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    CH 3

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    CH 3

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    Ch.3

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    CH 3

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    of 44

    CHAPTER 3

    Metric Spaces
    Contents:
    Chapter 3 Metric Spaces
    3.1 The Definition and Some Examples.
    3.2 Open Sets and Closed Sets in Metric Spaces.
    3.3 Interior, Closure, and Boundary.
    3.4 Continuous Functions.
    3.5 Equivalence of Metric Spaces.
    3.6 New Spaces from Old.
    3.7 Complete Metric Spaces.
    Section 3.1
    The Definition and Some Examples
    Definition – Metric Space
    Theorem 3.2: Minkowski Inequality
    If 𝑝 ∈ [1, ∞] and 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, then

    𝑥+𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 + 𝑦 .

    where

    𝑥 := 𝑥 if 1 ≤ 𝑝 < ∞ and 𝑥 : = max 𝑥 .


    Examples of Metric Spaces
    1. ℝ with 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦): = 𝑥 − 𝑦 := ∑ 𝑥 −𝑦 / , 𝑝 ∈ [1, ∞).

    Note:

    p = 1 gives the Taxicab Metric on ℝ :

    𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦): = 𝑥 − 𝑦 : = 𝑥 −𝑦

    p = 2 gives the Euclidean (or usual or standard) Metric on ℝ :

    𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦): = 𝑥 − 𝑦 := 𝑥 −𝑦 .
    2. ℝ with the Max metric: 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦): = 𝑥 − 𝑦 : = max 𝑥 − 𝑦 .

    3. The discrete Metric

    We usually denote the discrete metric by 𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦).

    1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦,
    𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦) =
    0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦.
    4.

    5.

    𝜌′(𝑓, 𝑔): = sup 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) .


    ∈[ , ]
    𝑑(𝑥, 𝐴) = inf 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦).
    ∈
    Section 3.2
    Open and Closed Sets in Metric Spaces
    Definition - Open and closed balls
    Definition - Open and closed sets

    Note: 1. 𝑂 is open in 𝑋 ⇔ 𝑂 = ∪ 𝐵(𝑥 , 𝑟 ), where 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 and 𝑟 > 0, ∀𝑖 ∈ 𝐼.


    ∈
    2. 𝐵(𝑥, 0) = ∅.

    If O  X

    Note: 𝑂 is open in 𝑋 ⇔ ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑂, ∃𝑟 > 0: 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) ⊂ 𝑂 .


    Definition – Limit points

    and is denoted by A’.

    Note: 𝐴′: = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: ∀𝑈(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛} ∍ 𝑥, 𝑈 ∩ (𝐴\{𝑥}) ≠ ∅}.


    = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: ∀𝑟 > 0, 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) ∩ 𝐴\{𝑥} ≠ ∅}.
    = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: 𝑑(𝑥, 𝐴\{𝑥}) = 0}. 𝑑(𝑥, ∅): = ∞
    Sequences in Metric Spaces

    Note: 𝑥 → 𝑥 ⇔ {∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝑁 > 0: 𝑑(𝑥 , 𝑥) < 𝜀, ∀𝑛 ≥ 𝑁}

    ⇔ 𝑑 𝑥 , 𝑥 → 0 in ℝ with standard metric.

    ⇔ ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝑁 > 0: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵(𝑥, 𝜀), ∀𝑛 ≥ 𝑁.

    ⇔ ∀𝑈(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛) ∍ 𝑥, ∃𝑁 > 0: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, ∀𝑛 ≥ 𝑁.

    Proof: Exercise
    Proof: Exercise

    Corollary 3.1:

    Proof: Exercise
    Section 3.3
    Interior, Closure, and Boundary
    Definition – Interior

    Note: The interior of A is also denoted by Ao and we have:


    𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 : = int( 𝐴) ⇔ ∃𝑟 > 0: 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) ⊂ 𝐴.
    Proof: Exercise

    Definition – Closure
    Proof: See HW1

    Proof: Exercise

    Definition – Boundary
    _
    Note: 1. 𝐴: = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′.
    = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: ∀𝑟 > 0, 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) ∩ 𝐴 ≠ ∅}.
    = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: ∃ {𝑥 } ⊂ 𝐴 and 𝑥 → 𝑥}.
    =∩ {𝐹(𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑) ⊃ 𝐴}.

    2. 𝐴 : = int( 𝐴): = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐴: ∃𝑈(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛} ∍ 𝑎 and 𝑈 ⊂ 𝐴}.


    = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐴: 𝐵(𝑎, 𝑟) ⊂ 𝐴 for some 𝑟 > 0}.
    =∪ {𝑈(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛) ⊂ 𝐴}.
    _ _
    3. 𝜕𝐴: = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴 .
    = {𝑥
    _
    ∈ 𝑋: ∀𝑟 > 0, 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) ∩ 𝐴 _≠ ∅ and 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) ∩ 𝐴 ≠ ∅}
    = 𝐴 \𝐴 (Proof: 𝐴 c = 𝐴 )

    4. 𝐴′: = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: ∀𝑈(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛} ∍ 𝑥, 𝑈 ∩ (𝐴\{𝑥}) ≠ ∅}.


    = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: ∀𝑟 > 0, 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑟) ∩ 𝐴\{𝑥} ≠ ∅}.
    = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: 𝑑(𝑥, 𝐴\{𝑥}) = 0}. 𝑑(𝑥, ∅): = ∞
    = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: ∃ {𝑥 }(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡) ⊂ 𝐴 and 𝑥 → 𝑥}.
    = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: ∃ {𝑥 } ⊂ 𝐴\{𝑥} and 𝑥 → 𝑥}.
    Section 3.4
    Continuous Functions
    Definition – Continuity in metric spaces

    Note: f continuous at a ⇔ ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 > 0: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 and 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑎) < 𝛿 ⇒ 𝑑′(𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑎)) < 𝜀
    ⇔ ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 > 0: 𝑓 𝐵 (𝑎, 𝛿) ⊂ 𝐵 (𝑓(𝑎), 𝜀)
    ⇔ ∀{𝑥 } ⊂ 𝑋: 𝑥 → 𝑎, 𝑓(𝑥 ) → 𝑓(𝑎). (See Theorem 3.12 & 3.13)
    ⇔ ∀𝑉(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛) ∍ 𝑓(𝑎), ∃𝑈(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛) ∍ 𝑎: 𝑓 𝑈 ⊂ 𝑉.

    Proof:
    Proof:

    Note: If 𝑓: 𝑋, 𝑑 → 𝑌, 𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔: 𝑌, 𝑑 → 𝑍, 𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠,


    𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓: (𝑋, 𝑑 ) → (𝑍, 𝑑 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠.
    Proof: Exercise

    Definition (Uniform Continuity):


    A function between metric spaces 𝑓: (𝑋, 𝑑 ) → (𝑌, 𝑑 ) is said to be uniformly continuous if
    ∀𝜀 > 0, ∃𝛿 > 0: 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 and 𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑦) < 𝛿 ⇒ 𝑑 (𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑦)) < 𝜀.
    Section 3.5
    Equivalence of Metric Spaces
    Isometry:
    𝑓: (𝑋, 𝑑) → (𝑌, 𝑑′) bijection
    𝑑(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑑′(𝑓(𝑎), 𝑓(𝑏))

    Note: Metric Equivalence is an equivalence relation.

    Homeomorphism:
    𝑓: (𝑋, 𝑑) → (𝑌, 𝑑′) bijection
    Note: 1. Topological Equivalence is an equivalence relation. 𝑓 and 𝑓 continuous
    2. Metric Equivalence  Topological Equivalence.
    Isometry  Homeomorphism
    y

    b y  f (x)

    a
    O 1 x
    Proof: Exercise

    𝑑 and 𝑑 are called


    Equivalent Metrics

    Proof: Exercise

    called topologically equivalent metrics.


    Same collection
    𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆: In ℝ: 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦): = |𝑥 − 𝑦| and 𝑑′(𝑥, 𝑦): = | tan 𝑥 − tan 𝑦|
    of open sets
    are topologically equivalent metrics but, since d’ is bounded
    and d is not bounded, they cannot be equivalent metrics.
    𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞: The metrics 𝑑 , 𝑑 (1 < 𝑝 < ∞), and 𝑑 on ℝ are equivalent metrics (see HW1)

    d1 and d 2
    B2 ( a , r )
    B1 ( a , r )

    d1 and d 2

    B2 ( a , r )

    B2 ( a , r / 2 )

    B1 ( a , r )
    Section 3.6
    New Spaces From Old
    Definition –Subspace of a metric space

    Note: We usually denote d’ by d.


    Definition – Product metric spaces

    Proof: See textbook.


    Section 3.7
    Complete Metric Spaces
    Definition – Cauchy sequences

    Definition – Complete metric space

    Note: Let (X , d) be a metric space and {xn}  X

    1. {𝑥 } Cauchy ⇒ {𝑥 } Bounded.

    2. {𝑥 } Convergent ⇒ {𝑥 } Cauchy. (See HW1-14)

    3. 𝑥 → 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 → 𝑥, ∀ subsequence {𝑥 } of {𝑥 }.

    4. {𝑥 } Cauchy & ∃ a subsequence {𝑥 }: 𝑥 → 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 ⇒ 𝑥 → 𝑥.


    5. 𝑥 limit point of {𝑥 } ⇒ ∃ a subsequence {𝑥 }: 𝑥 → 𝑥. (See Corollary 3.1)
    Proof: Exercise. (See HW2)

    Note: A complete subset of a metric space is always closed.


    Definition – (Density & Separability)

    Note:
    is dense in therefore is separable.
    is dense in , therefore is separable.

    Proof: Exercise
    Definition – Nowhere dense subsets

    _
    int 𝐴 = ∅
    The point x is called a fixed point of f.

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