1 s2.0 S135041772300216X Main

Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 98 (2023) 106504
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ultson
Non-thermal, energy efficient hydrodynamic cavitation for food processing,

process intensification and extraction of natural bioactives: A review
Shalini S. Arya a, *, Pavankumar R. More a, Mayur R. Ladole b, Kakoli Pegu a,
Aniruddha B. Pandit c
a
Food Engineering and Technology Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, NM Parekh Marg, Matunga, Mumbai, India
b
School of Chemical and Bioprocess Engineering, University College Dublin, Ireland
c
Chemical Engineering Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, NM Parekh Marg, Matunga, Mumbai, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) is the process of bubbles formation, expansion, and violent collapse, which results
Hydrodynamic cavitation in the generation of high pressures in the order of 100–5000 bar and temperatures in the range of 727–9727 ◦ C
Non-thermal food processing for just a fraction of seconds. Increasing consumer demand for high-quality foods with higher nutritive values
Energy efficient
and fresh-like sensory attributes, food processors, scientists, and process engineers are pushed to develop
Cell disruption
innovative and effective non-thermal methods as an alternative to conventional heat treatments. Hydrodynamic
Waste valorization
cavitation can play a significant role in non-thermal food processing as it has the potential to destroy microbes
and reduce enzyme activity while retaining essential nutritional and physicochemical properties. As hydrody
namic cavitation occurs in a flowing liquid, there is a decrease in local pressure followed by its recovery; hence it
can be used for liquid foods. It can also be used to create stable emulsions and homogenize food constituents.
Moreover, this technology can extract food constituents such as polyphenols, essential oils, pigments, etc., via
biomass pretreatment, cell disruption for selective enzyme release, waste valorization, and beer brewing. Other
applications related to food production include water treatment, biodiesel, and biogas production. The present
review discusses the application of HC in the preservation, processing, and quality improvement of food and
other related applications. The reviewed examples in this paper demonstrate the potential of hydrodynamic
cavitation with further expansion toward the scaling up, which looks at commercialization as a driving force.
1. Introduction cavitation, irradiation, high-hydrostatic pressure, microwave, pulsed

electric field, and ohmic heating [2]. The current barriers of high in
Consumers are becoming more aware of the benefits of minimally vestment prices, insufficient control of process operation factors, and a
processed, non-thermal foods that provide maximum nutrients while lack of regulatory permission have been holding up wider industrial
providing as few calories as possible. In fact, the consumption of adoption of these technologies. In the United States, a survey of spe
polyphenol-rich foods, mainly fresh fruits and vegetables, has decreased cialists in the field of food was conducted to understand the critical
due to increased demand for highly processed foods. Our diet should justifications for utilizing novel technologies, the barriers to their
contain bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, implementation, and the main forces driving innovation in non-thermal
tannins, essential oils, etc., because of their potent anti-inflammatory food processing methods [3]. Better nutritive and sensory qualities were
and strong antioxidant effects [1]. To meet this demand, food technol cited as a primary reason for choosing non-thermal food processing
ogists must constantly look for new methods that produce desired results technology by ˃70% of the consumers. The chief obstacle in adopting a
that are scalable and cost-effective. Consumer expectations must be non-thermal food process technology is the requirement of high in
addressed, but minimal processing comes with the risk to food safety, as vestment (41%). Hydrodynamic cavitation technology is a unique, non-
taking care of all pathogens is crucial. With the evolution of emerging thermal, scalable, cost-effective method that can solve all the issues
technologies, conventional technology can be replaced with encour described.
aging results. These technologies include acoustic and hydrodynamic Cavitation is a process in which bubbles or cavities emerge, expand,
* Corresponding author at: Food Engineering and Technology Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai, Maharashtra 400019, India.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.S. Arya).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2023.106504
Received 28 February 2023; Received in revised form 21 June 2023; Accepted 24 June 2023
Available online 30 June 2023
1350-4177/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
S.S. Arya et al. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 98 (2023) 106504
then implode in a short space of time, discharging a tremendous amount 1.1. Types of cavitation generation
of energy in the process, with temperatures and pressures ranging from
727 to 9727 ◦ C and 100–1000 bar, respectively [4]. These effects are Tensions and local energy dissipation in a liquid are responsible for
observed simultaneously at multiple locations, resulting in higher mean creating cavitation. The primary criterion for differentiating between
energy pockets than traditional processes. different cavitation forms is the cavity creation technique. The four
significant forms of cavitation displayed in Fig. 1 and their causes are
Fig. 1. Types of cavitation A. hydrodynamic cavitation, B. acoustic cavitation, and C. optic and particle cavitation.
2
summarized below (Fig. 1): cavities throughout enlargement and partial expulsion through
compression. The collapse of cavities into smaller bubbles whenever
• The pressure differential in a liquid flow induced by the system’s they reach a crucial limit size. Cavity collapse is a highly violent process
flow velocity causes hydrodynamic cavitation. that produces severe local circumstances. Pressures vary from 50 to
• Acoustic cavitation occurs when ultrasound waves cause a differen 1000 bar, and temperatures can reach 5000 ◦ C. Since the bubble
tial pressure in a liquid. collapse occurs relatively quickly, cooling occurs at a rate of 737 ◦ C/sec,
• Optical cavitation happens when liquid bursts under the influence of making it a quasi-adiabatic high-energy process [9]. Shear force and
laser or high-intensity light which is a consequence of the local disintegration caused by cavitation explosion in the cellular structure
deposition of energy. promote the breakdown of matrix cells and the release of cell materials
• Particle cavitation occurs when any subatomic particle, such as a to the liquid as the surface area increases and particle size decreases [9].
proton, causes a liquid burst in a bubble trap to produce cavitation However, several factors, such as sonication energy, frequency, power,
[5]. and period of cavitation, can affect the efficacy and behavior of acoustic
cavitation [10]. As a result, these factors must be controlled and
Optical and particle cavitation technology is used at the laboratory optimized.
scale for fundamental cavitation studies such as bubble dynamics.
Acoustic and hydrodynamic cavitation, on the other hand, was the first 1.1.3. Optical and particle cavitation
to be studied and widely applied in academia and industry, owing to When a large amount of energy is placed on a liquid, it causes optical
ease of operation and the ability to generate required cavitation in and particle cavitation. Laser cavitation is caused by a shorter laser pulse
tensities. Hydrodynamic cavitation is particularly capable of extensive directed in a cuvette containing a fluid with a weak absorption coeffi
industrial applications compared to other cavitational techniques, such cient (typically water) (Fig. 1C). The initial energy in the pulse is
as optic, acoustic, and particle, as HC provides ease of scalability, cost- received by laser-produced plasma, then transformed to light, heat, and
effectiveness, and potentially effective treatment. mechanical energy, which are observed in the shock wave and bubble
[11]. In this case, the light intensity at the point is so high that nonlinear
1.1.1. Hydrodynamic cavitation absorption or snow slide ionization creates plasma, which can rapidly
Science, engineering, and technology considerably use cavitation heat up owing to the laser, resulting in abrupt water vaporization and
phenomena to accelerate chemical processes, microbial cell rupturing, forming vapor bubbles [12]. The cavitation bubble expands to its
and mass transfer [6]. When kinetic energy is converted to pressure maximum size before collapsing to restart the process. This bouncing
energy using an aperture or a venturi, a fluid mechanics phenomenon motion is maintained in succeeding bubbles [13]. Optical cavitation
known as hydrodynamic cavitation occurs; several other subtypes of may be created using both pulsed and continuous-wave lasers. However,
hydrodynamic cavitation also exist, including traveling cavitation, fixed it should be compressed into a highly absorbent liquid, frequently a
cavitation, vortex cavitation, and vibratory cavitation. Traveling cavi mixture of water and some color [14]. The photonic flux is significantly
tation occurs when individual transitory voids or bubbles arise in the absorbed by a small quantity of solution heated to the critical temper
liquid and move with it as they expand, contract, and eventually ature of water (300 ◦ C). At such temperatures, the restricted amount of
collapse. The scenario in which fluid flow disengages from the stiff superheated water is converted to vapor, forming rapidly growing
border of a submerged body or a flow tube to produce a pocket or cavity bubbles termed as thermo-cavitation bubbles [14]. Optical fibers coated
connected to the boundary is referred to as “fixed cavitation” and oc with metallic nanoparticles are commonly utilized to boost the optic
casionally arises after conception. The fixed or connected cavity is quasi- cavitation effect [12].
steadily stable. The cavities in vortex cavitation are discovered at cen In optic cavitation, photons are used to break the liquid. There is no
ters of tornados which occur in high shear regions (Fig. 1A). The cavities reason why additional subatomic particles, such as protons and neu
might seem fixed or traveling cavities. When a liquid constituent is trons, might not dissolve in liquid. This type of cavitation is generally
subjected to vibratory cavitation, the velocity is so low that there are known as particle cavitation. In this type of cavitation, a charged par
numerous cavitation cycles rather than just one. When the liquid is ticle is driven through a liquid, leaving an ionization path for a short
through a cavitation reactor, it results in pressure and velocity fluctua time. A portion of the energy emitted by such ions is transformed into a
tions. A typical hydrodynamic cavitation can be achieved using high- few fast electrons, which can quickly release up to 1000 eV of energy,
pressure pumps, turbines, and propellers [5]. resulting in significant local heating. If the liquid is superheated because
of expansion, boiling will occur, resulting in the development of a line of
1.1.2. Acoustic cavitation smaller bubbles. In another way, a threshold state is required for this
Sound waves, primarily ultrasound in the range of 16 KHz-1000 sort of cavitation to occur. Bubble kinetics and the concurrent processes
MHz, are employed to generate cavitation phenomenon. When sonic for a single cavity and its explosion, alongside the interactions amongst
waves flow through a medium, cavitation bubbles fluctuate among several cavities in a precise atmosphere, are primarily studied using
compression and enlargement due to pressure differences in the me optic and particle cavitation [5].
dium, causing vapors to diffuse through and outside the bubble. This
cavitation phenomenon is only seen in liquids and liquids containing 1.2. Principle of hydrodynamic cavitation (HC)
solid components (Fig. 1B) [7]. Acoustic cavitation is characterized by
two primary physical behaviors: diffusion and dispersion through the A simple method to generate cavities is passing the liquid through a
solid cell matrix and vibratory washing of cell compounds due to severe flow constriction device such as an orifice or a venturi. As the liquid
cellular membrane disruption [8]. The collapse and disintegration of passes through these devices, velocity increases, which means the ki
cavities are responsible for cell wall disruption onto the matrix cells, netic energy rises at the cost of pressure drop. When this pressure drop
subsequently generating microjets, which cause consequences such as reaches below the liquid’s vapor pressure, it results in the formation of
surface peeling, erosion, and particle breakage [9]. cavities. These cavities grow further at the expense of pressure recovery
Acoustic cavitation involves the use of two kinds of cavities: stable and start collapsing to generate colossal energy in the surrounding
and transient. Stable cavities go through multiple sonic rounds and liquid. The cavitation pressure is usually the vapor pressure of the sys
oscillate about a specific symmetric size; transient bubbles, on the other tem. Hence, one can control the geometry and operating conditions of
hand, can only go through just a few cycles and increase fast to roughly the cavitation reactor to obtain the desired cavitation effect. The HC is a
double their initial size before abruptly breaking apart. The cavities can fluid mechanics extravaganza generated by millions of small voids or
expand by colliding with other bubbles with the diffusion of vapors in microjets, which is analogous to acoustic cavitation. These spaces
3
expand and burst in a liquid or liquid-matrix cell interface, resulting in the bulk liquid. The essential physicochemical effects of cavitational
mechanical properties such as frictional resistance and turbulent sound collapse during hydrodynamic cavitation are briefed in Fig. 3. A very
waves. This state creates significant pressures (500 MPa) and extreme high temperature and pressure exist in the interior region of cavity due
heat (727 to 9727 ◦ C), discharging a substantial amount of energy to the inherent property to collapse adiabatically. Thus, the cavities
(about 1018 kW/m3) over a short time [6]. The concentration of hy could be considered high-temperature and pressure micro-reactors.
draulic power and the turbulence’s severe trembling causes cell Thus, free radicals are generated due to the breakage of constituents’
enlargement or collapse. The intense inter-particle collision and turbu bonds inside the cavity. The cavitation bubble’s radial motion concen
lence in the cell-matrix initially allow for accelerated mass transfer rates, trates energy and essentially generates the physical and chemical pro
so after draining out and swiftly releasing the cell metabolites (plant cesses that cavitation causes. The system’s pressure fluctuation profile is
bioactives, enzymes, proteins, etc.) in the liquid [15]. The mechanism of the primary source of the radial motion. In contrast to oscillatory
microbial cell destruction is represented in Fig. 2. behavior in non-turbulent situations, bubble behavior in turbulent
Theoretically, HC efficacy may be calculated using cavitation num conditions is transient and resembles the behavior of a cavity during
ber (σ) [6], a derivative of Bernoulli’s equation. It represents the pres acoustic cavitation [17]. Recovery pressure, the amount of permanent
sure drop necessary to achieve vaporization. The specific kinetic pressure head loss in the flow (which is manifested by the generation of
energy at starting phase (σi) of cavitation is greater than that of the non- turbulent pressure fluctuations in the flow), and cavitation number are
cavitating phase. The following equation (1) may be employed to the three main design variables that control the transient bubble dy
compute the cavitation number. namics in hydrodynamic cavitation that produces the sonochemical ef
fect of generation of highly reactive radicals [17]. When the bubble
PRef − PV
σ= (1) transiently collapses, the trapped water molecules become exposed to
0.5 × σ V 2
the high temperatures and pressures that are generated. This causes
where Pref (N/m2): Reference pressure (atmospheric pressure) before the thermal dissociation, which then produces radicals (such as hydrogen
cavitation device (venturi or orifice), Pv (N/m2): Liquid vapor pressure, and hydroxyl radicals).
σ (kg/m3): Liquid density, and V2 (m/s): starting flow rate of liquid at Water vapor movement in the bubble occurs in two stages: diffusion
cavitation device, depends on Pref. to the bubble wall and condensation at the bubble wall [18]. As bubble
The cavitation number should be below 1 for better results but not expands, at the bubble interface, liquid evaporates while vapor mole
too low to cause supercavitation, which could lead to the locking of cules diffuse inward towards the bubble’s center. Vapor transport in the
vapors and no collapse of cavities. Cavitation originates from emerging bubble is a diffusion-limited process, and the relative contribution of the
cavitation numbers, above which the conditions are non-cavitating. diffusion mechanism to vapor entrapment is greater than the contribu
Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) is achieved by passing a liquid tion of the condensation mechanism. At adiabatic collapse, the bubble’s
through a small venturi or orifice device, which intensifies the kinetic temperature and pressure reach their maximum levels, and the vapor
energy. The cavitation effectiveness may be managed by adequately and gas molecules inside go through thermal dissociation, creating a
managing process factors like pressure and flow rate, as well as adjusting number of chemical species, some of which are radical species that cause
and employing modified orifice diameter or venturi size. Fig. 1A. depicts the sonochemical effect [5].
the hydrodynamic cavitation assembly and mechanism. The cavitation Moreover, many physical effects are induced during the cavitational
reactor comprises various components, including a (venturi or orifice), a collapse, such as increasing the rate of heat and mass transfer, genera
sample storage tank, and a sample collecting outlet [16]. Tailored con tion of shock waves, interfacial turbulence, and liquid microjet forma
struction reduces surface damage, delays scaling caused by shock waves, tion. The cavitational collapse impacts physicochemical changes
and ensures correct and consistent thermal transfer through the depending on the systems in which it happens. In a homogeneous liquid
equipment. and a heterogeneous system, respectively, symmetric collapse (chemical
effect) and asymmetric collapse (physical effect) take place [19]. For a
2. Physicochemical effects of cavitational collapse during heterogeneous system, the collapse of a cavity will lead to forming
hydrodynamic cavitation micro-jets near the interface because of the asymmetric rush of liquid.
These micro-jets are of high velocity, which causes disturbance in the
To understand the physicochemical changes that occur during the boundary layer of the solid–liquid system and leads to the breakdown of
cavitational collapse, the effect is studied in three parts, i.e., the interior the liquid film, which earlier led to the mass transfer resistance. Frag
region of cavity, the interfacial region between cavity and liquid, and ments of solid particles may be formed if the energy of the micro-jets is
high enough. For a liquid–liquid system, liquid microjets break down the
droplets [19].
3. Merits, demerits, and limitations of cavitation in food

processing
Strangely, because of the difficulty in replacing thermal processes,

other methods of food preparation have emerged, including microwave
(MW), ultrasonic (US), hydrodynamic cavitation (HC), high-pressure
processing (HPP), pulsed electric field (PEF), pulsed light (PL), and
plasma therapy (PT). Each of the aforementioned technologies offers an
alternative to traditional thermal processing and non-green processes,
according to a comparative evaluation by Kamal et al. [20]. Because of
its effective mixing capabilities operation, lower temperature applica
tion, simple operation (which eliminates several process stages), and
selective extraction, HC is now one of the most researched sectors. The
US, PEF, PL, HPP, and other technologies share some of the above
mentioned benefits. However, because of the potential for large-scale
Fig. 2. The mechanism of microbial cell destruction due to hydrodynamic execution in the future, HC continues to draw more researchers’ atten
cavitation and release of enzymes, cell organelles, and bioactives. tion [20].
4
Fig. 3. Physicochemical effects of cavitational collapse during hydrodynamic cavitation.
Compared to other technologies, HC has several benefits and process goal of high-pressure-driven spore destruction. High pressure will likely
restrictions. For instance, HC may be used in a continuous cycle on a impact the outer spore membrane, although it is not required for spore
commercial basis and is simple to scale up [21]. Continuous processes germination. On the other hand, the inner spore membrane functions as
immediately save costs by speeding up the process and using fewer the cell wall of the growing spore and guarantees spore core desiccation.
solvents. However, HC reactors need regular and ongoing maintenance, As a result, a pressure-induced phase change or fluidity shift can modify
which means hot spots and shock waves arise when cavitation bubbles the porousness characteristics of the inner cell wall, resulting in Ca2 +
rupture because they compress energetic liquid into minor areas [22]. In DPA (dipicolinic acid) release during the pressure treatment. As a result,
other terms, the equipment might deteriorate due to hot areas and following core hydration is accompanied by increased motion of core
ongoing shock waves. In addition, HC has a lower intensity of cavitation proteins and decreased temperature resistance of the spore [24]. Ac
collapse than the US. Moreover, because of the excellent blending, there cording to this information, HC is involved with food decontamination
is equal cavitation throughout the reactor and, consequently, no direc at the appropriate moment. Aside from the detrimental impact on mi
tion sensitivity. Cavitation occurs in the bulk liquid’s shear layer, crobes under-regulated parameters, HC has several additional advan
making metal abrasion concerns less severe [4]. Another HC mode is tages, such as lower energy usage, freshness, and little processed food
negative pressure cavitation (NPC), which needs to apply negative [4]. For instance, Milly et al. examined the use of HC to inactivate food
pressure to the sample via a vacuum pump. NPC is mainly used to extract spoilage microorganisms to pasteurize and sterilize liquid foods such as
phenols, flavonoids, and bioactive compounds [23]. This surges inten skimmed milk, apple, and tomato juices [25]. They found that cavitation
sive cavitation, turbulence, collisions, and mass transfer. In addition, the generated in the food system effectively inactivated microorganisms,
process is worked at ambient temperature and under the impact of a including yeast and lactic acid bacterium spores. In later years, Arya
vacuum. Therefore, it can prevent the degradation of heat-sensitive et al. researched the use of a thermal-assisted cavitation reactor to
compounds [23]. ensure the microbiological safety of foods (orange juice) containing high
levels of acid (ascorbic acid) [26]. According to their testimony, lower
4. Applications of hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) temperatures and shorter HC treatment could result in a better deacti
vation of microorganisms with better retention of bioactives.
4.1. HC for microbial inactivation, cell disruption, selective release of E. coli is a chief indicator of the safety of water and other food items.
enzyme, and detection Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus are pathogenic organisms found
in raw milk. Sun et al. found that the instantaneous temperature increase
Microbial cell disintegration is identified as one of the fundamental in the HC reactor and outlet temperature are essential factors in effec
requirements for microbial inactivation in food products. With HC, the tively inactivating pathogens [27]. The inactivation by continuous hy
cells experience physical stressors such as chock waves, bubble implo drodynamic cavitation is accomplished due to the mixture of
sions, and microjets; that lead to a cellular breakdown (Fig. 2). This mechanical, thermal, and chemical processes. During bubble collapse,
technique is used alone or in conjunction with other technological in the mechanical impact of shock waves with pressures as high as 6000
novations for food preservation. Cell walls are most certainly the prime Giga Pa, micro-jets moving at 175 m/s, and shear stress as intense as 3.5
5
kPa can induce extensive membrane rupture, resulting in the loss of processing. Compared to conventional thermal processes, the HC treat
cytoplasmic and periplasmic components from the cell [27]. The ment has been efficient in destroying/inactivating microbes with the
continuous hydrodynamic cavitation treatment temperature (70 ◦ C, requirement of lesser treatment time and temperature conditions. Thus,
15–40 s) was lesser, and a shorter processing time (1–2 s) than the HC can be utilized as an alternative to conventional thermal processes
thermal treatment (71–74 ◦ C, 15–40 s). Under ideal conditions, 5.9 for for the efficient degradation of microbes in food processing applications.
Escherichia coli (100%), 5.5 for Staphylococcus aureus (100%), and 3.0 for A minimum log reduction of 3 has been observed and reported in most of
Bacillus cereus (99.9%) log reductions were attained with a processing the applications for microbial inactivation. Cavitation was found to be
rate of about 4.2 L/min [27]. Some macro (proteins and lipids), and more effective in combination with thermal treatment and when oper
micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), stay retained after the HC ated in a continuous mode.
treatment (70 ◦ C/2 s). It has also been discovered that HC processing
security is equivalent to thermal processing for inactivation. However, 4.1.1. Hydrodynamic cavitation for the selective release of enzymes
the authors noted that while HC appears to be effective in keeping such The enzymes are considered one of the most important biocatalysts
characteristics in milk, more research into the process’s influence on the owing to their high catalytic activity, high specificity, reaction under
shelf-life of the product in terms of lipid oxidation reactions is required milder environmental conditions, high product yield, and less contam
[27]. The authors identified this study based on the detrimental impact ination in the final product [33,34]. Considering all these benefits, en
of high pressure, shear forces, and temperature during bubble implosion zymes are used for numerous applications in various industries, such as
on milk fat globules [28]. food, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, wastewater treatment, leather,
In reconstituted skim milk concentrate (SMC) (34–36 percent total and detergent [35–38]. The enzymes are widely produced using
solids), the microbial inactivation of the HC was tested [29]. Throughout fermentation processes. However, these biocatalysts are located at the
the studies, the input pressure has been maintained constant (104000 intracellular locations of microbes such as membrane-bound, periplasm,
Pa), whereas the outflow pressure increases as the pressure ratio grows. or cytoplasm. The targeted recovery of enzymes is easier and more ad
Within the experimental domain, the pressure ratio ranged from 1.21 to vantageous if located at the outer cell wall or periplasm location. This is
0.491. After cavitation, the survival of B. Coagulans was not substantially due to the less contamination of unwanted materials, like other proteins,
different from the inoculation sample (4.4 and 4.8 log CFU/mL) for all cell components, and nucleic acids, than in cytoplasmic locations. If the
treatments. After 48, 76, and 106 s, the final counts of the survivors after product location is in the cytoplasm, a complete cell disruption is
cavitation with HTST (high temperature short time) were 1.9, 1.3, and required resulting in the release of other contaminating materials
1.1, respectively [29]. The cavitation-thermal treatment (75 ◦ C) resulted mentioned above along with cell debris [39,40].
in a 3.65 log reduction, whereas HTST alone resulted in a 3.06 log The presence of these unwanted materials adds an extra cost to the
reduction [29]. purification of the targeted enzymes. Therefore, tremendous efforts
Among the acoustic and hydrodynamic cavitation methods, venturi- were made to genetically modify the microbes for the extracellular
based HC processing reduced total bacteria the most (approximately 1.2 production of targeted products. But genetic manipulation is limited and
log) at a pressure of 10 bar from a peanut milk sample [30]. The com cannot be done with every microbe, and hence some products are pro
bined effect of HC and heat treatment on Bacillus coagulans reduction in duced at the intracellular location only. Thus, the cell disruption process
SMC (skim milk concentrate) is expected to be synergetic at 75 ◦ C. becomes unavoidable [41]. Hence an efficient large-scale disruption of
Though this explanation should be used with caution since the decrease microbial cells plays a vital role in the selective release of intracellular
of B. Coagulans is influenced by beginning counts of milk powder used to enzymes without hampering enzymatic activity. Over the last few de
make the SMC, the resulting log reduction may not accurately reflect the cades, various methods have been used to develop efficient cell
method’s lethality. Cavitation followed by thermal treatment resulted in disruption technology, including cavitation technology.
a 3.5 log reduction, whereas about 2.77 log reduction was attained when The first application of cell rupture using hydrodynamic cavitation
thermal treatment alone. Individual cavitation, on the other hand, did (HC) technology was reported by Harrison and Pandit in 1992. This was
not result in any substantial reduction. This technique can be used in the first study on the successful application of HC for cell disruption.
various processing conditions (50–300L/h, 600–3600RPM, 70–85 ◦ C, Followed by this, a considerable effort has been further made by both
and 10–110 s residence time). The microbiological burden of sugarcane the authors in their respective research groups with more designs and
juice was significantly reduced by orifice-based HC treatment, which is improvements to enhance the effectiveness of cavitation reactors for
equivalent to other non-thermal high-pressure treatments. The designed intensified cell disruption operations. Different geometries of venturi
system operates at a lower pressure than conventional higher-pressure and orifice plates were designed and used to generate cavitation of
systems. Although the color of HC-processed juice changes, this might different intensities. An orifice plate gives far greater versatility than a
not be satisfactory to specific customers [31]. venturi due to its geometrical design and operational requirements.
Pathogen detection methods for food are frequently insufficient as it Thus, a specific orifice plate can be selected based on the cavitational
is difficult to entirely separate germs from food matrices. Nze et al. intensity and application required for the release of specific enzymes,
demonstrated a method for separating and detecting E. coli cells and operating conditions, and the geometry of the cavitation device.
C. parvum oocysts buried in crushed beef [32]. This was performed by The degree of enzyme release is determined by cavitation power,
enzymatic hydrolysis, HC to destroy microorganisms from the flesh, which Balasundaram and Pandit investigated using a term known as the
immunomagnetic isolation to clean meat, and passive electrochemical location factor [41]. The location factor is the ratio of the targeted en
identification of specific pathogens. This method of pathogen isolation zymes’ release rate to the total protein release rate as a marker of
via HC is compared to an industry-standard separation approach. Hy cytoplasmic content. Many of these cell disruption processes follow first-
drodynamic cavitation improves the detection abilities of a sensory order kinetics, and the release rate constant for specific enzyme release
system, which is similar or superior to standard sampling procedures. (kI) and total protein (kT) are as follows (equations (2) and (3) [41].
Due to the intricacy of a beef food matrix, this technology might be used ( )
RMax
to identify infections in other complex food matrices. An integrative and ln D - 1 = = kI(t) or kT(t) = ln D - 1 (2)
RMax - RTot
completely automized system for the identification and sensitive quan
tification of various pathogens in food and drinking water samples is
where, RTot is the enzymes and total protein released in time ‘t’ second;
being developed.
Rmax is the maximum release of total proteins and enzymes. The values
Considering all the aspects and applications discussed above, hy
of release rate constants, kT or kI are obtained by plotting the values of
drodynamic cavitation is considered an effective and promising alter
ln D-1 against the time required for disruption of cells (t). Therefore, if
native technology for the inactivation of microbes during food
6
the ratio of the targeted enzyme and total protein release rate constant is release at the optimum cavitation number of 0.17. The higher release of
taken, it gives the location factor. acid phosphatase compared to total proteins confirmed its periplasmic
location. This study concludes the lesser requirement of downstream
Location Factor = Ki /Kt (3)
operations to purify the enzymes due to their selective release using
hydrodynamic cavitation.
where, Ki = Release rate constant for enzyme; Kt = Release rate constant
Balasundaram and Harrison, in their subsequent work, studied the
for total protein.
outcome of different processing factors like initial cell content, cavita
The release rate of enzymes located at the periplasmic location
tion number, and the number of passes required for the selective release
would be higher than the release rate of proteins. Thus, the ratio of
of invertase (cell wall bound), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
enzyme to total protein release rate constant is equal to or greater than
(G6PDH; cytoplasmic), β-galactosidase and alcohol dehydrogenase
one. On the other hand, if an enzyme is present in the cytoplasm, the
(ADH; cytoplasmic) by disrupting yeast cells [44]. The results indicated
specific enzyme release rate could be less than the release rate of total
a cavitation number of 0.13 for the optimum release of enzymes.
proteins. This gives the release rate constant of enzymes to proteins less
Amongst all enzymes studied, the specific release rate of cell-bound
than or equal to one [42].
enzyme, invertase, was found to be highest up to 86% compared to
It has been reported that if targeted enzymes are located at the outer
other enzymes at cytoplasmic and periplasmic locations.
layer of the cell wall and periplasmic location, cell walls can be dis
rupted at much lower cavitational intensity, and enzymes can be
4.1.2. Enzyme translocation using different pretreatment strategies
recovered more quickly. On the other hand, if enzymes are located at the
It has been studied that, before the process of cell disruption, the cell
cytoplasmic location, a higher cavitational intensity is required for its
suspension can be pre-treated using various pre-treatments such as
release. Therefore, it is imperative to achieve cavitation intensity spe
heating, changing the pH of suspension, solvent pre-treatment, reducing
cifically for the release of targeted enzymes, and it can be achieved using
agents, hypoosmotic conditions, etc. These pre-treatment processes have
a cavitation setup with an orifice plate. The orifice plates provide more
shown a positive impact on the movement of enzymes from cytoplasmic
significant benefits over a single-hole venturi. This is attributed to the
to periplasmic location, and the concept is known as enzyme trans
fact that the multiple holes, and different holes diameter of the orifice,
location. Thus, by translocating the enzymes, the process of cell
provides different flow area to the liquid [41]. This arrangement bene
disruption can be made much more energy efficient as the energy
fits generating different cavitational events and intensities. Therefore, a
required to recover enzymes from the periplasmic location would be less
hydrodynamic cavitation reactor consisting of orifice plates provides
than the energy required for complete cell disruption. Along with this, it
greater flexibility in the operating and geometrical conditions.
is much easier to purify the enzymes further as there would be lesser
The selective release of the invertase by the breakage of S. cerevisiae
contamination of other products that may be observed after complete
cells by hydrodynamic cavitation, HPH, and sonication were studied and
cell disruption hence the requirement of fewer downstream processes
compared by Balasundaram and Pandit [41]. The invertase enzyme is
hence higher purification. Some of the pre-treatment strategies followed
found to have tremendous applications in the food industry. This
by cavitation technology are discussed in the next section.
enzyme is located at the periplasmic location of S. cerevisiae cells. The
Balasundaram and Pandit have studied and compared the cell
cell disruption was carried out using an orifice plate device with 33 holes
disruption processes using a sonicator, high-pressure homogenizer, and
(1 mm diameter). Results indicated that the rate of invertase release was
HC for the selective release of Penicillin acylase and alcohol dehydro
higher than that of total proteins, which is attributed to the periplasmic
genase and invertase from yeasts from E. coli cells, respectively [45]. The
location of the invertase enzyme. Also, invertase can be selectively
quantification of enzyme release was calculated using the location factor
released at the beginning steps of cell disruption and before complete
concept. The location factor was found to be higher than 1 for the se
cell disruption, eventually releasing all proteins. The same study was
lective release of penicillin acylase and invertase using all processes.
conducted with acoustic cavitation, and the release rate of invertase was
This confirms the location of these enzymes at the periplasmic location
comparable with that of proteins. This is due to the generation of higher
of E. coli and yeast, respectively. A higher location factor was achieved
cavitational intensity by sonication compared to hydrodynamic cavita
when cells were disrupted using hydrodynamic cavitation compared to
tion. Therefore, the mild, intense cavities generated by hydrodynamic
the other two processes. In the case of ADH, the location factor was on
cavitation break only the cell wall and not the complete cells. It has been
the lower side (0.5), confirming ADH’s location at the cytoplasmic
found that HC brings about 44 times higher release yield of enzyme than
location [46]. As the pre-treatment strategy, the cell suspension was pre-
that of ultrasonication based on the total energy consumption of both
treated by gentle heating. This pretreatment has resulted in the trans
systems.
location of ADH enzyme. Also, from the fermentation time, it has been
The cavitation phenomenon is known to generate high pressure and
observed that longer fermentation time has resulted in the occurrence of
temperature conditions and the formation of free radicals, the activity of
penicillin acylase at the periplasmic location. On the other hand, peni
invertase and glucosidase was unaltered, which was reported by Save
cillin acylase was found at the cytoplasmic location for the shorter
et al. [43]. However, continued exposure to the severe conditions of
fermentation time.
cavitation has resulted in a decrease in enzyme activity. Therefore, it is
Recently, Mevada et al. have reported the selective release of en
essential to maintain the cavitational intensity by adjusting the system’s
zymes using various pre-treatment strategies for yeast cell suspension
geometrical and operating parameters. Depending on the location of
before cell disruption [47]. The pre-treatment of cells using reducing
enzymes, cavitation devices can be used. For example, complete cell
agents and hypoosmotic acidic stress conditions has been studied. Re
disruption leads to the release of intracellular enzymes using some
sults indicated that the maximum recovery of invertase enzyme was
cavitation devices in some cases, and it could be shear driven or with
55.78 U/mL with the selectivity of 495 U/mg at optimized pre-treatment
shock waves which can only break the cell wall, thus releasing the en
conditions such as hypoosmotic acidic stress at pH 3.6 (0.05 M and 12 h)
zymes of the periplasmic location.
and 2 mM Dithiothreitol (2 h) as a reducing agent and cell disruption
In the study investigated by Balasundaram and Harrison, the E. coli
using hydrodynamic conditions. The pre-treatment of yeast cells before
cells were partially disrupted for the selective release of specific proteins
cell disruption has resulted in increased selectivity by 4.79 times with
using hydrodynamic cavitation technology [44]. Different processing
power efficacy of up to 63 times related to conventional cell disruption
parameters, such as the specific growth rate of E. coli, number of passes,
using high-pressure homogenization.
and cavitation number for the release of both cytoplasmic and peri
The same authors have carried out another study on the pre-
plasmic proteins, have been evaluated. It has been observed that 48%
treatment of yeast cells using hypoosmotic alkaline conditions for the
total soluble proteins, 67% β-galactosidase and 88% acid phosphatase
selective, energy-saving, and scalable recovery of alcohol
7
dehydrogenase (ADH) from the cytoplasmic location [48]. The yeast discovered just 5.6% PPO inactivation, even though the authors
cells, when pre-treated at an alkaline condition at pH 8 for 6 h and cell observed a maximum of 13% PPO inactivation at 15 psi for 30 min [52].
disruption using hydrodynamic cavitation at 6 bar pressure for 5 passes, PPO deactivation by HC might be attributed to structural changes in
the selectivity of ADH (34.81 U/mg) increased up to 21 times as enzymes caused by cleavage of the protein backbone and unfolding
compared to cell disruption without pretreatment conditions. Also, the processes caused by more significant shear stresses.
specific yield of ADH has increased by 58 times after pre-treatment and Furthermore, Bhukya et al. investigated the effect of ascorbic acid
cell disruption using hydrodynamic cavitation compared with only hy supplementation in fresh sugarcane juice during HC treatment [53]. The
drodynamic cavitation. This is attributed to the fact that alkaline pre- ascorbic acid supplementation to fresh juice reduced PPO by 6% and
treatment leads to the translocation of ADH from the cytoplasmic POD by 2.5%. This reduction may be due to the ascorbic acid, a powerful
location to periplasmic location. This has resulted in an increased se antioxidant, that might prevent polyphenols oxidation, therefore influ
lective release of enzymes. encing enzymatic activity. Authors also observed considerably lower
In yet another study, Mevada et al. investigated a scalable method for PPO and POD activities when the combination of temperature levels and
the selective release of ADH from the cytoplasmic location of yeasts HC treatment period was increased [22]. After a 40-minute HC treat
[49]. A pre-treatment approach in which changing the pH of cell sus ment at 4 ◦ C, about 85% and 75% of PPO and POD inactivation,
pension was used for the translocation of ADH from cytoplasmic position respectively, in the ascorbic acid-enriched samples were dramatically
to periplasmic location. This pretreatment was followed by cell disrup decreased. The temperature of the precooled juice (30 ◦ C) rapidly
tion using hydrodynamic cavitation using an orifice plate device (0.2 climbed throughout HC treatment, reaching up to 38 ◦ C. A rise in juice
mm diameter). The pre-treatment of yeast cells at pH 8 (12 h) followed temperature above the optimal range for enzyme activity might have
by disruption at the pressure of 6 bar with 5 times recirculation has inhibited PPO and POD activity. Similarly, increased enzyme inactiva
resulted in the selective release of ADH 8.22 times and a specific yield of tion at reduced treatment temperatures might be ascribed to enzyme loss
almost 12 times when compared to cell disruption with only cavitation, at low temperatures. The HC processing time might be attributable to
respectively. increased vibration over a prolonged treatment period. The HC-
Thus, hydrodynamic cavitation can be used as an alternative tech generated free radicals may oxidize the amino acids of several en
nology for the efficient disruption of microbial cells. The HC treatment is zymes. As a result, enzyme inactivation due to HC could be caused by a
found to be highly energy efficient when compared with other cavitation range of biochemical and physical processes generated by cavitation,
processes, such as acoustic cavitation. The scale-up of HC reactors is with free radicals created during bubble collapse [53].
quite easier as fluid dynamics at the downstream of cavitating devices In the instance of milk processing, Pegu et al. evaluated HC pro
are thoroughly studied and readily available. The only energy needed is cessing with a 21% greater cavitational yield than acoustic cavitation
to operate the pumps, which can be increased easily for large-scale ap (AC) [54]. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity initially surges about 1 to
plications. Compared to venturi, the orifice place cavitating devices are 2% in HC treatment at 4 psi (HC) and 200 W (AC), then declines when
found to be more efficient as it provides greater flexibility in controlling duration and intensity are increased. The sample treated with HC at 10
the required cavitation intensity for specific applications. Hence, by psi pressure for a duration of 10 min saw the maximum reduction (21%;
controlling the cavitation intensity using an orifice device, the energy 1.17 mol/mL), whereas AC treated (400 W, 8 min) sample had only a
required for a specific application can be minimized. In general, hy decrease of 14% (1.27 mol/mL). With more cycle passes available for
drodynamic cavitation is a promising and well-established technology the samples in the HC treatment due to the longer exposure time, more
that can be used in laboratory and pilot-scale operations. With the help cavitation may have occurred with each cycle, deactivating the ALP
of a scale-up approach, this can be used for industrial-scale cell enzyme, and reducing its activity.
disruption operations. Hence the HC technology can be exceptionally used for the inacti
vation of enzymes from fruit juices and milk. It was also reported that
4.2. HC for food enzymes inactivation milder cavitation could slightly enhance the enzyme activity, and with a
further increase in the cavitation intensity and treatment time, the
The physical characteristics of juices are influenced by enzymes like enzyme activity reduces further. The orifice device has been shown to be
polyphenol oxidase (PPO), peroxidase (POD), and pectin methyl more effective in enzyme deactivation. The HC technology can be
esterase (PME). Off-flavor, unwanted browning, and phase separation combined with thermal treatment for the synergistic effect of both
are prominent causes of quality deterioration in fruit juices caused by processes in enzyme deactivation.
these enzymes, which substantially impact sensory quality. Hydrody
namic cavitation (HC) processing for fruit juices is a novel, emerging, 4.3. HC for retention of nutrients
and underexplored technique. Only a few reports are available
describing the potential of HC in the inactivation of spoilage enzymes in Retaining the natural nutritional content is essential when it comes
foods which are summarized in Table 1. to any food preservation technology (thermal, nonthermal, and chemi
Katariya et al. explored the influence of single hole orifice plate HC cal). Traditional thermal processing probably gives food safety from
device (5 bar 15 min) on inhibiting the PME and POD enzymes in the microbial and enzymatic spoilage, but it fails to retain the nutritional
orange juice [50]. They observed about 21% and 13% reductions in PME quality of foods. Recently, hydrodynamic cavitation has emerged as a
and POD, respectively, while maintaining natural bioactive compounds technology that provides safety from food spoilage while improving
with excellent sensory properties due to the creation of cavities and food’s nutritional and functional quality. Several researchers investi
shock waves. Later, Arya et al. demonstrated synergistic inhibition of gated the effect of HC on bioactive and nutrient retention in juices while
PME in orange juice when HC was supplemented with moderate thermal deactivating the enzymes and microbes (Table 1). According to Helaris
treatment (40 to 70 ◦ C) [26]. When HC processing was performed for 8 et al., the application of HC technology enhances the tomato juice’s
min at 70 ◦ C, the highest PME decrease of 70% was obtained. In the case physical characteristics without changing the amount of overall
of orange fruit juices, around 35% of RA was evaluated, and Carbonell phenolic compounds (40 to 44 mg/100 ml) and lycopene (38 to 42 mg/
et al. determined that approximately 75% of inactivation owing to HPH kg) [55]. Like these findings, a different study found that during HC
was acceptable and sufficient to preserve cloudiness [51]. PME inacti processing, tomato juice retained 96.6% of total phenolic compounds
vation increased with increasing temperature and HC treatment time. and 93% of ascorbic acid [56]. The hydrodynamic cavitation technology
Because PME is a heat stable enzyme, thermal assisted cavitation can was also used by Chen and Martynenko to prepare cranberry purée [57].
effectively inactivate PME in orange juice. Unlike orange juice, at In that study, there was no discernible change between the pro-
optimal 12.5 psi pressure for 10 min of processing, Annapoorna et al. anthocyanidin content of samples that were left untreated (1.20 mg/g)
8
Table 1
Recent examples of application of hydrodynamic cavitation for different food processing operations.
Food/matrix Type of HC device and operation parameters Major findings References
1. HC for microbial inactivation/sterilization/ cell disruption

Calcium-fortified apple juice, Concentric cylinders with a 2.91 L volume annular space ˃ 5 log (apple juice), 0.88 and 3.10 log (tomato juice),0.69 [25]
tomato juice, Skim milk separating the stationary outer cylinder from the inner, rotating and 2.84 log (skim milk) reduction
cylinder.
Operating parameter: 3000 and 3600 rpm rotor speeds
Orange juice HC system with cavitation device (orifice plate, 24 holes with 2.09 log reduction of TPC at 60 ◦ C for 8 min and 3.92 log [26]
0.45 mm of diameter) reduction at 70 ◦ C for 6 min
Operating parameter: flow rate: 4 m3/h, fluid velocity through
the orifice plate: 30 m/s and cavitation number: 0.191,
pressure: 4 bar, temperature: 40–70 ℃ for 2–8 min.
Raw milk 32 cone-cylinder-shaped cavitation generators fixed on surface 5.9 for E. coli (100%), 5.5 for S. aureus (100%), and 3.0 for [27]
of the rotor, front cover, and rear cover. B. cereus (99.9%) log reductions were attained at production
Operating parameter: shock waves at pressure: 6000 GPa, rate of 4.2 L/min
micro-jets speed: 175 m/s, and shear stress: 3.5 kPa
Reconstituted skim milk Device consists of a stationary housing and an inner cylinder The cavitation-thermal treatment (75 ◦ C) resulted in a 3.65 [29]
concentrate (rotor) with indentations drilled from the peripheral towards log reduction
the center of the cylinder. The inner cylinder has 88 dents
equidistantly located around the circumference, and they have
cylindrical shaped dead-end bores.
Operating parameter: flowrate: 50–300L/h, motor
speed:600–3600RPM, at 70–85 ◦ C, for 10–110 s time
Peanut milk Venturi-based HC device with 5 mm throat diameter, 2 L 1.2 log reduction of total bacteria at 10 bar pressure [30]
holding tank, 0.5 Hp reciprocating pump, with a variable
frequency up to 12 bar pressure and 600 LPH flow rate
Operating parameter: 6, 8, and 10 bar for 15 min
Sugarcane juice Orifice-based HC device: The number of orifice plates (plate 1) 5.53 log10 CFU/mL to 3.3 log10 CFU/mL the highest [31]
1 orifice × φ 2 mm, (plate 2) 9 orifices × φ 1 mm, (plate 3) 17 pressure, processing time, and orifices.
orifices × φ1 mm
Operating parameter: inlet pressure: 2.5 to 3.5 bar, and
treatment times 10 to 40 min.
Ground meat. Orifice plate (diameter: 0.8 mm and 1.2 mm) connected to a HC intensifies the detection capabilities of existing microbes [32]
peristaltic pump. sensing technique
Operating parameter: inlet pressure: 8, 14, and 20 PSI for 7.5
min.
2. HC for enzyme inactivation
Orange juice Single hole orifice plate (diameter: 2 mm) HC device connected 21% and 13% reductions in PME and POD, respectively [50]
to positive displacement peristaltic pump (1.1 kW)
Operating parameter: inlet pressure: 3 to 15 bar for 5 to 25 min.
Orange juice HC system with cavitation device (orifice plate, 24 holes with 70% PME reduction at 70 ◦ C for 8 min. [26]
0.45 mm of diameter)
Operating parameter: flow rate: 4 m3/h, fluid velocity through
the orifice plate: 30 m/s and cavitation number: 0.191,
pressure: 4 bar, temperature: 40–70 ℃ for 2–8 min.
Aonla juice Venturi-type cavitation device with holding tank with 2L Maximum of 13% PPO inactivation at 15 psi for 30 min [52]
capacity volume, reciprocating 0.5 HP pump with a variable
frequency drive (max pressure: 5 psi)
Operating parameter: inlet pressure 5 to 15 psi and time: 5 to
30 min
Sugarcane juice Orifice plate (17 orifices × 1 mm) HC system (0.35 MPa) with a HC treatment reduced 84.64% PPO activity and 74.57% [53]
cooling arrangement. POD activity
Operating parameter: temperatures: 4, 17, and 30 ◦ C and time
10, 20, 30, and 40 min
Raw milk Venturi-type cavitation device with 5 mm throat diameter and highest 21% alkaline phosphatase reduction was obtained at [54]
bypass line controlling the liquid flow 10 psi pressure for 10 min
Operating parameter: inlet pressure 4, 6, 8, and 10 psi, time: 5
to 15 min
3. HC for retention of nutrients
Tomato juice HC system with cavitation device (orifice plate, 16 holes with 1 Phenolic compounds (40 to 44 mg/100 ml) and lycopene [55]
mm of diameter) (38 to 42 mg/kg) retained.
Operating parameter: cavitation generated by pressure drop
from 3 to 0.3 bar, temperature: 35–49 ◦ C, 45–59 ◦ C and
55–62 ◦ C for 15 min.
Tomato juice Venturi-type cavitation device with holding tank with 2L 96.6% of total phenolic compounds and 93% of ascorbic [56]
capacity volume, reciprocating 0.5 HP pump with a variable acid retained.No
frequency drive (max pressure: 5 psi) change in soluble sugar content of juice.
30 min
Cranberry puree Pilot-scale HTD processor with venturi cavitator. Cranberry puree contained 26.8–86.8% more anthocyanins, [57]
Operating parameter: pressure 0.141 MPa and flow velocity: 51.6–91.6% higher content 13 of PACs and 30.6–86.3%
0.45 m/s, reaching 7.5 m/s in the active area of cavitation, at higher content of total phenolics
91 ◦ C for 6 min
Aonla juice Venturi-type cavitation device with holding tank with 2L 88.01% of the vitamin C, and 96.80% of the total phenolic [52]
capacity volume, reciprocating 0.5 HP pump with a variable content were retained
frequency drive (max pressure: 5 psi)
(continued on next page)
9
Table 1 (continued )

30 min
Cow milk Venturi-type cavitation device with 5 mm throat diameter and Increased protein availability from 0.72 to 3.8% and soluble [54]
bypass line controlling the liquid flow sugars by 1%
Operating parameter: inlet pressure 4, 6, 8, and 10 psi, time: 5
to 15 min
Peanut milk Venturi-based HC device with 5 mm throat diameter, 2 L Increased protein availability from 8.8 to 15.8% and soluble [30]
holding tank, 0.5 Hp reciprocating pump, with a variable sugars from 9.1 to 14.2%
Raw milk 32 cone-cylinder-shaped cavitation generators fixed on surface Continuous HC effectively inhibit milk allergen production [27]
of the rotor, front cover, and rear cover.
Operating parameter: shock waves at pressure: 6000 GPa,
micro-jets speed: 175 m/s, and shear stress: 3.5 kPa
4. HC for physiochemical properties and quality improvement
Orange juice, tomato juice and HC system with cavitation device (orifice plate, 24 holes with pH, acidity, TSS, and color of both the juices were stable. [26,52,56]
aonla juice 0.45 mm of diameter) and venturi-type cavitation device with Sedimentation and viscosity were mildly affected in positive
holding tank with 2L capacity volume, reciprocating 0.5 HP In orange juice reduced flow behavior index and cloudiness
pump with a variable frequency drive (max pressure: 5 psi) with improved flow consistency index.
Operating parameter: pressure: 4 bar, temperature: 40–70 ℃
for 2–8 min and inlet pressure 5 to 15 psi and time: 5 to 30 min
Sugarcane juice Orifice-based HC device: The number of orifice plates (plate 1) Increased acidity, while the pH, viscosity, TSS, and lightness [31]
1 orifice × φ 2 mm, (plate 2) 9 orifices × φ 1 mm, (plate 3) 17 and greenness value of sugarcane juice decreased
orifices × φ1 mm
Operating parameter: inlet pressure: 2.5 to 3.5 bar, and
treatment times 10 to 40 min.
Peanut milk Venturi-based HC device with 5 mm throat diameter, 2 L Particle size, fat globule size was significantly reduced. [30]
holding tank, 0.5 Hp reciprocating pump, with a variable Raised consistency index while viscosity is decreased
Tomato juice HC system with cavitation device (orifice plate, 16 holes with 1 Reduced the particle size. [55]
mm of diameter) Increased apparent viscosity Sedimentation affected in
Operating parameter: cavitation generated by pressure drop reduction
from 3 to 0.3 bar, temperature: 35–49 ◦ C, 45–59 ◦ C and
55–62 ◦ C for 15 min.
Cow milk Venturi-type cavitation device with 5 mm throat diameter and Number of fat globules increased with diameter [54]
bypass line controlling the liquid flow Total particle size decreased
Operating parameter: inlet pressure 4, 6, 8, and 10 psi, time: 5 No separation in the milk during storage
to 15 min
Milk protein concentrate Rotor cavitator. Viscosity decreased by 20% and 56%.Improved solubility [61]
Operating parameter: flow rate of 100 L/h, and pressure of 2 (97.5%)
bar. Better tap and bulk densities
Milk protein concentrate powder Cavitator equipped with a proprietary dispersion head (300 Successful hydration of MPC powders [62]
mm diameter), consisting of 160 discrete fluid channels Quick solubilization of MPC, decreased apparent viscosity,
Operating parameter: flow rate: 850 L/h, at a motor frequency: and reduced sedimentation
48.8 Hz, and system back-pressure: 2.4 bar
SPI Venturi tube cavitating device with 2L holding tank Enhanced surface hydrophobicity, solubility, and [63]
Operating parameter: pressure of 0.3 MPa for 5, 10, 20, and 30 emulsifying abilities while diminishing the foam stability of
min SPI
Guar gum Cavitating devices such as orifice plate, circular venturi and slit Successful depolymerization of guar gum in aqueous [64]
venturi and valve provided on the bypass line is used to control solution.Reduced intrinsic viscosity
the liquid flow through the main line. (70%)
Operating parameter: inlet pressure: 2–6 bar for 30 to 180 min
5. HC for extraction of bioactive compounds
Cocoa bean shell A rotor/stator cavitational reactor of 25 L capacity Methylxanthines (theobromine: 160.2 mg/g and caffeine: [68]
Operating parameter: 3000 RPM rotor speed for 11 min 8.9 mg/g) and fatty acids (964 mg/g).
Orange peel Venturi-shaped cavitation reactors, including a closed Pectin (60%), Polyphenols and Terpenes (45%) [69]
hydraulic loop (total volume capacity around 230 L) and a
centrifugal pump
Operating parameter: 2900 RPM rotor speed at 20 ◦ C for 11 min
Silver Fir Venturi-shaped cavitation reactors, including a closed Flavanones and d-limonene (100%) [70]
hydraulic loop (total volume capacity around 230 L) and a
centrifugal pump
Operating parameter: 2900 RPM rotor speed at 67.5 ◦ C for 60
min
Equisetum palustre L. Closed cylindrical vessel fitted with perforated plate at bottom. Flavonoids (57 to 89%) [98]
Operating parameter: 25/1: S/S ratio, at 60 ◦ C and 0.7 bar
pressure for 20 min
Pigeon pea leaves Closed cylindrical vessel fitted with perforated plate at bottom. 5 flavonoids (vitexin, isovitexin, luteolin, apigenin and [99]
Operating parameter: 10/1: S/S ratio, N2 flowrate: 30 ml/min. isorhamnetin) were identified by LC–MS/MS
at 3 cycles for 20 time of each cycle 60 ◦ C.
Pyrola Closed cylindrical vessel fitted with perforated plate at bottom. Arbutin (2.718 mg/g), epicatechin (0.859 mg/g), hyperin [23]
Vessel connected to the homogenizer for pretreatment. (1.378 mg/g), 2′-O-galloylhyperin (5.132 mg/g) and
Operating parameter: 22.74: S/S ratio, − 0.5 bar pressure, at 2 chimaphilin (0.390 mg/g).
min homogenization for 30 min
Pyrola Closed cylindrical vessel fitted with perforated plate at bottom. Hyperin, 2′-Ogalloylhyperin, (1.339 mg/g) and Chimaphilin [100]
NPHC device connected to microwave chamber. (4.831 mg/g)
(continued on next page)
10
Table 1 (continued )
Operating parameter: 30/1 S/S ratio, − 0.5 bar pressure, at 700

W microwave power, 50 ◦ C for 12 min
Lemon peel Venturi-shaped cavitation reactors, including a closed Pectin with high antioxidant activity and has no harmful [72]
hydraulic loop (total volume capacity around 230 L) and a effects on human epithelial cells even at concentration of
centrifugal pump 1.0 mg/mL
Operating parameter: 2900 RPM rotor speed at 20 ◦ C for 11 min
Sorghum flour and apple pomace APV hydrodynamic cavitator with stator and rotor assembly. Increased bound phenolics (39.5 and 42%) and antioxidant [59]
Rotor with surface indentations that influenced the flow activity (38.6 and 97%)
trajectory inside the cavitator. Total of 44, 66 and 88
indentations placed equidistant from each other on the 200 mm
diameter rotors with 2, 3 and 4 rows of holes,
Operating parameter: 100 g/L and 87.5 g/L S/S ratio, 3 and 4
rows of rotor holes, 35 and 45 ◦ C temperature
6. HC for beverages
Beer from pale malted barley with Closed hydraulic loop with total volume capacity of 230 L, Reduction of saccharification temperature. [76,79]
smaller fractions of Cara Pils and powered by a centrifugal pump with open impeller 0.174 m in Acceleration in starch extraction efficiency, relevant energy
Cara Hell and hops, diameter with rotation speed: 2900 rpm. saving, while retaining safety, reliability, scalability,
Operating parameter: pressure: 4 atm and flow rate: 1,500 L/ virtually universal application to any brewing recipe
min Gluten reduction in wort and finished beer from 100%
barley malt
Degradation of proline residues
Beer from pale malted barley and a Wheat varieties could represent a viable support to the [77]
mix of raw unmalted grains from upscaling of brewing process
typical old wheat
Beer from pale malted barley with Enhanced retention of the considered prenylflavonoids [75]
smaller fractions of Cara Pils and (xanthohumol, desmethylxanthohumol and 6-
Cara Hell and hops, geranylnaringenin).
Increased extraction from hops, reduced adsorption to
insoluble malt proteins, and reduced isomerization
Coconut–palmyra Orifice-based HC device connected to tank of 10 L capacity Synergistic effect on phenols and Vit C and an antagonistic [80]
wine Operating parameter: 3.45 bar pressure and 15–60 min of effect on color and antioxidants
treatment (72 to 287 passes). Functional compounds, physiochemical and sensory
characteristics were stable with time during aging of sample
wines
Note: abbreviations: HC: hydrodynamic cavitation, TPC: total plate count, PME: pectin methyl esterase, POD: peroxidase, PPO: polyphenol oxidase, PAC: proan
thocyanin content, TSS: total soluble solids, MPC: milk protein concentrate, SPI: soy protein isolate, and S/S ratio: solid to solvent ratio.
and those that were treated for 5 min (1.16 mg/g) and 8 min (1.31 mg/ 42% and 97%, respectively [59]. This is good for reducing postprandial
g) at 70 ◦ C. In addition, no appreciable anthocyanin content loss was glucose in diabetic patients.
seen when blueberries were treated with HC at temperatures below
70 ◦ C. Additionally, Katariya et al. found that orange juice had increased 4.4. HC for improvement in physiochemical characteristics of foods
cloud stability and palatability along with 94% and 91% of antioxidant
capacity and ascorbic acid preservation under ideal processing condi Several researchers are investigating hydrodynamic cavitation
tions [50]. According to Annapoorna et al. optimum HC processing technology for its capacity to modification of physiochemical properties
parameters for processing aonla juice at 10 psi for 15 min, 92.19% of the such as pH, acidity, total soluble solids (TSS), viscosity, cloudiness,
antioxidant activity, 88.01% of the vitamin C, and 96.80% of the total color, etc., in liquid foods. These properties determine the shelf-life and
phenolic content were retained [52]. However, the treatment time and palatability of food products which are summarized in Table 1. In this
temperature invested in juices may impact their nutritional and bioac regard, Arya et al., Annapurna et al., and Vigneswaran et al. examined
tive composition. the effect of HC on these properties in different fruit juices [26,52,56].
Pegu et al. and Salve et al. compared the effect of HC and ultra The authors found that the pH, TSS, and titratable acidity remained
sonication of protein and sugar bioavailability in cow milk and peanut unchanged throughout HC processing in orange, aonla, and tomato
milk [30,54]. Both the reports suggested HC processing increased pro juices. Contrary to this, as the intake pressure, processing duration
tein hydrolysis (0.72 to 3.8% in cow milk and 8.8 to 15.7% in peanut increased, and the number of orifices on the plates, the acidity and
milk) and soluble sugars (10 to 11 ◦ Brix in cow milk and 9.1 to 14.2 ◦ Brix temperature of samples were increased, while the viscosity, pH, TSS, and
in peanut milk). However, unlike raw milk, HC has shown superior color values (L, a, b) of sugarcane juice decreased [31]. In contrast, in a
nutrient increment in peanut milk. Concerning the nutritional content of significant reduction in the sedimentation (70%) and viscosity (15%) in
milk, continuous hydrodynamic cavitation treatment has a similar effect tomato juice, whereas there was a slight reduction in sedimentation
as HTST treatment. Heat treatment, on the other hand, can alter raw (14%) and viscosity (11.33%) due to HC in aonla juice. A reduced flow
milk’s allergy-protective qualities. When compared to HTST, CHC behavior index and improved flow consistency index have been seen
(continuous hydrodynamic cavitation) treatment with low temperature together with sedimentation, representing the ability of HC to alter the
and short period might effectively inhibit milk allergens such as casein cloud stability of orange juice [26].
and whey protein by hydrolyzing them [58]. The results suggest that During the assessment of HC for the microbial reduction in peanut
continuous hydrodynamic cavitation is a viable alternative or supple milk, Salve et al. discovered that HC significantly alters milk’s micro
mentary milk processing technique compared to typical continuous structure by modifying the orientation of its constituent; in particular,
heating procedures. During this process, the nutritional value and flavor the fat globule size was significantly reduced, suggesting the input of a
may be preserved [27]. Lohani et al. used HC to successfully increase the well-homogenized product [30]. Similar results in the treatment of
antioxidant activity of sorghum flour and apple pomace by releasing peach juice were revealed by other scientists [60]. They attributed the
bound phenolics. The total phenolics and antioxidant activity of the reduction in particle size to the high shear rates caused by cavitation,
sorghum flour were 39%, 39%, and for apple pomace, an increase of which to some degree, improved the gelling network and intermolecular
11
interaction and forces. Additionally, the produced cavitation phenom [66]. Compared to conventional solvent extraction techniques, hydro
ena caused the consistency index to rise while the viscosity decreased dynamic cavitation-assisted extraction (HCAE) offers a quick and effi
[30]. In another study, Terán Hilares et al. found that the processing of cient extraction process. Furthermore, this method is better suited for
tomato juice reduced the particle size [55]; however, in contrast to extracting temperature-sensitive bioactive due to its applicability at
Salve’s work, they also found that the apparent viscosity of the juice lower temperatures. One of the main advantages of the HCAE approach
increased as a result of the release of cellular components as biopolymers is its scalability at the industrial level, and it has used current ad
(such as pectin and proteins), where it interacts with other constituents. vancements in cavitation processing [67]. The key benefits of the HCAE
This product’s superior homogenization and viscosity rise resulted in a are removing unsafe solvents, shorter duration, and enhanced yield with
positive impact on sedimentation velocity. The HC-treated tomato juice maximum purity. It is an efficient technique for increasing plant tissue
stayed stable for 14 days without sedimentation, compared to a sedi mixing or homogenization and hydrolysis, which improves the diffusion
mentation index of 68% in control and pre-treatment samples. In addi of intracellular chemicals into extraction solvent. The hydrodynamic
tion, Pegu et al. reported that raw milk treated with HC had protein cavitation-assisted extraction can be used in two different ways,
hydrolysis rise from 0.72 to 3.77. Additionally, as time and HC intensity including positively pressurized cavitation and negative pressure cavi
expanded, the amount and size of fat globules enlarged, and total par tation, as well as in combination with other extraction methods like HC
ticle size decreased. No separation was seen in the HC-processed milk in assistance with microwave extraction (HC + MAE), enzymatic-HC
during storage, possibly related to the fat globules’ smaller size (from assisted extraction (EHCAE) [66].
6.3 m to 2.2 m) [54]. Regarding the rotor speed used for spray drying, Li To date, very few studies have been carried out which have
et al. showed that the HC processing on milk protein concentrate suc demonstrated the viability of the HCAE system for the extraction of food
cessfully lowered the viscosity up to 20 to 56% [61]. An average 97.5% bioactive compounds, either on its own or in combination with other
solubility at 50 ◦ C reconstitution temperature, greater tapped and bulk extraction techniques. Recently, Grillo et al. has used a pilot-scale (25 L)
density and enhanced physicochemical attributes of SMP were also HCAE reactor to extract different bioactives (flavanols, polyphenols,
recorded, indicating that HC had no detrimental effects on powder sol methylxanthines, cocoa butter, and fatty acids) from cocoa bean shells
ubility. The HC process, when compared to the widely utilized high- [68]. The research supported its effective extraction by demonstrating
shear powder inductors/mixers procedure, Pathania et al. found that semi-continuous techniques with pilot-scale HCAE reactors. When
the HC was very successful in attaining total hydration of 20% w/w MPC compared to the entire weight of cocoa bean shell, which is made up of
powders at 50 ◦ C [62]. Additionally, HC treatment resulted in enhanced methylxanthines (theobromine: 160.2 mg/g of extract and caffeine: 8.9
and quick solubilization of milk protein concentrate powders, decreased mg/g of extract) and fatty acids (964 mg/g of extract), the overall yield
apparent viscosity, and reduced sedimentation. by HC extraction was about 15.8% and 20.5% of lipophilic and hydro
In another investigation, soy protein isolate (SPI) dispersions of 3% philic bioactives respectively. Although there was only a minor amount
w/v were treated with hydrodynamic cavitation for 5, 10, 20, and 30 of esterification in pectin extractions, flavanones and other derivatives
min with a venturi-type cavitation device with a processing volume of of hydroxycinnamic acid and terpenes, particularly d-limonene, were
2L considerably [63] in this investigation. After treatment with HC, highly successful and achieved significant yields in a short time [69].
SPI’s particle size and viscosity were reduced. HC treatments enhanced According to the findings, roughly 60% of bioactive production was
surface hydrophobicity, solubility, and emulsifying abilities while produced in 10 min, and, interestingly, over 53% of yield was reached in
diminishing foam stability. The effect of HC on SPI was better with the first 2 min. The findings were encouraging, indicating that HCAE has
respect to acoustic cavitation under the same treatment time [63]. These a high potential. This was also demonstrated, with a good yield of fla
findings show that using HC to enhance the functional characteristics of vonoids 0.14 mg GAE/mL and polyphenols 0.55 mg CE/mL extracted
dietary proteins might be a viable option. from Silver Fir (Abies alba Mill.) needles simply using water as the
Guar gum has been utilized extensively in food, pharmaceutical, and extraction solvent and a venturi device in the HC reactor [70].
other related sectors because of its chemical composition, biomedical Pectin is the most valuable natural hydrocolloid in the food business,
applications, and lack of toxicity. Depolymerization is already done via where it is frequently utilized as a stabilizing addition and to improve
physical, chemical, thermal, and enzymatic processes to provide the textural features of foods. Pectin generated via hydrodynamic
changed viscosities. Prajapat and Gogate proposed the HC approach to cavitation in water and freeze-drying from discarded lemon peel has a
speed up the depolymerization of guar gum in an aqueous solution since high antibacterial effect against S. aureus, a Gram positive bacteria that
these procedures degrade the substance [64]. often spoils food [71]. Lemon pectin, which was initially generated on a
Depolymerization is aided by lower beginning concentrations, pre-industrial scale by hydrodynamic cavitation of discarded lemon peel
higher input pressures, the use of a split venturi as a cavitating device, in water, exhibits substantial antioxidant properties and has no harm
and the inclusion of potassium persulfate. The use of hydrodynamic ful effects on humans, even at relatively large concentrations of 1.0 mg/
cavitation alone under optimal circumstances reduced intrinsic viscosity mL [72]. These observations pave the way for the preparation of novel
by about 70%, while with an increase of potassium persulfate loading, nutritional supplements and health-care applications based on a multi-
the viscosity decreased to 96 percent [64]. According to kinetic analysis, functional copolymer imbued with new functions which can be ac
the kinetic rate constantly rose as the temperature and potassium per quired quickly from an ample by-product of the agri-food industry using
sulfate concentration increased. Compared to ultrasound-based opera a simple, cheap, robust, and effective HC extraction process applicable
tion, HC was exposed to being more energy competent and suitable at an to waste lemon peel submerged in water while adhering to all-natural
industry level [64]. product green extraction principles [72].
The bound phenolics in sorghum flour and apple pomace were
4.5. HC for extraction of bioactive effectively liberated by natural fermentation followed by hydrodynamic
cavitation, which resulted in increased total phenolic content (TPC) and
Food industries are recognized to be the most significant global antioxidant activity (AA) in both samples [59]. At 3490 rotor rpm, the
generators of waste and byproducts. Today, such leftovers are possible cavitation numbers for sorghum flour and apple pomace were found to
sources for getting molecules of interest for new applications and be 0.18 to 0.22 and 0.20 to 0.23, respectively [59]. TPC and antioxidants
product development, according to prevailing “circular economy” and of sorghum flour and apple pomace were significantly affected by solid:
“zero waste” ideas [65]. In this regard, scientists are looking for new liquid ratio, the number of rows of orifices in the rotor, and cavitation
methods and ways to improve existing ones to acquire a higher yield temperature. According to microstructural studies, HC induced
when extracting molecules from such complex systems. Today, HC is increased cell breakdown, resulting in the release of polyphenolics from
envisioned as a green extraction technology option for this healing effort the complex structure [59].
12
Cravotto et al. uses the grape and olive production chains to prenylflavonoids xanthohumol, desmethylxanthohumol, and 6-geranyl
demonstrate how cavitational reactors combine high-intensity ultra naringenin [75]. The HC process was demonstrated to be a feasible
sound and rotating hydrodynamic units to generate important nutra method of producing healthier beers by using hops’ distinctive natural
ceuticals, colorants, and food–beverage additives, which may help with compounds (α and β acids). It enables productive, more economical,
food processing and waste recovery [73]. The waste orange peels, which secure, and reliable operations and significant gluten reduction without
are projected to weigh several million tons annually globally and burden chemicals or sophisticated technological processes [75].
the orange juice industry, are rich in bioactive compounds like poly Recently, Kochadai et al. examined the outcome of HC on faster
phenols, terpenes, and pectin. Waste orange peel was treated in batches ageing of tender coconut-palmyra mixed wine at a pressure of 3.45 bar
of several kilograms in a device with a venturi-shaped cavitation reactor for a treatment time of 15–60 min [80]. HC processing exhibited a
in more than 100 L of water and no additional raw materials. synergistic impact on phenols (3.1 mg GAE/ml) and vit C (61.1 mg/100
The sustainability of extraction technologies is crucial as far as ml) and an antagonistic effect on color and antioxidants. Changes in
health, environment, economy, and industrial scalability are concerned. functional components and physiochemical characteristics of HC-
Like any other HCAE should also demonstrate their maturity level via treated sample wines over time were equivalent to commercial wine.
technological readiness levels (TRL) on a scale of 1 to 9 in order to These studies highlight the use of HC in brewing and wine ageing as a
support the development of sustainable technologies [74]. To date, the rapid processing technique, which could be a game changer in the wine
HCAE applications at the industrial scale for the extraction of bioactives and beer industry.
are not reported and have only been studied at the pilot scale [66].
Although, the Italy-based ‘green technologies development platform’ 4.7. HC for oil emulsification
are on the verge of developing cavitation reactors based on a flow mode
extraction process (HCAE). This will ease the expansion of HCAE from Cavitation’s impact on food is among the efficient methods of
pilot scale to industrial transformation with TRL of 6 to 7 [74]. intensifying chemical-technological, hydromechanical, and mass-
exchange processes and the destruction of substances. The application
4.6. HC for alcoholic beverages of cavitation technologies in oil extraction and oil refining is evident in
recent years. Power, inlet pressure in the HC system, and rotational
Beer is among the ancient alcoholic beverages enjoyed in many na speed in the high-speed homogenizer all enhance the size of the oil
tions. The primary materials used in beer production are water, malt, droplets in ultrasonic flow cells [81]. Ultrasonic baths use substantially
malt adjuncts, yeasts, and hops. Beer production includes mixing, less energy to produce stable emulsions than ultrasonic flow cells and
grinding, extraction, heating, and boiling. Cooking enables starches to HC with aperture circular and slit venturi [81]. The HC has been
gelatinize, allowing malt enzymes to hydrolyze them into fermentable discovered to be a promising approach for manufacturing high-stability
sugars. In addition to time, high temperatures and energy are required. sub-100 nm oil in water emulsions with excellent stability [82]. The
Sterilization is essential to increase shelf life and eliminate microbio mean size of oil in water emulsion droplet size decreased as input
logical contamination. Nevertheless, because of the high temperature, pressure, cavitation number, and surfactant concentration increased. An
the bioactives and flavoring compounds derived from hops flowers emulsion with an average size of 27 nm was formed after six cavitation
generated during fermentation are lost. Albanese and his research group passes at a pressure of 120 psi [82]. The resulting oil in water emulsion
applied the HC approach more recently for brewing and alcoholic exhibited outstanding physical stability for eight months [82]. The hy
beverage manufacturing, which has been shown to have high efficiency drodynamic cavitation emulsification method has much potential for
for microbial disinfection and extraction operations [75–78]. emulsion creation since it uses less energy and is easy to scale up. In
The authors indicated that malt’s enzyme activity is intensified and addition to emulsification, Stebeleva and Minakov summarized other
accelerated by regulated HC. By doing this at a low temperature, more applications of HC in oil processing, such as reduction of crude oil vis
bioactives were retained, and flavour extraction didn’t need boiling. The cosity, demulsification of oil emulsion, treatment of oil sludge, oil
most notable advantages of the brewing process are a reduction in desulfurization, etc. [83].
saccharification temperature of 35 ◦ C, an increment and boost in peak
starch extraction productivity of up to 30% with 12% less energy 4.8. Other applications
consumed, and a substantial decrease in processing times after con
ventional stages like dry milling and boiling are eliminated, saving up to 4.8.1. HC for treating food sludge.
120 min for the boiling step alone [79]. Short cleaning intervals, an The waste sludge from the food processing sector is one of the
energy efficiency of 30% or more, and general simplicity of structural environment-polluting factors. Traditionally such is treated chemically
design and operational management of brewing processes are further and enzymatically. In this regard, Şaǧban et al. mechanically dis
noticeable benefits. Controlled HC, which was proven on a micro integrated food sludge on a laboratory scale utilizing an orifice-based
brewery scale, has the potency to have significant effects and spread HC system. The effects of using NaOH, Ca(OH)2, and H2O2 in combi
quickly throughout the relevant large, expanding, and increasingly nation with HC treatment were also investigated. Disintegration degrees
specialized industry. of 32 percent to 60 percent were reached after 150 min of cavitation
While gluten levels in beers can be hazardous to celiac sufferers and [84]. The combination system of hydrogen peroxide addition with a
the general population of gluten-intolerant persons, Albanese et al. dosage of 20 mg/L and HC produced the most significant results for solid
demonstrated gluten elimination in wort and finished beer made from disintegration and organic carbon release in terms of soluble COD [84].
100% barley malt, in accordance with appropriate cavitation regimens According to the findings, HC treatment is a potential approach for the
during both mashing and fermentation [76]. The gluten content in the pretreatment of waste-activated food sludge and its demonstrated effi
beer is lower than the “gluten-free” (20 mg/L) or “extremely low gluten ciency in wastewater treatment. Dindar et al. also reported that sludge
content” (100 mg/L) thresholds. This new gluten-free approach may be disintegration could be aided by orifice-based hydrodynamic cavitation.
significant since it allows regular beer components and recipes to be The most effective sludge disintegration occurred when the cavitation
used. Subsequently, Albanese et al. proved the application to raw number was 0.2 [85].
unmalted grains, such as typical old wheat varieties, for brewing [77].
The observed findings are equivalent to those obtained using conven 4.8.2. HC in biomass pretreatment
tional approaches. According to preliminary results, HC-assisted brew HC is a new and promising technology for enhancing many processes
ing seems capable of maintaining or increasing quantities of several vital in moderate circumstances, such as low temperature and air pressure.
bioactive compounds of hope in the final beer, such as the Aside from low energy needs, increasing the material’s porosity
13
increases the carbohydrate’s enzymatic digestibility yield [86]. Con treatment time, and cost, play a significant role. To operate the HC
trolling the many factors that influence the HC process might result in a reactor, the only energy needed is to run the pump, and no additional
more effective pretreatment technique, making it more economically energy is required to the system. In 1997, Save et al. studied and
feasible in a lignocellulosic biorefinery. For the processing of lignocel compared the energy efficiencies for yeast cell disruption using three
lulosic biomass, hydrodynamic cavitation was coupled with sodium techniques: ultrasonication, HC, and mixer blender (High pressure ho
percarbonate in this study. A venturi tube in a circular flow arrangement mogenization) [43]. The calculations were made based on the same
was used to achieve HC. A pretreatment system employing ultra amount of protein being released using the same level of cell concen
sonication (US) and sodium percarbonate (SP) was compared to a tration. For this, the actual power in terms of electricity has been
combined system comprising hydrodynamic cavitation and sodium considered and the efficiencies of the motor, pump, and ultrasound horn
percarbonate. The removal of lignin to generate glucose and xylose was were neglected. Results showed HC set-up is simple to operate, cost-
used to assess the success of each pretreatment method. Both systems effective, and energy efficient; an order of magnitude compared to
removed the same amount of lignin, but the HC-SP system was more high pressure homogenizer and two orders of magnitude compared to
efficient in producing glucose and xylose than the US-SP system [87]. sonication. Also, HC set-up can be operated continuously, making it easy
The HC-SP system’s effectiveness was increased by increasing the to scale for handling large quantities of broth at the industrial level.
venturi tube throat diameter. The HC-SP technology has promise for The energy efficiency for the cell disruption process using sonication,
industrial lignocellulosic biomass pretreatment [87]. high pressure homogenization, and hydrodynamic cavitation were
estimated and compared by Balasundaram and Pandit [45]. The energy
4.8.3. Hydrodynamic cavitation of water calculation was calculated based on a specific yield of enzymes after cell
For water treatment, various treatment approaches, including both disruption. The results indicated sonication (0.0019 mg/kJ) as the least
physical and chemical treatments, are available. Because of their low energy efficient compared to the other two methods. For HC and high-
cost and ease of use, sodium hypochlorite and UV disinfection are pressure homogenization, the energy efficiencies were comparable;
frequently used. Alternative treatments that do not involve addition of however, HC shows higher selectivity compared to high pressure ho
chemicals, such as electrolyzed or electrochemical water disinfection, mogenization. Lee and Han estimated the lipid yield and the specific
may be intriguing. Because it is a mechanical treatment process, HC energy input required for disrupting microalgae cells using HC, auto
processing should be considered and researched further. This could also clave, and ultrasonication techniques [92]. The lipid yield obtained per
help reduce the disinfection-induced selection of resistant organisms specific energy consumption from hydrodynamic cavitation (25.9 to
that are frequently pathogenic, chiefly if it is proven to destroy resis 99.0%) was higher than the autoclave (16.2–66.5%) and sonication
tance genes without causing them to a viable but non-culturable state. (5.4–26.9%) methods, respectively. A similar study was carried out by
The water generated by the fish processing industry has been Waghmare et al. in which the energy required for the disruption of
contaminated by organic detritus. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) microalgae cells has been estimated for lipids extraction and compared
and chemical oxygen demand (COD) levels rise as the amount of organic with that of ultrasound [93]. From the results, it has been estimated that
matter in wastewater increases. To improve the efficiency of the HC HC (7.1 kWh/ kg) medicated cell disruption is almost 6.3 times more
technique, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) were energy efficient than sonication (45 kWh/kg) for the disruption of algae
utilized. The biodegradability index and % BOD and COD degradation cells. Besides, the HC technology can be easily scaled up at the industrial
are used to assess the treatment of this effluent. At 8 bar inlet pressure, scale for cell disruption applications. The energy efficiency of HC for the
30 ◦ C temperature, and pH 4, 15 g/L of hydrogen peroxide resulted in a pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse was calculated and compared with
69.50 percent reduction in COD in 120.0 min of treatment while ultrasound assisted pretreatment by Hilares et al. Results showed higher
simultaneously increasing the BI value to 0.93 [88]. COD reduction in energy efficiency of HC pretreatment over ultrasound-mediated pre
the ultrasonic cavitation reactor is 68.70 % without TiO2 and 71.20% treatment of the sugarcane bagasse [94].
with TiO2. At the same operating conditions, this HC and UC reactor Recently, Gholami et al. carried out a techno-economic analysis
significantly lowered CFU count [88]. study for biodiesel production using hydrodynamic cavitation and
traditional mechanical stirring [95]. From the results it was estimated
5. Techno-economic feasibility of hydrodynamic cavitation that the overall cost of product capital investment for HC was around
10% and 65%, respectively. These values were less when compared to
For any technology to sustain in the market, cost plays a pivotal role. the mechanical stirring process respectively. The HC process also
Numerous technologies or methods are available for food processing to showed a positive net present value with an internal return rate of
carry out a variety of applications. For instance, for the extraction of 25.61% and on the other side, mechanical stirring showed a negative net
bioactive, different techniques such as Soxhlet, ultrasonication, micro present value. Also, the HC process substantially reduces energy and
wave, supercritical, hydrodynamic cavitation, etc., are available [8,89]. materials consumption due to lower requirements of catalyst and
The cell disruption for enzyme release can be carried out using high- alcohol and higher reactor yield. Lastly, the HC reactor costs only 18%
pressure homogenization, ultrasonication, hydrodynamic cavitation, compared to the reactor cost for mechanical stirring, which is attributed
pulse field electricity, etc. [45]. The water treatment can be carried out to the significant decrease in the residence time of the reaction. The HC
using hydrodynamic cavitation, membrane separation, ultrasonication, technology is considered one of the promising technologies for waste
etc. [90]. However, each of these techniques has its own benefits and water treatment. It is evident that the HC process is one of the cost-
limitations. Some of these techniques are highly efficient but energy effective technologies for wastewater treatment. The hydrodynamic
intensive, while others are effective and energy efficient at the same cavitation-based techno-economic feasibility for the degradation of
time. As the energy required for a system is directly related to its cost, it methylene blue has been estimated by Mukherjee et al. The study
is imperative to select a technology that can be effective and, at the same indicated that the energy consumption for methylene blue degradation
time, energy efficient. Regarding food processing and other applications using the combined effect of HC and hydrogen peroxide was only 1.24
discussed in this review, HC is well known for its high energy efficiency kWh/m3 with an effective treatment cost of $0.12/m3 [96]. Other
compared to other processes used for the same application. research groups reported similar energy and cost estimation trends for
The cavitation yield (CY) is the ratio of the amount of conversion treating wastewater from different sources [90,97].
(degradation/disruption /extraction) per unit of energy supplied to the Overall, from all comparisons and reported studies, hydrodynamic
system, and it is used to estimate the energy efficiency of a cavitation cavitation is found to be an efficient and cost-effective technology
process [91]. To scale up the cavitation technology from lab to the in compared to other techniques to execute the above-mentioned appli
dustrial scale, several other parameters, such as energy consumption, cations. The requirements for HC-assisted applications are
14
comparatively low. Thus, hydrodynamic cavitation could be recom adjusting the physicochemical parameters of food systems, researchers
mended for many more possible food processing and other potential are strongly urged to publish a detailed description of the geometry of
applications. the cavitation device. This second component will let other researchers
replicate experimental data, conduct a fair comparison of studies, and
6. Industrial research gaps and future trends compute missing parameters. With lower energy inputs, lesser degra
dation, and improvement in nutritional and sensory qualities for liquid
HC is a novel technique for food processing, cell destruction and goods, HC stands out as an appealing option compared to the existing
sterilization. It benefits from having no detrimental effects on the methods for food processing applications in food industries.
amount of bioactives, minerals, lipids, protein, and vitamins [6,27],
however, an additional investigation must be conducted to explore its CRediT authorship contribution statement
possible changes in lipid oxidation processes and possible free radicals
and other reactive species formed in cavitation. A particular consider Shalini S. Arya: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing,
ation should be given to the dangers of nitro-derivative production and Visualization, Supervision. Pavankumar R. More: Conceptualization,
other by-products associated with the existence of usual anions in pro Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
cess streams. Furthermore, HC has enabled larger particle sizes in lipid Mayur R. Ladole: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing – original
globules and a rise in viscosity in dairy products [29]. Nevertheless, draft, Writing – review & editing. Kakoli Pegu: Investigation, Writing –
additional research into the impact of cavitated compositions on crys original draft, Writing – review & editing. Aniruddha B. Pandit:
tallization and structural formation is required. Cavitation devices Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Supervision.
(orifice plate, throttle valve, Venturi, stator-rotor) will be used to assess
the quality along with the sensory properties of dairy products. The most Declaration of Competing Interest
crucial factor is consumer approval. While utilizing cavitation, post-
processing nutrient inspection of food items is required to ensure the The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
physicochemical qualities and retention of vital nutrients and bioactive interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
[6]. The majority of studies fail this appraisal. Since water is the primary the work reported in this paper.
solvent in the food sector, the HC technique may be an option for water
decontamination. As a result, it should lower operational and product Data availability
costs, particularly in water-based food items such as alcoholic and non-
alcoholic food products. Data will be made available on request.
Furthermore, to recreate experimental results and compute neces
sary variables, investigators should provide an extensive explanation of References
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Non-thermal, energy efficient hydrodynamic cavitation for food processing,

1. Introduction cavitation, irradiation, high-hydrostatic pressure, microwave, pulsed

3. Merits, demerits, and limitations of cavitation in food

Strangely, because of the difficulty in replacing thermal processes,

Fig. 3. Physicochemical effects of cavitational collapse during hydrodynamic cavitation.

1. HC for microbial inactivation/sterilization/ cell disruption

Operating parameter: inlet pressure 5 to 15 psi and time: 5 to

Operating parameter: 30/1 S/S ratio, − 0.5 bar pressure, at 700

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