.
Categories:
1. central atom has no lone pairs
2. central atom has lone pairs

Possibilities for each electron group distributions

Electron group geometries:
a. two electron group - linear
b. three electron group – trigonal – planar
c. four electron group – tetrahedral
d. five electron group – trigonal- bipyramidal
e. six electron group- octahedral
 32

Applying VESPR Theory

Steps:
1. Draw a plausible Lewis structure of the species ( molecule or polyatomic ion)
2. Determine the number of electron groups around the central atom and identify them as being either
bond pair or lone pairs.

The number of valence electrons of the central atom (A), plus one electron for each substituent atom (B) ,
and an adjustment for the charge of the ion (chg), give the total number of electrons in the valence shell of
the central atom. One half of this number is the total number of electron of electron pairs. Since each
halogen atom is bonded by a single bond pair, the number of halogen atoms is also the number of bonding
electron pair. The number of nonbonding electrons is obtained by subtraction.

Illustration: Electrons Electron pairs

A + B + chg = total total bdg nonbdgShape

a.) TlCl2+ 3 + 2 - 1 = 4 2 2 0 linear

b.) AsF2+ 5 + 2 - 1 = 6 3 2 1 angular
c.) IBr2- 7 + 2 + 1 =10 5 2 3 linear
d.) SnCl3- 4 + 3 + 1 = 8 4 3 1 trigonal pyramidal
e.) ClF4- 7 + 4 + 1 = 12 6 4 2 square planar

3. Establish the electron group geometry around the central atom- linear, trigonal-planar, tetrahedral,
bipyramidal or octahedral.
4. Determine the molecular geometry from the positions around the central atom occupied by the other
atomic nuclei- that is from Table I.

Table I. Number of electron pairs in the valence shell of the central atom and shape of molecule or ion.
Class of Total No. Bonding Non-bonding Shape of Molecule or Examples
Molecule of EP Pairs Pairs ion
AB2 2 2 0 Linear HgCl2, CuCl2-
AB3 3 3 0 Triangular planar BF3, HgCl3-
AB2E 3 2 1 Angular SnCl2, NO2-
AB4 4 4 0 Tetrahedral CH4, BF4-
AB3E 4 3 1 Trigonal pyramidal NH3, PF3
AB2E2 4 2 2 Angular H2O, ICl2+
AB5 5 5 0 Trigonal bipyramidal PCl5, SnCl5-
AB4E 5 4 1 Irregular tetrahedral TeCl4, IF4+
AB3E2 5 3 2 T-shaped ClF3, BrF3
AB2E3 5 2 3 Linear XeF2, ICl2-
AB6 6 6 0 Octahedral SF6, PF6-
AB5E 6 5 1 Square pyramidal IF5, SbF5-2
AB4E2 6 4 2 Square planar BrF4-, XeF4
 33

Table II. Geometry of Simple Molecules and ions in which the central atom has one or more lone pairs
Class of Total number of No. of No. of Angle Geometry Examples
Molecule electron Pairs Bonding Lone
pairs pairs
AB2 2 2 0 1800 Linear BeCl2

AB3 3 3 0 1200 Trigonal Planar BF3

AB2E 3 2 1 1200 Bent/Angular SO2, O3

AB4 4 4 0 109.50 Tetrahedral CH4

AB3E 4 3 1 109.50 Trigonal pyramidal NH3

AB2E2 4 2 2 109.50 Bent/Angular H2O

AB5 5 5 0 900,1200 Trigonal-bipyramidal PCl5

AB4E 5 4 1 900, 1200 Distorted Tetrahedron IF4+,SF4,XeO

(or seesaw) 2F2

AB3E2 5 3 2 900 T-shaped ClF3

AB2E3 5 2 3 1800 Linear XeF2, I3-

AB6 6 6 0 900 Octahedral SF6

AB5E 6 5 1 900 Square pyramidal BrF5, XeOF4

 34
AB4E2 6 4 2 900 Square planar XeF4, ICl4-

Chemical Bonding II: Additional Aspects

Lewis structure does not help us explain the bond dissociation energy, bond length and bond angles.
In one such method we will work with the familiar s,p and d atomic orbitals or with mixed-orbital types called hybrid
orbitals. In a second approach we will create a set of orbitals that belong to a molecule as whole. Then we will assign electrons
to these molecular orbitals.

Valence Bond Theory

-a description of covalent bond formation in terms of atomic orbital overlap
-gives a localized electron model of bonding: core electron and lone pair valence electron retain the some orbital locations as in
the separated atoms, and the change density of the bonding electrons is concentrated in the region of orbital overlap.

O O -- OO
1s 1s

Three Types of Interactions:

a. electrons are attracted to the two nuclei
b. electrons repel one another
c. two nuclei repel each other

Hybridization Of Atomic Orbitals

Ground state C ___ ___ ___ ____ CH2 – but this is unstable
2s 2p
Excited state C ___ ___ ____ _____ CH4 – stable
Note: Not in all cases that bonded atoms are of the same kind of orbitals (that is s,p,…)

Hybridization – the mixing of atomic orbital ( AOs) in an atom to generate anew set of AOs, called hybrid orbitals.

Hybrid orbitals – are atomic orbitals obtained when two or more nonequivalent orbitals of the same atom combine to form
covalent bonds.

Atomic orbitals – the valence shell or region of space with a definite shape where the motion of the electron is confirmed

Types of Hybrid Orbitals:

1. sp hybrid orbitals – corresponds to a linear electron group geometry and a 180 0 bond angle. Combine the 2s and 2p
orbitals.

Ex. Be (2A)
____ ____ ____
2p
____ _____ ______
2s sp

____
1s

Molecule: BeCl2
2. sp2 hybrid orbitals – corresponds to trigonal-planar electron group geometry and 120 0 bond angles. Combines
the 2s and two 2p orbitals.

ex. B (4A)
____ ____ ____
2p
____ _____ ______ _______
2s sp2
____
1s

Molecule: BF3
 35

3. sp3 – hybridization – one s and 3p orbitals are combined

____ ____ ____

2p
____ _____ ______ ______ _____
2s sp3

____
1s

Ex. CH4

Hybrid Orbitals and the Valence- shell electron-pair Repulsion Theory

Steps in choosing the likely hybridization scheme for a central atom:

1. Write a plausible Lewis structure for the species of interest.

2. Use VSPER theory to predict the probable electron group geometry of the central atom.
3. Select the hybridization scheme corresponding to the electron group geometry.

Table. Some Hybrid Orbitals and their Geometric Orientations

Hybrid Orbitals Geometric Orientation Ex
Sp Linear BeCl2
sp2 Trigonal-planar BF3
sp3 Tetrahedral CH4
sp3d Trigonal-bipyramidal PCl5
sp3d2 Octahedral SF6

Molecular Orbitals
-an orbital associated with a molecule rather than an atom
- provides an explanation of the electronic spectra of molecules. (paramagnetic and
diamagnetic)
Types:

A. Molecular Orbital derived from 1s

1. Sigma- bonding molecular orbital ( 1s) - the overlap results in wave reinforcement ( additivecombination). The
electron density in the region between nuclei is high which reduces repulsions between the positively charged nuclei
and promotes a strong bond.. At lower energy.
2.Sigma- antibonding molecular orbital ( 1s) - result of the out-of-phase combination of waves ( subtractive
combination). The electron density in the region between the nuclei is low. At higher energy level. Places a very low
electron charge density between the two nuclei
Note: Antibonding- low electron charge density between atomic nuclei, the nuclei are not screened from each other,
strong repulsions occur and the bond weakened.
Formation of sigma and anti molecular orbital from 1s atomic orbitals.

Diatomic Molecules of the First-Period Elements

a. H2 b. He2

_____ ______

____ _____ _____ ______

_____ _______

B.Molecular Orbitals derived from 2p

1. pi bonding molecular orbital ( ) – are not cylindically symmetrical about the internuclear axis. Instead, the side to
side approaches of the p orbitals leads to a pi orbital consisting of two regions of charge density that lie above and
below the internuclear axis.
2. pi antibonding molecular orbital ( ) – has low electron density in the region between the nuclei. The net effect is
of pi anti orbital is disruptive.
Note:
Additive a= 2a
Destructive a= 0 cancels each other
 36
Basic Ideas Concerning Molecular Orbitals
1. The number of molecular orbital (MO) formed is equal to the number of atomic orbitals combined.
2. Of the two MOs formed formed when two atomic orbitals are combined, one is a bonding MO at lower energy
than the original atomic orbitals. The other is an antibonding MO at higher energy.
3. Electrons normally eneter the lowest energy Mos availablle to them.
4. The maximum number of electron in a given MO is two (Pauli’s Exclusion Principle)
5. Electrons enter Mos of identical energies singly before they pair up ( Hund’s rule)

Note: Stable molecular species – have more electron in bonding than in antibonding orbitals.
2 excess bonding electron = 1 single bond in Lewis Theory
Bond Order – is one half the difference between the number of bonding and antibonding electron

no. of electron in bonding Mos – no. of elctron in an antibonding Mos

Bond order = ______________________________________________________
2
The Method of Molecular Orbitals
-add the valence electron of the molecular orbitals in an aufbau order
-instead of using s,p -- MO are assigned the Greek letter designation sigma ( ) , pi ( )
Aufbau orders for the homonuclear diatomic molecules of elements of the second period

Atomic Orbitals Molecular Orbitals Atomic Orbitals

2p___
2p___

2p ___ ____ 2p___ ____

2p___

2p___ ____ 2p___ ____

2p____

2s___
2s___

2s___
2s___

Li2 to N2 O2 and F2

Note: Paramagnetic – unpaired

Diamagnetic- paired
Exercises. Write the diagram for Li2, Be2, B2, C2 , N2 , O2 , F2 with the two models on page
Determine the bond order of each molecule.
2. CO ,NO, N2+ , O2- , O2-2, C2-2