Desalination 564 (2023) 116777

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Desalination
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/desal

Expert opinions on strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of

utilizing nuclear reactor waste heat for water desalination
Belal Almomani a, *, Ammar Alkhalidi a, b, c, **, A.G. Olabi a, b, Hussam Jouhara d, e
a
Sustainable Energy & Power Systems Research Centre, RISE, University of Sharjah, 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
b
Sustainable & Renewable Energy Engineering Department, University of Sharjah, 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
c
Energy Engineering Department, German Jordanian University, Amman, 11180, Jordan
d
Heat Pipe & Thermal Management Research Group, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UB8 3PH, UK
e
Vytautas Magnus University, Studentu Str. 11, LT-53362, Akademija, Kaunas, Distr., Lithuania

H I G H L I G H T S

• Fifteen experts’ opinions have been assessed via SWOT and AHP analyses.
• 66.7 % of experts think desalination using reactor waste heat is viable.
• 46.7 % of experts acknowledge the safety and regulatory issues as the key challenge.
• Six policy measures were prioritized based on 14 SWOT factors and experts’ views.
• S and O of reactor waste heat utilization for desalination outweigh W and T.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Using waste heat generated by nuclear reactors for non-electric applications is vital for reducing environmental
Arabian Gulf region costs and thermal discharges. Waste heat is a significant portion of the reactor’s overall energy and could reach
Nuclear desalination up to two-thirds of the output power depending on the reactor design and efficiency. Despite the benefits of using
Policy
waste heat, especially for essential applications like water desalination in areas with limited freshwater re­
Voice of expert
Waste heat recovery
sources, the potential utilization is not yet applied. This study examines the strengths (S), weaknesses (W),
opportunities (O), and threats (T) of using nuclear reactor waste heat for desalination in the Arabian Gulf region
across four main areas: technical, environmental, socioeconomic, safety, and regulatory. The identified SWOT
factors are combined with the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to prioritize them based on input from relevant
experts. The resulting integrated SWOT-AHP analysis identified global factor priorities and concluded with five
consistent measures to support decision-makers in evaluating the feasibility of utilizing nuclear reactor waste
heat for seawater desalination. Overall, the study revealed that regulation and relevant safety measures present
the primary obstacle in this application, while enabling research and development was emphasized as the key
factor to address these issues and increase confidence in decision-making.

Abbreviations: AHP, Analytic Hierarchy Process; AHWR, Advanced heavy water reactor; APR, Advanced pressurized water reactor; CI, Consistency index; CR,
Consistency ratio; DEEP, Desalination Economic Evaluation Program; EDI, Electro-deionization; GCC, Gulf Cooperation Council; GT-MHR, Gas turbine modular
helium reactor; HP, High pressure; HTGR, High-temperature gas-cooled reactor; IAEA, International Atomic Energy Agency; KSA, Saudi Arabia; LP, Low pressure;
LTE, Low-temperature evaporation; MED, Multi-effect distillation; MHT, Main heat transport; MSF, Multi-stage flash; MVC, Mechanical vapor compression; NDP,
Nuclear desalination plant; NPP, Nuclear power plant; O&M, Operation and maintenance; PBMR, Pebble bed modular reactor; PCS, Primary cooling system; PHWR,
Pressurized heavy-water reactors; PIEs, Postulated initiating events; PWR, Pressurized water reactor; R&D, Research and development; RI, Random consistency
index; RO, Reverse osmosis; SCS, Secondary coolant system; SFR, Sodium-cooled fast reactor; SMART, System-integrated modular advanced reactor; SMR, Small
modular reactor; TDS, Total dissolved solid; TVC, Thermal vapor compression; UAE, United Arab Emirates; VVER, Water-water energy reactor.
* Corresponding author.
** Correspondence to: A. Alkhalidi, Sustainable Energy & Power Systems Research Centre, RISE, University of Sharjah, 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (B. Almomani), [email protected] (A. Alkhalidi), [email protected] (A.G. Olabi), hussam.jouhara@
brunel.ac.uk (H. Jouhara).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.116777
Received 27 April 2023; Received in revised form 4 June 2023; Accepted 13 June 2023
Available online 20 June 2023
0011-9164/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
B. Almomani et al. Desalination 564 (2023) 116777

1. Introduction considered a complementary, economically attractive, reliable, and

sustainable solution to meet ever-increasing water demands. However,
Nuclear power generation provides >10 % of the world’s electricity some issues related to the high capital costs associated with NPPs and
in over thirty countries [1]. Nuclear power plants (NPPs) generally have the potential safety and waste disposal associated with nuclear desali­
an overall efficiency of 33 to 35 % with around 60 % of waste heat [2–6]. nation plants (NDPs) should be considered wisely.
This excess thermal energy is mainly disposed of during the condensa­ Pilot nuclear desalination projects and demonstration plants have
tion of steam into an ultimate heat sink (i.e. seas, lakes, and air through a been built and operated in various countries with operational experience
cooling tower). This thermal energy could be used for seawater desali­ of over 200 reactor years. Fig. 2 summarizes the operational experience
nation, district heating, hydrogen production, and many other applica­ of nuclear desalination in several countries based on reference data in
tions. Thus, effectively harvesting this waste heat via state-of-the-art 2022 [7,11,13–15].
technologies for feasible applications would improve the overall energy As shown in Fig. 2, Japan has successfully demonstrated the inte­
efficiency of the NPPs as well as provide further benefits to society. gration of several nuclear facilities with water desalination production
The desalination industry is the lifeline for several arid regions on a limited long-term scale by employing both thermally- and
around the world, especially the Arabian Cooperation Council (GCC) electrically-driven desalination methods. Nonetheless, nuclear desali­
countries. The desalination capacity in GCC is around 50 % of the total nation technology is still in the research and development (R&D) stage
freshwater supply, which is the highest capacity among all regimes in and has not yet been widely implemented.
the world [7]. Desalination processes primarily use either thermal Research activities and interest has been expressed by many coun­
distillation or membrane separation. Thermal distillation includes tries such as KSA, Algeria, Argentina, Russia, South Korea, Indonesia,
commercial methods like multi-stage flash (MSF) and multi-effect India, South Africa, Iran, Iraq, Italy, Jordan, UAE, Egypt, Kuwait,
distillation (MED), with Thermal Vapor Compression distillation Morocco, and Libya in exploring the possibility of using nuclear tech­
(TVC) being a developing option promising higher efficiency. On the nology for desalination in their regions. Fig. 3 shows nuclear desalina­
other hand, reverse osmosis (RO) uses pressure-driven separation and tion projects under design and development, consideration, and
stands out as the most commonly used membrane process for desali­ planning that were declared by some countries [8,10,11,13].
nation. Fig. 1 shows the status of several desalination projects in GCC As shown in Fig. 3, Jordan intends to employ SMR technology for
countries and the corresponding desalination processes. water production, whereas other countries are exploring the cogenera­
Fig. 1 shows the most substantial desalination facilities in Saudi tion of small or large-sized reactors for electricity and water production.
Arabia (KSA) and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) that mainly rely on Furthermore, most countries are shifting towards coupling nuclear re­
thermally-driven desalination methods to achieve high water produc­ actors with thermally-driven desalination processes rather than me­
tion capacities. The prospective potential for the peaceful application of chanically or electrically-driven ones. This presents a favorable
nuclear energy is under consideration in GCC countries [7–12]. For indication for the potential application of waste heat-driven desalination
instance, UAE has established four large units of advanced power reactor systems. However, it is worth noting that the UAE has not yet indicated
1400 MW electricity (APR1400) (4000 MWt) at the Barakah site. This any intention to utilize nuclear energy for water desalination.
facility would produce up to 25 % of the country’s electricity re­ Previous studies have proposed various methods for using the low-
quirements. In addition, KSA is planning to construct over 16 large and grade waste heat generated by nuclear reactors to desalinate water.
small modular reactors (SMRs) for electricity production and desalina­ Venkatesan et al. [16] suggested design concepts that employ Torri­
tion by 2032 [8,11]. Jordan also seeks to utilize SMR technologies in celli’s vacuum, flash evaporation, and siphon effect to reduce energy
collaboration with KSA to generate electricity and produce desalinated consumption. These concepts utilize the low-temperature difference
water [8]. In this context, coupling desalination plants to NPPs may be possibly achieved from a nuclear research reactor or other sources.

Fig. 1. Major operating desalination plants in the Arabian Gulf [7–11].

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B. Almomani et al. Desalination 564 (2023) 116777

Tewari and Rao [17] demonstrated a low-temperature evaporation between 80 and 130 ◦ C [20]. Similarly, pressurized light-water reactors
(LTE) process that utilizes a portion of the low-temperature waste heat (PWR) and pressurized heavy-water reactors (PHWR) also dissipate a
from a nuclear research reactor to produce high-quality desalinated substantial portion of thermal energy as a desirable waste heat source
water. Adak et al. [18] and Raha et al. [19] each proposed a nuclear for desalination processes. However, integrating a desalination plant
desalination system that utilizes the main heat transport (MHT) purifi­ with NPP presents technical challenges due to the distinct operating
cation circuit from a 300 MWe advanced heavy water reactor (AHWR- conditions and requirements of the two systems. Optimizing the plant
300) and a research reactor, presenting coupling arrangements and requires considering various thermodynamic parameters such as power
technical specifics. Dardour et al. [20] presented thermodynamic generation, turbine efficiency, and cooling water output temperature
models and economic evaluations for different coupling schemes [14]. Site-specific conditions, including the desalination plant’s heat
involving a ~300 MWt gas turbine-modular helium-cooled reactor (GT- sink temperature and characteristics, must also be considered. Addi­
MHR) and a pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR) that coupled with MED tional factors also need to be considered such as the potential for
for water desalination. Xing Yan et al. [21] introduced an innovative radioactivity cross-contamination, the need for backup heat or power
scheme for the MSF process to effectively align the sensible waste heat sources in fuel failure conditions or during reactor maintenance, the
source of a -high temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR). These studies integration of specific design elements, and the impact of the thermal
indicate promising potential for using waste heat from nuclear reactors desalination system on the NPP. These complexities must be carefully
for water desalination as economically competitive option, but their addressed to ensure the successful integration of a desalination plant
scope is limited to research and small-scale reactors rather than large- with an NPP.
scale commercial nuclear desalination plants (NDPs). Therefore, it is Fig. 4 displays the possible technologies for desalination that can be
crucial to systematically address the key factors that delay the imple­ coupled with NPP. MSF and MED have reduced energy consumption
mentation of waste heat utilization from commercial reactors for water through energy reuse in multiple stages, with MSF accounting for 50 %
desalination. Accordingly, a systematic evaluation by applying SWOT of global desalination [22]. Thermal energy at 90–130 ◦ C is the primary
(strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis of utilizing energy source for these processes and results in high-purity water but
the waste heat from the NPP for desalination application is considered with high energy consumption and low water flux and recovery. In
necessary to guide decision-makers. Hence, this work introduces contrast, RO uses pressure-driven separation and only requires elec­
strengths (S), weaknesses (W), opportunities (O), and threats (T) elicited tricity for initial pressurization (5–7 MPa for seawater, 2–3 MPa for
by the literature review with a highlight on utilizing the waste heat from brackish water). RO has simple processing, low cost, and low energy
NPPs for seawater desalination applications considering several aspects consumption, but it is vulnerable to biofouling and requires seawater
namely: technical, environmental, socioeconomic, regulatory and pretreatment [22]. Despite the pros and cons of each process, the inlet
safety. The SWOT factors are quantified using the analytic hierarchy conditions necessary for these conventional desalination processes can
process (AHP) method based on the views from experts’ surveys to be easily met by supplying heat from the reactor outlet conditions, as
capture further key factors, insights, and technical comments from listed in Table 1.
equally relevant experts in different sectors and to identify such policy Innovative technologies like LTE plants, heat pipe technology, and
measures. optimized hybrid thermal-membrane systems aim to improve waste heat
utilization and make nuclear desalination safer and more cost-effective
2. Nuclear desalination aspects [24,25]. LTE plants use a portion of the heat rejected from the pri­
mary cycle of NPP and run at low temperatures using a MED process. A
2.1. Technical aspects heat exchanger loop is added between the NPP and desalination facility
to prevent radioactive contamination of the purified water. Flow con­
The primary cooling system (PCS) circulates demineralized water in trols adjust seawater and purified water flow in response to changes in
a closed loop with recirculation pumps to extract heat from the reactor the reactor’s power output to maintain a consistent temperature and
core. The heat is then passed to a secondary coolant system (SCS), i.e. water production. It can be single or double-effect and produces high-
the Rankine cycle-based power conversion system, through heat ex­ purity water to meet reactor requirements. The plant uses hot water
changers and finally rejected to an ultimate heat sink at the condenser. (50–70 ◦ C) as a heating medium to produce pure water from seawater
NPPs of different sizes produce significant quantities of waste heat. For [17]. The LTE has been mainly considered in utilizing the waste heat
instance, PBMR generates up to 300 MWth of waste heat at temperatures demonstrated by previous studies [17–19]. Hybrid configurations

Fig. 2. Operational experience of nuclear desalination based on reference data in 2022 [7,11,13–15].

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shown in Fig. 4 that combine thermal and membrane are also considered considering both high-grade and low-grade heat sources that balance
promising systems due to their flexibility, low construction cost, reduced energy efficiency and cost in the NDP. Therefore, further optimization
energy consumption, improved power, water quality matching, and high opportunities have yet to be proposed considering new technologies for
plant availability, ultimately improving economics and reducing envi­ efficient designs and configurations that maximize steam extractions in
ronmental impacts [22]. However, coupling a hybrid desalination plant desalination plants within a reasonable cost.
with NPP is more complex as it involves thermal and electrical coupling.
The effectiveness of coupling NPP with a desalination plant depends
on the coolant temperature, which varies by location. NPPs in cold 2.2. Environmental aspects
countries are optimized for low coolant temperatures (4–10 ◦ C), while
hot regions like the Arabian Gulf have higher coolant temperatures The environmental consequences of seawater desalination using
(28–34 ◦ C). This temperature difference affects heat rejection and nuclear energy mainly relate to marine impact during regular operation.
overall power output [26]. The condenser plays an essential role in heat The seawater intake, whether direct or indirect, has implications for
removal and significantly impacts the overall design and efficiency marine impact. Direct intake, typically used for high-capacity desali­
[27–29]. The pressure of the condenser is determined by factors such as nation plants (>20,000 m3/d), involves strong suction and water flow
humidity and the temperature of the coolant water used in the second­ that can entrap and harm marine life, potentially leading to the shut­
ary loop. In general, increasing the condenser pressure can decrease the down of the desalination plant for safety reasons [11,23]. Indirect
thermal efficiency of the NPP. Khan et al. [26] demonstrated the effect of intake, used for low feed water capacities (<20,000 m3/d), offers better
condenser pressure on the overall efficiency and thermal load for water- feed water quality through improved pretreatment using geological
water energy reactor 1200 MW electricity (VVER-1200) in tropical re­ structures [35]. However, indirect intake is not widely used due to the
gions without design modifications. It found that the overall efficiency limited availability of suitable geological structures as an additional
could be decreased by up to 4 % when the condenser pressure increases challenge in site selection for NDP construction. Nuclear desalination is
from 4 to 15 kPa. This may require larger condensers, leading to higher considered a large-scale project, so high-capacity desalination plants
construction and operation costs compared to colder countries. To with direct intake tend to be preferred. However, an environmental
address this challenge, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) impact assessment is necessary to evaluate the effects of seawater intake
has developed the DE-TOP tool, an Excel-based tool for coupling desa­ on regional marine life [36].
lination and NPP systems, as shown in Fig. 5. Another concern relates to brine discharge. The brine discharge from
DE-TOP provides an in-depth analysis of the cogeneration system’s commonly used desalination processes can lead to significant and rapid
energy and exergy and detailed reports on plant performance for various changes to the water quality (salinity and pH) and temperature, posing a
extraction options [30]. The tool has four main steps, as illustrated in threat to marine organisms both in the short and long term. The con­
Fig. 5, starting with power plant parameters, specifying the non- centration limits for brine discharge should be established as part of NDP
electrical application, defining the coupling configuration, and finally licensing requirements. Thus, new technologies for alternative water
presenting the calculation results. The choice of coupling configuration treatment must be proposed to minimize adverse marine impacts.
is crucial, as it influences not only technical and safety aspects but also Further environmental aspects such as coastal and atmospheric im­
the overall economics of the system. Several studies listed in Table 2 pacts are considered marginal issues [13]. A well-planned construction
have been conducted using DE-TOP to find the best coupling between management is usually established for constructing a nuclear plant plus
different NPP technologies and desalination plant processes from a a desalination plant, which will adequately control land use, noise
thermodynamic performance perspective. The studies listed in Table 2 emission, and visual disturbances, considering the use of existing
mainly show that the net efficiency depends highly on steam extraction infrastructure, seasonal-specific activity restrictions, and so on. Another
and condensate locations. Utilizing high-grade heat source steam from fact is that oxygen and nitrogen are the only discharged gases into the
the secondary loop can increase desalination energy efficiency, but it atmosphere because of the de-aeration process during the operation of a
leads to a more considerable loss of electricity generation in the NPP and desalination plant. Moreover, it has been widely accepted that nuclear
thus increases the energy cost for desalination. This highlights the ne­ power is among the lowest sources concerning the amount of Green­
cessity of establishing an optimal design of the thermal coupling house Gas emissions with minimal atmospheric impact. Therefore, this
is considered one of the advantages of using nuclear energy for water

Fig. 3. Declared nuclear desalination projects under design & development, consideration, and planning [8,10,11,13].

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B. Almomani et al. Desalination 564 (2023) 116777

Fig. 4. Potential desalination technologies using nuclear energy divided into three groups: thermal desalination, membrane desalination, and hybrid.

opportunities. The cost of electricity production and seawater desali­

Table 1
nation supplied nuclear energy depends on capital investment, opera­
Outlet conditions from the secondary circuit for different reactors [23].
tion and maintenance (O&M) expenses, and energy/fuel costs. The
Reactor Coolant type in the primary Secondary circuit (steam outlet) desalination cost varies based on factors such as desalination method,
type circuit
Temperature Pressure water capacity, heat source, economic conditions, and location [38–40].
(◦ C) (MPa) To address these factors, the IAEA has developed the Desalination
PWR Light water 285 6.9 Economic Evaluation Program (DEEP), the layout of which is illustrated
PHWR Heavy water 260 4.7 in Fig. 6, for evaluating the techno-economics of various desalination
SFR Sodium 435 4.5 technologies in conjunction with nuclear and fossil energy technologies
HTGR Helium 570 13.25
SMART Light water 274 3
[41]. DEEP is considered a valuable tool for decision-makers, although it
does not accurately determine the cost of producing electricity or water.
The structure of DEEP typically consists of four main components:
desalination rather than other conventional fossil fuel energy sources inputting technical parameters, creating a financial model to estimate
[37]. costs and revenues, performing sensitivity analysis to assess economic
feasibility, and providing key economic evaluation metrics such as cost
of water, net present value, and the internal rate of return [42].
2.3. Socioeconomic aspects
Generally speaking, the water cost ranges associated with the major
desalination technologies, namely MSF, MED, and RO, are approximate
Using nuclear energy for desalination offers energy and water supply

Fig. 5. Summarized layout of DE-TOP tool for thermodynamic analysis of nuclear desalination.

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B. Almomani et al. Desalination 564 (2023) 116777

Table 2 desalination processes can also benefit from economies of scale,

Thermodynamic performance of nuclear desalination coupling by the DE-TOP whereby their typical costs decrease with increased plant capacity. The
tool [30–34]. O&M costs for MED and RO are roughly the same, while MSF costs are
Reference Reactor Desalination Configuration models higher [38]. This implies that, in comparison to an RO plant, a large
technology – technology – (source of thermal energy) MED desalination plant can achieve specific investment costs. Further­
Power (MW) Capacity (m3/d) more, employing hybrid desalination technologies in conjunction with
[30] PWR – 1000 MED – 100,000 – Extraction from the LP preheating the intake feed water enhances the process’s thermal effi­
electrical turbine ciency, ultimately reducing the product water cost. Khuwaileh et al.
– Extraction from HP/LP
[44] conducted a study in UAE comparing different desalination pro­
crossover pipe and
throttle cesses coupled with NuScale, SMART, and APR1400 technologies. Fig. 7
– Extraction from HP/LP compares these processes in terms of thermal utilization, electrical loss,
crossover pipe and and water cost.
additional backpressure It can be seen in Fig. 7 that the RO is the most cost-effective option
turbine
– LP turbine in backpressure
for producing freshwater; however, the thermal desalination processes
mode such as MED-LTE and LTE still hold the potential advantage of utilizing
[31] AHWR – 300 LTE–250, – Extraction from the main readily available waste heat at no additional cost, thereby becoming
thermal MED-TVC – 2400 heat transport purification more economically competitive.
circuit waste heat
Table 3 shows several studies that have examined the economic
– Extraction from the steam
of the turbine cycle viability of nuclear desalination in the Arabian Gulf and North African
[32] PWR – 1000 MED – 50,000 – All possible extraction regions based on DEEP simulations. The table summarizes the water
electrical options available in DE- costs corresponding to the production capacity, desalination process,
TOP (Thirteen and reactor technology.
configurations)
Among the studies shown in Table 3, nuclear desalination has been
[33] SMR – 100 MED, MSF – – Extraction from HP steam
thermal 15,000 after the steam generator compared with fossil fuel alternatives in the Gulf region, and their
– Extraction from medium- findings indicate that nuclear desalination is an attractive and compet­
pressure bleed steam of itive option when economic conditions favor nuclear energy [13,45,50].
the HP turbine
Fluctuations in fuel prices significantly impact fossil fuel plants’ water
– Extraction from bleed
steam from both HP/LP costs more than nuclear options. The simulations also demonstrated that
turbines dedicated nuclear reactors for heat generation only result in higher
[34] APR – 1400 MSF, MED, MED- – Three extraction points water production costs than dual-purpose reactors that generate elec­
electrical TVC – 25,000 to from the HP turbine cycle tricity and water [38]. When comparing small to large-sized NPPs,
150,000 – Three extraction points
desalination systems coupled with small-sized NPPs are less expensive
from the LP turbine cycle
than those coupled with larger-sized NPPs in the UAE and North Africa
[38,47,48]. The GT-MHR option using MED technology and waste heat
as follows: 1.1–1.25 $/m3, 0.75–0.85 $/m3, and 0.68–0.82 $/m3, utilization is relatively cost-effective [47]. Generation IV high-
respectively [43]. Although membrane technology often provides cost- temperature reactors like the GT-MHR show promising economic per­
effective values based on specific investment costs, thermal formance for thermal desalination processes, such as MED, MED-TVC,

Fig. 6. Summarized layout of DEEP tool for economic analysis of nuclear desalination.

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Fig. 7. Preliminary comparison between different desalination technologies coupled with NuScale, SMART, and APR1400 reactors with the same operating con­
ditions and area specifications (UAE). The comparison is expressed numerically based on Table 6 in Reference [44], ranging from the highest score of 5 to the lowest
score of 1.

and MED-LTE, mainly when waste heat is utilized. Besides, increasing materials and prevent any potential water contamination [23]. The
water production capacity is likely to reduce the cost of water further. IAEA has introduced a specific safety requirement for cogeneration as
Some studies have also examined the cost of seawater nuclear desali­ follows [52].
nation during summer and winter, finding that water costs increase in “Requirement 35: Nuclear power plants coupled with heat utilization
winter due to decreased feed temperature while water demand remains units (such as for district heating) and/or water desalination units shall
stable throughout the year [46,47]. For accurate cost calculations, it is be designed to prevent processes that transport radionuclides from the
essential to consider plant management economic aspects, including nuclear plant to the desalination unit or the district heating unit under
discount and interest rates. conditions of operational states and in accident conditions”.
Further external factors need to be considered to evaluate the NDP Hence, it is necessary to hypothesize the risk for accidental radio­
costs appropriately. One significant aspect to bear is the effect of water activity and evaluate potential failure scenarios that may result in the
availability on desalination technology costs. The membrane units are carry-over of radioactive materials to the product water. The design of
grid-powered, while thermal distillation units require a backup heat the NDP should consider provisions for continuous potable water pro­
source [11]. The size of the NPP is also essential, as smaller NPPs offer duction, multiple barriers, and engineered features to prevent the
cost-effectiveness, flexibility, shorter construction period, relatively radioactive material from reaching the product water even in a credible
long lifespan, and scalability, making them attractive for countries with sequence of failures.
limited resources and small energy grid infrastructure [48]. Conse­ Thermal distillation methods require steam sourced from the NPP.
quently, coupling a small-sized reactor with a desalination plant poses To ensure safety, an intermediate heat transfer loop with an additional
less economic risk. However, coupling the NPP with the desalination heat exchanger must be installed between the PCS loop and the desali­
plant can result in additional costs related to installing an intermediate nation loop [53]. The pressure in the intermediate loop could be higher
loop and transporting product water. Water transportation costs can be or lower than the primary loop and desalination loops, depending on the
significant, ranging from 14 % to 25 % of the potable water production location of the barrier [54]. Safety analysis, including deterministic and
cost when transporting water 100 km from the NDP [23]. Generally, probabilistic approaches, should address the possibility of the occur­
increasing the amount of water produced by the NDP can lower the cost rence and consequences of a steam line break at the heat extraction
of transportable water proportionally [51]. Thus, it may be necessary to locations and other transient conditions that may lead to the shutdown
compromise between water production quantity and the location of the of the NDP [23]. Guidelines and provisions for managing planned and
NDP to minimize costs and meet site requirements. unplanned shutdowns of the NPP and the desalination plant. To gain
public acceptance, emphasizing the benefits of potable water accessi­
2.4. Safety and regulatory aspects bility and electricity production can help reduce opposition to nuclear
energy use [23]. Utilizing an existing NPP for desalination could be a
Regulatory bodies need to establish a licensing framework to ensure more viable option to avoid debates about cost, siting, and construction
the safe operation of NPPs when used for cogeneration with desalination associated with new projects.
plants. This framework should include safety measures that consider To summarize the literature studies, thermodynamic performance
resource sharing and the adaptation of the nuclear reactor systems by a analyses of NDP coupling were investigated by [30–34]. The economic
desalination plant. Maintaining water free from radiation contamination feasibility was also examined in [9,38,41,45–49]. The environmental
during NDP operations and complying with regulatory limits is vital. impact was discussed by [11,23,35,36], while the safety and regulations
Robust barriers must be in place to securely contain radioactive aspects were introduced in [23,53,54]. The feasibility of utilizing waste

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Table 3
Economies of nuclear desalination coupling by DEEP tool in hot climate countries [9,38,41,45–49].
Ref Reactor technology Desalination Location Power (MW) Water production capacity (m3/ Levelized water cost
technology day) ($/m3)

MED 0.65
[41] PHWR MSF Arabian Gulf 676 electrical 120,000 1.19
RO 0.74
RO 0.81
[9] SMART MED-RO KSA 330 thermal 40,000 1.07
MSF-RO 1.53
RO 1.5
MED 1.81
[9] CAREM-25 KSA 110 thermal 10,000
MED-RO 1.88
MSF 2.36
Small-sized NPP (heat-
[48] MED-TVC UAE 400 thermal 178,451 1.14
only)
[48] APR-1400 MED-TVC UAE 4000 thermal 178,451 1.22
MSF 1.58
[45] SMR MED KSA 429 thermal 279,936 1
RO 0.78
RO 0.97–1.07
[46] APR-1400 MED-TVC UAE 4000 thermal 65,000–135,000 1.79–1.96
MED-TVC + RO 1.35–1.48
MED 0.84
MSF 1.12*
North Africa south 600, 1000
[47] PWR RO 50,000–200,000 0.79*
region electrical
MED-RO 0.8*
MSF-RO 0.93*
MED 0.82*
MSF 1*
North Africa south 600, 1000
[47] BWR RO 50,000–200,000 0.77*
region electrical
MED-RO 0.78*
MSF-RO 0.86*
MED 0.96*
MSF 1.37*
North Africa south 600, 1000
[47] PHWR RO 50,000–200,000 0.76*
region electrical
MED-RO 0.84*
MSF-RO 1.04*
MED 0.47*
North Africa south
[47] GT-MHR RO 284, 489 thermal 50,000–200,000 0.8*
region
MED-RO 0.63*
MED 0.48*
North Africa south
[47] SMR RO 130, 330 thermal 50,000–200,000 0.79*
region
MED-RO 0.62*
400 thermal 1.142
[49] SMR, PWR MED-TVC UAE 178,451
4000 thermal 1.224
MSF 1,436,000 0.76–1.67
MED 1,436,000 0.46–1.04
[49] PWR KSA 600 electrical
RO 1,463,000 0.4–0.83
MED-RO 1,247,000 0.41–1.04
MSF 1,436,000 1.17–2.25
MED 1,436,000 0.66–1.32
[49] Small PWR KSA 160 thermal
RO 1,463,000 0.53–1.03
MED-RO 1,247,000 0.63–1.35
MSF 1,436,000 0.75–1.77
[49] PHWR MED KSA 450 thermal 1,436,000 0.46–1.09
RO 1,463,000 0.37–0.83
MED 0.98
MSF 1.51
[38] PWR RO KSA 1800 thermal 100,000 0.81
MED-RO 1.03
MSF-RO 1.50
MED 1.80
MSF 2.18
[38] PWR (heat-only) RO KSA 1800 thermal 100,000 0.89
MED-RO 1.86
MSF-RO 1.85
*
Averaged values.

heat for water desalination has already been highlighted in [55,56], and reactor waste heat for seawater desalination by applying SWOT and AHP
subsequent studies have explored different energy sources such as wind analysis.
turbines [57], gas power plants [58], solar tower [59], and nuclear re­
actors [16–21]. However, several countries embarking on nuclear en­ 3. SWOT analysis
ergy, such as those in the Arabian Gulf, have overlooked implementing
reactor waste heat for water desalination. Therefore, this research at­ According to the literature review presented earlier, it was perceived
tempts to reveal the main factors that limit the utilization of nuclear that coupling a desalination plant with either small-sized reactors or

8
B. Almomani et al. Desalination 564 (2023) 116777

existing large-sized reactors (already in operation or under construction) desalination.

could be a promising and strategic option for addressing water scarcity W3: Requiring extra safety design features. Using waste heat from NPPs
and for promoting sustainable development. Furthermore, utilizing the may raise safety concerns. Careful consideration needs to be given to the
abundant waste heat from the reactor for seawater desalination could design of the heat extraction process from the NPP to the desalination
offer economic benefits superior to other energy sources. In this section, facility to prevent any leaks or accidents that could potentially resulting
the SWOT analysis has been employed to thoroughly examine the water contaminated by radioactive materials. Accordingly, it is crucial
strengths (S), opportunities (O), weaknesses (W), and threats (T) of to implement special design features and ensure accurate water moni­
using NPP waste heat recovery for seawater desalination in the Arabian toring before distribution to prevent radiological contamination.
Gulf region, taking into account the main aspects discussed earlier. This
method is commonly used in numerous energy management applica­ 3.3. Opportunities
tions [60–63] to comprehend the significant aspects and their in­
terconnections to participatory support in decision-making. The O1: Improvement of the overall thermodynamic efficiency. Utilizing
subsequent sections elaborate on the SWOT analyses of waste heat uti­ waste heat efficiently for cogeneration can boost the NPP’s efficiency
lization for NDP. from 33 % to 90 %, leading to a more economical and eco-friendly en­
ergy source [30,66]. The effectiveness of thermal utilization mainly
3.1. Strengths depends on different factors, such as the extracted steam’s temperature,
the steam’s relative mass flow, and the coupling configuration
S1: Reduced costs. Utilizing waste heat from a nuclear reactor for employed. However, it is essential to ensure that the utilization of waste
thermal desalination processes can provide a significant advantage by heat does not lead to a significant decrease in electricity power gener­
reducing the energy required. This can result in a lowered cost of ation in case of the heat is extracted from the primary circuit or sec­
freshwater production, thereby enhancing the accessibility and afford­ ondary circuit at a temperature higher than the condenser temperature.
ability of freshwater for communities. The water cost can be reduced by O2: Infrastructural facilities sharing. The cogeneration of electricity
>10 % concerning the water production capacity, especially the heat and valuable heat for desalination offers advantages by sharing infra­
removal from the intermediate loop [20,64]. structural facilities such as pipe laying, power supply installation, and
S2: Simple, reliable, and high-purity water production. Utilizing waste access road infrastructure, which reduces the high capital cost. As nu­
heat by thermal-based desalination methods is a reliable technology that clear power and desalination technologies are well established, several
produces high water purity. For instance, it can produce high-purity options for implementing small, medium, and large-sized NDPs in
water, including demineralized water (with a conductivity of 2 μS/ coastal areas can be considered for better thermodynamic efficiency and
cm) by using LTE technology as well as ultra-pure water (with a con­ economic optimization.
ductivity of <0.05 μS/cm) through a combination of LTE and Electro- O3: System optimization and technology innovation. Exploring effective
deionization (EDI) [19]. methods of waste heat utilization from operating NPPs can promote
S3: Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Desalination plants research, development, and innovation to evaluate the techno-economic
frequently use fossil fuels, resulting in environmental impacts such as aspects, especially for hot regions such as the Arabian Gulf. This could
greenhouse gas emissions. On the other hand, utilizing waste heat and involve reducing energy requirements through technological advance­
nuclear energy for water desalination can be more environmentally- ments, coupling different types of reactors and desalination systems,
friendly as it reduces dependence on fossil fuels and external energy implementing small and medium-sized reactors, utilizing hybrid tech­
sources for heating and cooling water [16,37]. This method also elimi­ nologies, achieving optimal system performance, enhancing heat
nates the need for harmful chemical or acid pretreatment requirements transfer and exchange, and recovering valuable resources from brine
and toxic disinfection byproducts since it operates at atmospheric tem­ and wastewater [67]. These efforts can improve understanding of the
perature and pressure, minimizing the risk of scale formation and requirements and responsibilities among vendors and users of nuclear
allowing for better control of brine concentration [55]. Besides, there is desalination projects.
no clear indication that nuclear desalination negatively influences ma­ O4: Supporting sustainable development. Recovering waste heat from
rine habitats more than other co-located facilities. In general, the nuclear reactors for desalination is a profitable opportunity for public
various environmental impacts of desalination technologies will be and private stakeholders. It can address the challenge of meeting high
reduced overall due to using excess waste heat. water demand in regions where water scarcity is a present issue. It also
can boost economic growth and improve living standards in such areas.
3.2. Weaknesses By utilizing the reactor’s waste heat, desalination can become a more
affordable and sustainable solution aligning with the broader objectives
W1: Extra expense and modifications to existing infrastructure. Opti­ of sustainable development.
mizing the equipment design, such as larger condensers and heat ex­
changers, may be required to enhance the waste heat extraction for 3.4. Threats
desalination purposes considering the hot climate, resulting in extra
construction and operation costs for NDP [65]. Moreover, utilizing T1: Regulatory risks. The possibility of regulatory risks arises due to
waste heat could also require further investments in infrastructure and uncertainty in future regulatory environments and weak legislation for
technology by including intermediate loop installation and additional new technologies like waste heat utilization from nuclear reactors.
components such as multi-stage compressors, nearby site consider­ These risks refer to the potential impact caused by changes in regula­
ations, and water transportation. The extra costs associated with this tions and may significantly increase the financial costs of construction
approach could make it financially challenging, particularly in regions and operation of the NDP. These risks can originate from various sour­
with limited resources. ces, such as governmental agencies, regulatory bodies, or international
W2: Requiring backup heat and technical considerations. The need for organizations. To avoid such risks, it is essential to have a robust legal
backup heat or power sources in case of component failure or mainte­ framework based on the most recent international standards and rele­
nance is required to maintain water availability. Heat demand fluctua­ vant safety requirements, including using waste heat for water desali­
tions and mismatch with heat supply, system configuration and design, nation purposes.
and space limitation, especially in the different designs of small-sized T2: Concerns about safety. Using reactor waste heat for desalination
reactors, need to be considered. This could be one of the downsides, would add further complexity and risk to nuclear systems. An evaluation
limiting the use of waste heat for an energy-intensive process like water of the risk from accidental radioactivity carry-over is needed to prevent

9
B. Almomani et al. Desalination 564 (2023) 116777

contamination of the desalination system or the environment. The for seawater desalination by using waste heat would require new
design basis for isolation systems needs to consider postulated initiating modifications and regulatory approvals, which could interrupt current
events (PIEs), such as operational transients in the NPP and desalination commercial services.
plant, including flow, pressure, and temperature fluctuations, heat On the other hand, the KSA is interested in nuclear cogeneration
exchanger leaks, and failures in intermediate loop pressure control to using SMR technology, but no reference plant currently exists as SMR
confine the radioactivity [54]. Therefore, it is vital to carefully assess the projects are yet to be regulated and approved. The deployment of SMRs
potential risks and take measures to mitigate them via deterministic and for electricity, water desalination, and waste heat utilization could pose
probabilistic approaches before using waste heat from a nuclear reactor a challenging task considering that licensing processes are mainly
for water desalination. Proper regulations, safety procedures, and country-dependent. These SWOT mentioned factors are summarized in
monitoring can help to minimize risks and ensure that the benefits of Fig. 8.
using nuclear waste heat for desalination are achieved without The SWOT analysis conducted above leads us to conclude the
compromising safety or the environment. following recommendations corresponding to the factors, as depicted in
T3: Public perception. Using nuclear power is a contentious issue that Fig. 8.
may lead to resistance to expanding further applications, including
water desalination by waste heat. Concerns about the risks associated • Promoting a high economic performance in water production by
with nuclear energy could generate opposition, creating challenges for boosting thermal efficiency via waste heat utilization (S1, O1, and
implementing this approach in some areas. Limited information is O4).
available on public attitudes towards nuclear desalination, but it is • Employing flexible and valid waste heat utilization methods for
possible that emphasizing the social and economic impacts of increased water desalination by a reliable energy source, such as nuclear en­
access to clean water and cheap electricity production could generate ergy, that can be scaled up or down to meet the needs of a given
positive views. Both nuclear power and desalination technologies are region (S2 and O3).
mature technologies, and there may be greater acceptance of this • Balancing between the expense and benefits of modifications and
desalination technology in case of utilizing heat sources from advanced utilizing existing infrastructure resources for desalination purposes
nuclear reactors that incorporate a high level of enhanced safety features could be cost-effective (W1 and O2).
and radiation monitoring systems. • Encouraging innovation via R&D to optimize coupling technologies
T4: Limited experience. Nuclear desalination has been examined as a for increased effectiveness and feasibility (W2, W3, and O3).
potential solution to water shortages in certain regions. Despite this, no • Step up efforts to raise public awareness about the inherent safety of
large-scale commercial NDPs are currently operating worldwide, and nuclear plants and the social benefits, such as improved access to
only a handful of experimental or small-scale plants have been con­ potable high-purity water and electricity production (S1, S2, S3, and
structed. Furthermore, the utilization of waste heat from nuclear re­ T3).
actors for desalination is still a relatively new concept. In regions with • Development guidelines and regulations govern the process of uti­
hot climates and scarce water resources, such as the UAE and KSA, the lizing waste heat in water desalination (W3, T1, and T4).
UAE has already established four APR1400 technology units at the • Integrating a comprehensive set of advanced safety features, safety
Baraka site for electricity generation. However, repurposing these units procedures, and radiation monitoring systems that consider all

Fig. 8. SWOT analysis matrix of waste heat utilization from nuclear plants for water desalination.

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B. Almomani et al. Desalination 564 (2023) 116777

potential transient scenarios, utilizing deterministic and probabi­ factor priority and the largest eigenvalue of the matrix. The final step
listic methodologies (W3 and T2). involved calculating a consistency ratio (CR) to check the quality of the
data collected. The CR measures the consistency of a pairwise compar­
The SWOT factors and the resulting recommendations are further ison matrix and does not affect the value of factors/groups’ priorities.
investigated using the analytic AHP method based on the experts’ Judgments are considered reliable if the CR is lower than 0.10. The CR
opinions in the subsequent section. was calculated as the ratio of the consistency index (CI) to the random
consistency index (RI) obtained from Saaty’s table [73].
4. Integrated SWOT-AHP analysis
5. Results
In this study, the well-known decision-making methodology so-
called Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), was employed to generate a The responses from 15 experts have been analyzed based on the
list of priorities using expert judgments through pairwise comparisons questionnaire survey (see Table A3 in the supplementary data). Primary,
[68–70]. To gather input from experts, a questionnaire survey (see the questionnaires of Q1 and Q2 were analyzed as shown in Fig. 9. The
Table A1 in the supplementary data) was used along with follow-up questionnaires commenced with an initial pair of questions inquiring
communications with a total of 15 experts (see Table A2 in the supple­ about the participants’ viewpoints regarding the feasibility of employing
mentary data) during March 2023. The experts were chosen based on waste heat from NPPs for desalination applications. Furthermore, par­
their experience and knowledge in the field, including academicians and ticipants were asked to identify the most key challenge among the four
researchers with research publications related to the topic and industry primary aspects outlined in Section 2. Fig. 9 summarizes the responses to
practitioners with at least 10 years of direct experience. Participants Q1 and Q2.
were asked to provide their perspectives on various aspects identified in As shown in Fig. 9, approximately 66.7 % of experts believe that
the SWOT analysis to prioritize the internal driving forces and external utilizing nuclear plant waste heat for desalination is a promising
barriers to utilizing nuclear power waste heat in the Arabian Gulf region. approach to promoting sustainable energy development due to the
The technique used throughout this study to analyze SWOT factors reliability and predictability of nuclear energy compared to renewable
involved an integrated SWOT-AHP analysis following the approach sources. However, 13.3 % of experts voted “fairly” for this approach due
presented by Brudermann et al. [71] and Idiano et al. [72] to transform to the challenge of implementing it in an existing NPP, which may
these factors into quantifiable indicators. disrupt ongoing commercial activities. Moreover, 46.7 % of experts
The questionnaires were made under each SWOT group (S, W, O, and highlighted safety and regulatory requirements as the main associated
T) with the factors (S1–3, W1–3, O1–4, and T1–4) respectively rated on a challenge, while technical and socioeconomic challenges had equal
nine-level scale (1 to 9) based on their perceived importance or proba­ votes. This initial feedback from experts underscores the importance of
bility. Expert scoring was used to assign priority to the SWOT factors, establishing rigorous safety measures and design requirements in
which were categorized into three levels as follows: compliance with related regulations to prevent the release of radioactive
The first level involved determining group priority that relied on the materials during the desalination process.
average scores given by experts across all SWOT groups (refer to Eq. The pair comparison matrices of group and per group are then given
(1)). To illustrate, the average GX the score for a group (i.e., S, W, O, T) in Table A4 and A5, respectively in the supplementary data. Table A6
was calculated for a set of factors (n) using scores provided by all experts provides the corresponding CR and CI values. These tables were
(No ). These scores were then compared pairwise with those of other generated based on experts’ feedback via follow-up questionnaires
groups, and subsequently, the weighted global hierarchy (priority) was about priority SWOT factors. By following the approach presented by
established using the AHP technique. Brudermann et al. [71] and Idiano et al. [72], the results of group pri­
( ) ority (level 1), local factor priority (level 2), and global factor priority
∑ No ∑No ∑No ∑No
GX =
1
X1,No + X2,No + X3,No .… + Xn,No , X (level 3) are obtained as illustrated in Fig. 10.
No n i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 For group priority (level 1), shown in Fig. 10, the highest priority was
= S, W, O, T (1) given equally to strengths and opportunities (28.6 %), while weaknesses
and threats received less priority (21.4 %). These results indicate a
In the second level, local factor priority was determined by positive outlook towards using nuclear reactor waste heat for desalina­
computing the average scores given by experts to factors within the tion, as agreed upon by the relevant experts. It is worth noting that these
same SWOT group (refer to Eq. (2)). For instance, the average LX,n score results remained steady after the first 10 experts participated in the
for a factor (i.e., S1–3, W1–3, O1–4, and T1–4) was determined for a survey, demonstrating agreement and consistency among their judg­
specific factor (n) using scores provided by all experts (No ). Similarly, ments. The experts’ opinions were equally relevant, but the group pri­
these scores were then compared pairwise with those of other factors ority calculations were also done based on their affiliation to either
within the same group, and subsequently, the weighted local hierarchy academician (46.7 %) or industry practitioner (53.3 %) for comparison.
(priority) was established using the AHP method. The results of the industry practitioners were the same as those of all 15
experts, whereas the academician experts gave the highest priority to
1 ∑ No
LX,n = Xn,No (2) strengths (30 %), followed by opportunities (26.7 %) and weaknesses
No i=1
(23.3 %), and the least priority or concern was given to threats (20 %).
Lastly, the third level was global factor priority, calculated as the This indicates that the academician experts’ scoring aligns with industry
product of the respective group priority (level 1) and the corresponding practitioners.
local factor priority (level 2). For local (level 2) and global factors (level 3) in the SWOT groups, as
To determine the relative importance or preference of each SWOT shown in Fig. 10, W1 (Extra expense and modifications to existing
factor/group, a pair comparison matrix was created for both local and infrastructure) was the top-ranked local factor priority (9.2 %). The
global levels, with a priority level assigned to each. The basic pairwise experts were particularly concerned about the additional economic costs
comparison scale of importance can be found in Reference [73]. The associated with long distances, O&M, and limited availability of suitable
normalized Eigenvector method computed a priority vector for the seaside locations. However, despite these concerns, the potential bene­
matrix. The weights of each SWOT factor/group were calculated using fits of utilizing a nuclear reactor’s waste heat, such as the reduction of
the pairwise comparison results, following the procedure presented by greenhouse gas emissions (S3), simple, reliable, and high-purity water
Idiano et al. [72]. These weights were used to determine the global production (S2), and reduced costs (S1), may have outweighed the local
priority factors, as they were ranked in the top three global priority

11
B. Almomani et al. Desalination 564 (2023) 116777

Q1: In terms of promoting a sustainable energy Q2: What is the key challenge of using nuclear plant
evolution, how viable is the utilization of waste waste heat for water desalination?
heat from nuclear plants for desalination
purposes?

Fig. 9. Results of 15 experts’ responses for questions Q1 and Q2.

Fig. 10. AHP results of (a) group priority, (b) local factor priority, and (c) global factor priority based on 15 experts’ responses.

factors ranged from 9.1 to 10.3 %. Indeed, placing the NPPs and thermal and operation in a cogeneration mode. Therefore, experts are confident
desalination plants nearby would yield substantial cost savings due to that design optimization and technology innovation opportunities can
shared infrastructure such as a common seawater intake/discharge enhance overall thermodynamic efficiency and likely overcome these
structure, administrative building, and site security expenses. W2 weaknesses. The global priority factors related to threats were consid­
(Requiring backup heat and technical considerations) and W3 ered of lesser importance. The primary advantage of nuclear reactor
(Requiring extra safety design features) were ranked lower than the waste heat utilization is the assurance of a consistent supply of elec­
strengths factors in local factor priorities (7.9 %) and even lower than tricity and desalinated water. Other notable benefits include the ability
the opportunities (O1, O2, and O4) in global priority factors (6.8 %). to manage unpredictable renewable energy sources, ensure the
These weaknesses can be addressed during the design, licensing phase, dependability of the power grid, and improve its ability to withstand

12
B. Almomani et al. Desalination 564 (2023) 116777

severe weather events caused by climate change. Considering the global 6. Concluding remarks
priority factor value of 6.5 % for T3 (Public perception), it is still
essential to consider the variability of public perception as a significant This work focused on nuclear desalination applications using nuclear
factor across various countries. waste heat. The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of
As the integrated SWOT-AHP analysis aimed to guide decision- waste heat utilization for NDP were analyzed concerning several
makers, six policy measures have been identified aligning with the important aspects such as technical, environmental, socioeconomic,
SWOT suggestions and AHP evaluation as illustrated in Fig. 11. The six safety, and regulatory. Recommendations were provided for mitigating
measures correspond to SWOT factors based on the SWOT matrix (see weaknesses and avoiding potential threats based on the SWOT analysis
Fig. 8) as follows. results. Furthermore, the SWOT factors were assessed using the AHP
method to determine each factor’s importance (priority), referring to 15
• M1: Pure water and energy sustainability (S1, O1, O4). experts’ opinions. The main recommendations derived from the SWOT-
• M2: Reliability and scalability (security of supply) (S2). AHP analysis can be listed as follows:
• M3: Public awareness (S3, T3).
• M4: Economic co-locating infrastructure (W1, O2). • A top priority for achieving better economic performance and envi­
• M5: R&D activities (W2, W3, O3). ronmental benefits in water production is to increase thermal effi­
• M6: Regulations and safety measures (T1, T2, T3). ciency by using waste heat from nuclear reactors to fully or partially
power a thermally driven desalination. This approach reduces the
The weighted percentage of each measure is determined by adding energy burden and helps to promote sustainability.
up the weights of the corresponding group priority factors. Moreover, in • A key benefit of utilizing reactor waste heat is maintaining a secure
Fig. 11, a doughnut plot is presented in three colors (blue, red, and supply of pure water and promoting sustainable energy practices. To
green) with dark and light shades. Each color represents two measures in achieve this, it is crucial to implement efficient, adaptable, and well-
dark and light that may be correlated and mutually supportive. For established methods for utilizing waste heat that can be customized
example, approximately 20.9 % of policy actions are prioritized for R&D to meet the specific needs of different regions.
activities that support the development of regulatory regulations gov­ • To reduce construction impact and water transportation costs,
erning the requirements of water heat sources, as well as safety analysis locating a desalination plant near populated areas is advantageous.
to define safety measures and operating limits (16.8 % priority weight). However, for safety reasons, it is necessary to position NPP away
Moreover, 9.1 % of the policy action is to employ reliable and scalable from densely populated areas while still being close to power
nuclear and desalination coupling technologies and maintain supply transmission infrastructure. Consequently, finding a suitable loca­
security by ensuring smooth and uninterrupted operations for sustain­ tion for a desalination plant requires balancing these competing
able, pure water production and efficient energy utilization as the main factors while taking advantage of shared infrastructure resources as a
priority (23.9 %). Finally, around 14.3 % of the policy priority is devoted cost-effective approach.
to co-locating economic infrastructure as an important measure to • There is a lack of information available on the level of public support
enhance regional competitiveness and attract investment, which could for nuclear desalination in Arabian Gulf regions. Thus, it is impera­
be a key aspect of this strategy in raising public awareness (16.8 % tive to improve public awareness about the inherent safety of nuclear
priority weight) about the potential benefits of utilizing waste heat for facilities and the potential benefits, such as better access to high-
NDP applications. Overall, the strengths and opportunities of using purity drinking water and increased electricity generation.
reactor waste heat for water desalination have been more prominent • R&D endeavors remain highly promising because it is believed that
than the weaknesses and threats. there are opportunities for enhancing the design and optimization of

Fig. 11. Policy measures aligning with the SWOT suggestions and AHP evaluation.

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B. Almomani et al. Desalination 564 (2023) 116777

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