Kinematics of Particles (Rectilinear Motion)

The study of bodies under motion is termed dynamics. The resulting motion of a
body under the action of a system of forces can be either translational rotational or a
combination of both motions.
Further, if the direction of the resultant force is constant then the translational
motion is along a straight line, which we term as rectilinear or one-dimensional motion.
For instance, a ball thrown vertically upwards and a car travelling on a straight road are
examples of rectilinear motion. However, if the direction of the resultant force varies, then
the motion will not be in a straight line and we term such a motion as curvilinear or two-
dimensional motion. A golf ball hit from the ground and a motorist travelling on a curved
road are examples of such curvilinear motion. A cylinder rolling down on an inclined
plane is an example of a combination of translational and rotational motions.
The dynamics of bodies can be divided into dynamics of particles and dynamics of
rigid bodies.

Position

Position means the location of a particle with respect to a fixed reference point say
origin O. The origin O on the path is a fixed point, and from this point, the position
coordinate S is used to specify the location of the particle at any given instant. Realise that
position is a vector quantity since it has both magnitude and direction. Here, however, it is
being represented by the algebraic scalar S since the direction always remains along the
coordinate axis. The sketch below shows position of particle at A as S A = 4 m and at B as
SB = -3 m.

Displacement

Displacement is a change in position of the particle. It is the difference between

final position and initial position. It is a vector quantity connecting the initial position to
the final position. On the other hand, the distance travelled being a scalar quantity, is
dependent on the actual path traced by the particle. In Fig. 1, the arc length AB (shown by
dotted line) denotes the distance travelled by the particle in this time. If a particle moves
from A to B and then back to A then the net displacement is zero as the particle is back to
its initial position. However, we can see that the distance traveled is not zero.

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Figure 1. Displacement vector

Example

Initial position of particle is A (S A = -3 m). It moves to position B (S B = +5 m) and finally

to position C (SC = -7 m).

∴ Displacement of a particle = Final position - Initial position

S = SC - SA = -7 - (-3) = -4 m = 4 m (← )

Thus, displacement depends only on initial and final position of the particle and its value
may be positive or negative.

Distance

Distance is the total path travelled by a particle from initial position to final
position. It is a scalar quantity. For example above,

d = AO + OB + BO + OC = 3 + 5 + 5 + 7

∴d = 20 m

If the particle is moving along the straight line in the same direction then the distance
covered is equal to displacement.

Velocity and Acceleration

Velocity
The velocity of a particle can be defined as the rate of change of displacement with
time. In Fig. 1, as the particle moves from A to B, the average velocity during this time
interval is then given as the ratio of the net displacement and elapsed time, i.e.

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 net displacement
v ave =
elapsed time

If the average velocity measured between any two points along the path does not
remain constant then the particle is said to move with variable velocity. In such a case, we
must specify the velocity of the particle at a particular instant of time, called the
instantaneous velocity. From calculus
dx
v=
dt
The direction of instantaneous velocity is always tangential to the path of the
particle and its magnitude is called the speed of the particle. The unit of velocity in SI
units is m/s.

Acceleration
The acceleration of a particle can be defined as the rate of change of the velocity
vector with time.

Its unit as seen from the above equation is m/s2

If the average acceleration measured between any two points along the path
remains the same in magnitude and direction then the particle is said to move with
constant acceleration. A body falling freely under gravity is an example of constant
acceleration.
On the contrary, if average acceleration measured between any two points along
the path does not remain constant then the particle is said to move with variable
acceleration. In such a case, we must specify the acceleration of the particle at a particular
instant of time, called the instantaneous acceleration. Mathematically

Rectilinear Motion
When the motion of a particle is restricted along a straight line, the motion is said
to be one-dimensional or rectilinear motion.
For motion along the X-axis only, we can write

By separation of variables, we can also write acceleration as

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 The above three equations are known as differential equations of motion in a
straight line. Hence, if the position of a particle is known as a function of time, i.e., x = f(t)
then velocity v and acceleration a can be determined by differentiating the position
function with respect to time:

Examples
1. The position of a particle in rectilinear motion is defined by the relation
3 2
x=t −2 t +10 t−6 ,where x is in metres and t is in seconds. Determine (i) the
position, velocity and acceleration of the particle at time t = 3 s, (ii) the average
velocity during t = 2 s and t = 3 s, and (iii) the average acceleration during the third
second.

Solution: Given x=t 3−2 t 2 +10 t−6

The expressions for velocity and acceleration can be obtained by differentiating the
above expression successively with respect to time:

(i) Position, velocity and acceleration of the particle at time t = 3 s Substituting t = 3 s

in the above expressions for position, velocity and acceleration, we get

(ii) Average velocity during t = 2 s and t = 3 s. The displacements at these two time
instants are

Therefore, average velocity during this time interval is given as

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 (iii) Average acceleration during t = 2 s and t = 3 s The instantaneous velocities at
these two time instants are

Therefore, average acceleration during this time interval is given as

2. The motion of a particle in rectilinear motion is defined by the relation x = t 3 - 8t2 +

16t - 5, where x and t are expressed in metres and seconds respectively. Determine
(i) the instants when velocity is zero, (ii) the position and acceleration at those
instants of time, (iii) the instant when the acceleration is zero

Integral Equations of Motion

Acceleration can be specified in terms of time, position or velocity. Accordingly,
there are three different cases that we normally come across:

(i) Acceleration is given as a function of time, i.e., a = f (t)

(ii) Acceleration is given as a function of velocity, i.e., a = f (v)

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(iii) Acceleration is given as a function of position, i.e., a = f(x)

Examples

1. The acceleration of a particle in rectilinear motion is defined by the relation a = 3t 2

+ 2. Given that the initial velocity and displacement are respectively 2 m/s and 3
m, write the equations of motion. Also, determine the position, velocity and
acceleration at t = 2s

Solution Since acceleration is given as a function of time, upon integration with

respect to time, we have

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 −16 2
2. The rectilinear motion of a particle is governed by a = 3 , where a is in m/s and
x
x is in metres. Given that at time t = 1 s, x = 2 m and v = 2 m/s, (i) write the
equations of motion; (ii) determine the position, velocity and acceleration at t = 4 s
3. A particle starts from rest and travels along a straight line with an acceleration a =
(30 - 0.2v) m/s2, where v is in m/s. Determine the time when the velocity of the
particle is v = 30 m/s.

ASSIGNTMENT

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 1. The acceleration of a particle in rectilinear motion is defined by the relationship a
= kv. Given that at time t = 0, v = vo and x = 0, write the equations of motion.
2. The acceleration of a particle in rectilinear motion is defined by the relation a -
1/x2 . Given that at t = 4/3 s, x = 2 m, and v = 1 m/s, write the equations of motion.
3. The motion of a particle in rectilinear motion is defined by the relation x = t 4 -3t3 +
t2 + 6, where x and t are expressed in metres and seconds respectively. Determine
(i) the position, velocity and acceleration of the particle at time t = 2 s, (ii) the
average velocity during t = 2 s and t = 3 s, (iii) the average acceleration during the
third second, and (iv) the instants when the acceleration is zero.
4. The position of a particle in rectilinear motion is given by the relation
3
t 2
x= −1.5 t −4 t+5 , where x is in metres and t is in seconds. Determine the
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position and acceleration when the velocity is zero.
5. A particle travels along a straight line with an acceleration of a=( 10−0.2 s ) m/s 2
where s is measured in metres. Determine the velocity of the particle when s = 10
m, if v = 5 m/s at s = 0.
6. The acceleration of a particle in rectilinear motion is defined by the relation a =
1/v, where a is in m/s2 and v is in m/s. Given that at time t = 2 s, v = 2 m/s and at
time t = 0, the displacement x = 0, write the equations of motion.

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

We will consider a special case of rectilinear motion, in which the acceleration is

constant. Hence, such motion is called uniform motion, i.e., motion with constant velocity.
The three equations given below can be used only when the acceleration of the particle is
constant.

v=v o+ at [1]

1 2
s=v o t+ a t [2]
2
2 2
v =v o +2 as [3]

Examples

1. An electric train starting from rest attains a maximum speed of 100 km/h in 20 seconds.
Determine (i) its acceleration assuming it to be uniform, (ii) distance covered during this
time period, and (iii) its velocity 15 seconds after staring from rest.

2. The driver of a car moving at a constant speed of 18 km/h realizes that if he moves at
this speed, he will reach the office late by 10 seconds. Hence, he accelerates at a constant

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rate of 2 m/s2 so that he reaches the office right in time. Determine the time taken to reach
the office and the distance covered during this time.

3. Two cars, A and B, start from rest at the same instant, with the car A initially trailing at
some distance behind the car B. The uniform accelerations of the cars A and B are
respectively 3 m/s2 and 2 m/s2. If the car A overtakes the car B, when B has moved 200 m,
(i) determine the time taken to overtake, (ii) how far was the car A behind B initially, (iii)
determine the speed of each car at that instant.

4. A 200 m long passenger train running with a velocity of 72 km/h on a straight track is to
overtake a 150 m long goods train 500 m ahead running in the same direction with a
velocity of 54 km/h on a parallel track. How much time will be taken for complete
overtaking?

Motion under Gravity

Bodies when thrown vertically upwards or dropped from a point above the ground level
travel downwards due to pull of the earth. They will be subjected to an acceleration
directed towards the centre of the earth. This acceleration is termed as acceleration due to
gravity and it is denoted by g. In the absence of air resistance, it is observed that all bodies
irrespective of their size and weight fall with the same acceleration due to gravity. This
point was proved experimentally by Galileo.

The acceleration due to gravity at a particular location is dependent on the radius of the
earth and hence it varies with latitude and altitude to a small extent. However, we can
assume it to be constant near the earth’s surface. Normally, an approximate value of g
equal to 9.81 m/s2 can be used for all calculation purposes. The idealized motion in which
air resistance and change in acceleration with altitude are neglected is termed as free fall,
although the term includes rising as well as falling.

Since the acceleration is constant, we can apply the equations for rectilinear motion with
constant acceleration, by replacing a with g. As bodies can be thrown upwards or else
thrown downwards, we try to differentiate the two cases and follow different sign
conventions while writing the equations of motion as explained below:

Bodies Thrown Upwards

For bodies thrown upwards, it will be convenient to choose the ground as the fixed origin
with the positive Y-axis directed upwards. Since acceleration is directed downwards, i.e.,
along the negative Y-axis, it is taken as negative. Hence, acceleration, a = −¿g. The
equations of motion are then given by:

v=v o−¿
2 2
v =v o −2 g ( y − y o ) (or) 2 2
v =v o −2 gs

1 2 1 2
y= y o+ v o t− g t (or) s= y− y o =v o t− g t
2 2

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where yo is the initial displacement from the ground level. If the body is thrown from the
ground level, then yo = 0; if thrown from the top of a building then y o = height of the
building. It should be noted that the vertical path traced while ascent will not be strictly
same as the vertical path traced during descent. However, to simplify the calculations, we
assume these two paths to be the same. At the highest point, the velocity of the body
becomes zero and hence, the body changes its direction of motion and starts moving
downwards. The maximum height reached by the body above the point of projection can
be determined by equating v = 0 in the equation, v 2=v o2 −2 gs . Therefore
2
2 vo
0=v o −2 gs ⇒ s=hmax =
2g

The time taken to reach this maximum height is given by equating v = 0 in the equation
v=v o−¿

vo
Hence 0=v o −¿ ⇒ t=
g

In the absence of air resistance, we know that the time of ascent is equal to the time of
descent. Hence, the time taken to return to the point of projection is twice the time taken
for ascent, i.e.,

2 vo
T =2 t=
g

Also, it should be noted that the velocity of the body while crossing the point of projection
would be same as the velocity of projection in magnitude but opposite in direction.

Bodies Thrown Downwards or Dropped

For bodies thrown downwards or dropped from a point above the ground, the point of
release is taken as the fixed origin and the positive Y-axis directed downwards. Hence,
acceleration is taken as positive in this case.

For bodies dropped, the initial velocity is zero, the equations of motion becomes

v=¿
2
v =2 gs

1 2
s= y= g t
2

Examples/Assignment

1. Two trains travel on the same track in the opposite direction with constant speeds of 45
km/h and 60 km/h. The drivers of the two trains realize that they are on the same track
when they are 300 m apart and apply the brakes. The reaction time for both the drivers is

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0.7 s. If the deceleration of the slower train is 0.5 m/s 2, determine the minimum
deceleration of the faster train to just avoid collision

2. A ball is thrown upwards from a 40 m high tower with an initial velocity of 10 m/s. At
the same instant, another ball is thrown upwards from ground with an initial velocity of 20
m/s. Determine (i) when and where they will meet each other, and (ii) the velocity of each
ball at that instant.

3. A train starting from rest accelerates uniformly at the rate of α to reach a maximum
speed of v. It then moves at this speed for some time and decelerates uniformly at the rate
s
of β to come to rest. If the total distance covered is s, prove that the total time taken is +
v

[ ]
v 1 1
2 α β
+

4. A train moves from one station to another in two hours time. Its speed during the
motion is shown in the graph shown below. Calculate (a) the maximum acceleration
during the journey, and (b) the distance covered during the time interval from 0.75 hour to
1 hour.

Projectile Motion

Consider a particle projected with an initial velocity vo at an angle of inclination a

to the horizontal. Then the initial velocity can be resolved into rectangular components
along the x and y directions respectively as

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 Projectile motion

As there is no acceleration along the horizontal direction, the horizontal component of

velocity vx remains constant throughout the motion, i.e., v x = vo cos ∝ at any instant of
time during the motion. However, the vertical component of velocity v y changes with time
due to acceleration due to gravity in the vertically downward direction. Thus, the equation
of motion in the horizontal direction can be considered to be that of rectilinear motion with
constant velocity and the equation of motion in the vertical direction to be that of free fall.

Choice of Origin and Reference Axes

The point of projection is always chosen as the origin unlike in rectilinear motion in the
vertical direction. The positive Y-axis is taken as directed upwards. Hence, the
acceleration due to gravity acting vertically downwards is taken as negative, i.e., - g. Some
of the cases that we normally encounter and the corresponding points of projections and
the choice of axes are shown in the following figures.

As the projectile motion can be resolved into independent motions along the x and y
directions, the equations of motion can be written separately along these two directions
and they are summarized below:

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Eliminating time t from the two Eqs 13.8 c and 13.9 d, we get

which is of the form y = ax - bx 2, i.e., the equation of a parabola. Hence, we can

understand that the trajectory of projectile is a parabola.

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Examples/Assignment
1. A ball is thrown from the ground with a velocity of 20 m/s at an angle of 30° to the
horizontal. Determine (i) the velocity of the ball at t = 0.5 s and t = 1.5 s, (ii) total time of
flight of the ball, (iii) maximum height reached, (iv) range of the ball, and (v) maximum
range.

2. A ball is thrown from the top of a building of 20 m height with a velocity of 30 m/s at
an angle of 45° to the horizontal. Determine its velocity at t = 2 s. How high does it rise?
Determine the horizontal distance it will travel before striking the ground. Also, determine
its velocity at that instant.

3. In shot-put game, a man throws an iron ball with an initial velocity of 10 m/s. What
should be the angle of projection if he has to reach a record of 10 m? Take the height at
which the ball is released as 1.2 m.

4. A bomber plane flying horizontally with a speed of 400 km/h at an altitude of 150 m
releases a bomb to strike a target on the ground. How far from the target, should it release
the bomb to hit the target? Also, determine the angle of sight.

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