1-s2.0-S0196890423005265-main

Energy Conversion and Management 289 (2023) 117180
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman
Review
Salinity gradient solar ponds hybrid systems for power generation and
water desalination
Muhammad Tawalbeh a, b, *, Rana Muhammad Nauman Javed c, Amani Al-Othman c,
Fares Almomani d, *
a
Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering Department, University of Sharjah, PO. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
b
Sustainable Energy & Power Systems Research Centre, RISE, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
c
American University of Sharjah, Department of Chemical Engineering, PO. Box 26666, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
d
Department of Chemical Engineering, Qatar University, P. O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Solar energy is preferred over other energy sources because of its low cost, ease of collecting, and availability as a
Salinity gradient solar pond source of power, as well as its effectiveness in reducing pollution and water scarcity. Solar ponds are low-grade
Solar hybrid energy thermal energy systems that can also be used to absorb/store solar radiation. Extensive research/advances in
Heat extraction
solar pond performance have been sparked by the potential influence of various types of heat storage systems
Power generation
Solar desalination
with heat extraction mechanisms. This article provides a comprehensive review based on the most recent ac
Thermal efficiency complishments in the progress of solar pond technologies, salinity gradient solar ponds (SGSPs) for hybrid solar
power generation, and water desalination systems. Applications of these technologies, including refrigeration
and air-conditioning, and domestic and industrial process heating, have been explored and discussed. The
literature review revealed that the low thermal efficiency of the solar ponds, which is considered the main
challenge for a large-scale operation, could be overcome by considering stable salinity gradients, temperature
gradients, and optimum thicknesses of zones. The novel advancements of hybrid systems and poly-generation
energy systems for power generation and water desalination with a focus on the improvement of overall en
ergy/exergy efficiency of salinity gradient solar ponds are the highlighting features of this review for imminent
researchers. With the integration of salt gradient solar pond hybrid systems, a maximum lower convective zone
(LCZ) temperature of 90 ◦ C, more than 50 % energy/exergy efficiency, and power generation of up to 5 MW are
reported in this review. For instance, an autonomous desalination unit exhibited about 54 % exergy efficiency
and a production of about 2381 m3 (annually 73.3 %) of potable water.
1. Introduction energy sources has caused a steady increment of environmental pollu

tion with emissions of CO2 and greenhouse gases (GHGs) [2,3,4,5].
Non-conventional and renewable energy sources have piqued the Nowadays, renewable energy sources have played a key role in clean,
interest of researchers all over the world to alleviate global energy de zero-carbon emission, eco-friendly and environmental sustainability
mand/supply and concerns regarding global warming [1]. Over the past [6,7,8,9]. Being a universal solvent, water can dissolve many types of
several years, the abrupt increase in the world’s population and rapid chemicals and microorganism contaminants and causes water pollution
industrialization have promoted alarming impacts on global climatic globally, which needs to be removed for effective and healthy use of the
changes. The significant depletion of conventional/non-renewable human life cycle. Water pollution also includes ground/surface water
Abbreviations: ESPs, Equilibrium solar ponds; GHGs, Greenhouse gases; LCZ, Lower convective zone; MSPs, Membrane solar ponds; MED, Multi-effect distillation;
MSF, Multistage flash distillation; NCZ, Non-convective zone; ORC, Organic-Rankine cycle; PSPs, Partitioned solar pond; PCMs, Phase change material; PVs, Pho
tovoltaics; PEMFC, Proton exchange membrane fuel cell; SGSPs, Salinity gradient solar ponds; SSP, Shallow solar pond; SPs, Solar ponds; SUT, Solar updraft tower;
TCV, Thermal vapor compression; TECs, Thermoelectric cells; TEG, Thermoelectric generator; TAD, Thermophilic anaerobic digestion; UV, Ultraviolet; UCZ, Upper
convective zone.
* Corresponding authors at: Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering Department, University of Sharjah, PO. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
(Muhammad Tawalbeh); Department of Chemical Engineering, Qatar University, P. O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar (Fares Almomani).
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Tawalbeh), [email protected] (F. Almomani).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2023.117180
Received 12 March 2023; Received in revised form 8 May 2023; Accepted 10 May 2023
Available online 21 May 2023
0196-8904/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M. Tawalbeh et al. Energy Conversion and Management 289 (2023) 117180
pollution, oil spillages, microbiological pollution, drug and pharma ponds have been performed in all locations around the globe [44]. SPs
ceutical residues, and chemical water pollution [10,11]. The synergistic directly receive solar radiation energy and store it in the form of integral
utilization of renewable energy sources would increase to 63 % by the thermal energy for seasonal usage (large-scale energy collectors). With
end of 2025, with wind/solar energies accounting for 70 % of primary the remarkable attributes of large thermal storage capacities and long-
power generation [8,12]. Hydrogen is considered as green, safe, and term applicability, salinity gradient solar ponds (SGSPs) have shown
sustainable energy with zero environmental pollution at a low cost and significant potential as compared to other types of solar ponds because
is utilized in many applications such as fuel cell automobiles, spacecraft/ of the large-scale and continuous supply of energy [45]. In addition,
aircraft propulsions, and electronic devices [13,14,15]. Being high en SGSPs have been utilized in water desalination systems, refrigeration,
ergy density, hydrogen can be generated form hydrocarbons (cost- and power generation systems, i.e., Rankine cycles and thermoelectric
effective), water electrolysis (cost expensive), and radiolysis of liquid cells [46,47].
water [16]. Recently, the effective role of thermal and radiation– Based on the salinity gradient, the solar pond is divided into three
thermal processes has been studied briefly with nanoparticles for the main parts, as shown in Fig. 3; (1) upper convective zone (UCZ), (2) non-
production of hydrogen [17,18]. convective zone (NCZ), and (3) lower convective zone (LCZ). The SGSPs
Solar energy is widely regarded as the most cost-effective, easily operate based on a salt concentration gradient, which remains saturated
harvested, and readily available source of power generation among all at the bottom zone and decreases to a lower value at the top layers. [48].
renewable energy sources [19,20,21]. Solar energy is preferred over the The UCZ contains a very low and thin layer of salt concentration of up to
unanticipated increase in fossil fuel prices/constant depletion, and it 2–3 % salinity. Sunlight contains infrared radiation (IRs), which are
does not require a special framework to be used for industrial/com absorbed in part by the top layers of water, resulting in a slight decrease
mercial applications [22]. Generally, the sun produces energy of 3.8 × in density. The surplus fraction of radiation is transmitted to the sur
1023 kW, out of which only 1.08 × 1014 kW is received by the earth’s rounding and beneath layers via convection, radiation, and evaporation.
surface, and the remaining energy is reflected into space [23]. Overall, The NCZ, also known as the gradient layer, contains major salinity
the earth captures 0.1 % of the total sun’s energy, which would generate percentages from the upper NCZ to the lowest NCZ and gradually in
four times the global energy demand (3000 GW) and be sufficient for all creases density with the layer depth [49]. This zone entraps and stores
countries around the globe [24]. Solar technologies, i.e., photovoltaics most of the heat of solar radiation and provides transparent insulation
(PV) and solar ponds are considered the minimal carbon footprint source toward heat loss due to natural convection. Finally, the bottom layer, the
because of their increasing affordability, adaptability, and availability LCZ, is a densely/uniformly saline area that accumulates solar thermal
[25]. For instance, it is reported that the estimated and cumulative energy as radioactivity forms. During the normal operation of solar
installed capacities of PV systems worldwide in 2017 were around 37.6 ponds, convective currents are overcome by the salinity gradient. It also
GW and 139.6 GW, which are equivalent to 53 and 55 %, respectively saves a large fraction of heat penetration from the upper part to the
[26]. Moreover, it is estimated that the cumulative installations reached bottom part of the pond. The main advantage of high salt density at the
around 600 GW and are projected to reach 4500 GW by 2050 [26]. Fig. 1 bottom is to exhibit free convection under a favorable absorption of
displays the overall distribution of the earth’s solar energy over different solar radiation and to maintain high temperatures in the deep areas
countries, receiving a sufficient amount of energy for human purposes [49,50]. Ultraviolet (UV) and visible region radiation absorb dense
[24]. Moreover, Fig. 2 shows countries that deploying or considering layers of water at the bottom. Although temperature/density gradients
solar pond systems in the most solar exposed areas. Examples are from are manifested by the salinity gradient of NCZ, the stagnant layer of NCZ
the United States (California, Arizona, and New Mexico) and the Middle also provides heat insulation to LCZ, where temperature can be achieved
East (Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Egypt, Libya etc.) up to 90 ◦ C [51].
[27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34]. Liu et al. [53] discussed the numerical simulation related to the
With the advancement of technology, solar energy has been utilized thermal performance of the trapezoidal solar pond. They investigated
via solar cells, solar chimneys, and solar ponds to generate electrical various models, i.e., the salt diffusion model, bottom reflection/radia
energy [35,36,37]. Over the past decade, solar ponds (SPs) have shown tion transmission model, and heat dissipation model. The proposed
significant attraction to incorporate/store solar radiation energy in the models showed an overall reduction of heat losses and turbidity in the
applications such as water desalination [38], salt-bed synthesis [39], upper convective zone and non-convective zones. Moreover, Rghif et al.
hydrogen production [40], refrigeration/air-conditioning [41,42], and [54] carried out experimental/numerical investigations with the help of
electricity generations [43]. With annual thermal collection efficiency in 2D transient model 2D Navier-Stokes, thermal energy, and diffusion
the range of 15–25 % and cost-effective over the area of 1000 m2, solar equations. They built a pond composed of thermally insulated vertical
Fig. 1. The distribution of the earth’s solar energy [24].
2
Fig. 2. Countries that are currently deploying/considering solar pond systems.
Fig. 3. Working illustration of solar ponds with salinity and temperature gradients [52].
walls (extruded polystyrene) with thermal conductivity of 0.03 W/m.K. [55] optimized the wall profile of solar ponds with the help of linear,
The proposed model showed a rise in temperature up to and to 48.03 ◦ C concave/convex parabolic walls with circular and square cross sections.
with a salt concentration of the LCZ of value 0.83 kg/m3. Verma and Das They assessed the performance based on the vertical wall geometry,
3
which showed a maximum power output. Njoku et al. [56] performed an et al. [71] introduced a stable mini solar pond of an area of 0.64 m2 with
optimized performance analysis with the help of energy and exergy average temperatures of 54 ◦ C in LCZ for 20 days and proposed a
considerations, involving a transient 1-D numerical model which mathematical model for temperature/salinity gradients. In 2011,
established a promising correlation between the performance and pre experimental works were made to investigate the heat extraction modes
vailing heat extraction rates for solar ponds. The results exhibited by SGSPs [72], the cellulosic gel effect on thermal storage by SSPs [73],
improved extraction energy/exergy efficiencies up to 63.0 % and 3.2 % and the hybrid power generation from thermosiphon and thermoelectric
for the LCZ with a thermal extraction mass flux rate of 3 × 10-4 kg/m2.s. modules [74]. The investigation on the utilization of the Trilateral Flash
In addition, similar studies based on the experimental and numerical Cycle for combined desalination and power generation integrated with
modeling of solar ponds have been reported [57,58,59,60]. The litera salinity gradient solar ponds was carried out in 2012, which paved new
ture review emphasized the applicability of SGSP-driven hybrid systems pathways for hybrid scale applications [75]. Moreover, the thermal
for small to large-scale applications. The novelty and technical contri performance of shallow solar ponds under open and closed cycle modes
butions of this study are focused on the implementation of salt addition of heat extraction was also reported in the preceding year [76]. Erden
based on novel compounds (improved thermal performance), semi- et al. [77] performed an investigation on hydrogen production by the
transparent/multilayer of acrylic bifunctional monomer insulation sys flat-plate collectors assisted by a solar pond [77]. Fig. 4 reveals the
tem on the upper surface of the pond (minimized heat losses), and the timeline of solar pond developments.
integrated hybrid system based on a proton exchange membrane fuel The smooth working of solar ponds depends on several factors such
cell (PEMFC) and a TEG (for electricity production). To the best of the as stable salinity/temperature gradients, appropriate thickness of three
authors’ knowledge, a detailed discussion on solar pond technology has layers (UCZ, NCZ, and LCZ), interlayer heat loss resistance to the sea
not yet been reported. The following section will provide a compre sonal changes, and avoiding deterioration of convective forces across
hensive analysis of current trends in solar energy integration with en the boundary zones [78]. The optimum thickness of NCZ plays an
ergy storage/generation and water desalination systems. To important part in the efficient operation of the solar pond as it maintains
demonstrate the elements impacting the effectiveness of the solar pond, salinity and thermal gradients. Any changes in the thickness would
energy balance equations from several case studies have been used. The result in the diminishing of the salinity gradient, which leads to heat
criteria for performance evaluation include the impact of density, tem transfer changes across other layers [79]. In addition, the convective
perature, solar radiation, insulation thickness, and the depth of various forces at LCZ can be disturbed by normal operation, i.e., heat extraction
layers. or salt addition [79,80]. Various kinds of salt addition with other forms
of novel compounds have been studied to investigate the performance of
2. Timeline of solar ponds developments solar ponds. NaCl, Na2CO3, ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate, urea
(NH2CONH2), KAl(SO4)2, MgCl2, and natural brine are the examples of
The idea of natural solar ponds was first discovered by Kalecsinsky the most commonly utilized as conventional salts and fertilizer salts for
[61] in the early 1900 s on a natural salt lake in Transylvania (Hungary). the solar pond applications [81]. On the other hand, environmental and
Kalecsinsky investigated the fluid temperature variation over a depth of operational parameters such as surrounding temperatures, rain, and
1.32 m, where the temperature remained at 70 ◦ C in summer and 26 ◦ C wind are considered negative factors for the operational stability of the
in winter. This observation was followed by the establishment of arti salinity/temperature gradients of the solar pond [72,82].
ficial solar ponds with a salinity gradient for the collection/storage of Nowadays, new advancements and synergic applications of solar
solar radiation energy. Rabl and Nielsen (1975) [62] developed small ponds have grabbed the attention of researchers and introduced a novel
salt gradient solar ponds to meet the space heat requirement of local dimension of research with the combination of hybrid systems
areas in Ohio State. Furthermore, Rabl and Nielsen [62] studied the [43,77,83,84]. Overall, the stability of the salinity gradient is a key issue
absorption of solar radiation energy with different artificially salinized for the best performance of solar pond technology. Several researchers
water in solar ponds and proposed mathematical modeling for temper have aimed at the discussion and implementation of theoretical models
ature variations. In addition, solar ponds were established in different [85,86,87,88]. Only a few examples of experimental studies in indus
areas across the world, like Washington State and Lake Vanda in the trial/prototype solar ponds are mentioned in the literature. With the
Antarctic, where coated iced layers were contained at 25 ◦ C tempera advancement of optimum designs and operational parameters, re
tures at the bottom part [49]. Low-temperature solar ponds were also searchers have improved the construction the state-of-the-art of solar
reported by several researchers Wilson and Wellman [63], Hoare [64], ponds. Furthermore, promising resulted-oriented solutions to opera
and Hudec and Sonnenfeld [65]. In 1981, Tabor [66] conducted a tional problems have been addressed in designs to enhance the overall
detailed experimental study on capturing low-cost thermal energy via efficiency of solar ponds. The present review offers a detailed discussion
solar ponds for the generation of electrical energy coupled with state-of- of various types and designs of solar ponds with a special focus on hybrid
the-art low-temperature turbo-generators. Moreover, Tabor investigated systems that can be deployed for power generation and water desali
two economical salts, i.e., NaCl and MgCl2, as salt gradient beds at the nation. The progress, challenges, and advancements of this technology
operating temperature of 90 ◦ C. In 1983, El Paso salinity gradient solar from concept to large-scale applications were explored and discussed.
ponds [67] was established for the application of water desalination, The impact of different designs of solar ponds, their applications, and
heat production, and electricity generation. El Paso research resulted in the most important industrial and domestic applications was outlined.
a high-temperature range of (60–90 ◦ C) and an improved heat extraction The major constraints and challenges correlated to the successful
system over sixteen years. In the early 2000 s, Jaefarzadeh [68] implementation of such technology were explored and discussed. The
extracted thermal energy from small SGSPs with an area and depth of review provides an economic and environmental analysis of solar ponds
4.0 m2 and 1.1 m, respectively. In his experimental study, internal heat in comparison with other power generation and water desalination
exchangers were utilized with water intake from LCZ of the solar pond technologies. Table 1 summarizes the utilization of typical salt solutions
and exchanged its thermal energy to external heat exchangers at 10 % and their contributions to the performance enhancement of solar ponds.
efficiency. Punyasena et al. [69] investigated the thermal stability of
saltpan solar ponds under varied climatic conditions (heavy rainfall/ 3. Design types and developments of solar ponds
wind-mixing). A stable temperature of up to 63 ◦ C was achieved in the
bottom of the large-area solar pond of 90 cm depth after 34 days. In Solar pond technology based on the storage/collection principles,
2004, Ramadan et al. [70] performed batch/open modes of heat extraction of heat for industrial/commercial applications, and efficient
extraction on the shallow solar pond (SSP) and achieved 644 W power conversion into useful electrical energy has been discussed in the sci
with a double glass cover for domestic applications like Tanta city. Dah entific literature. This section is focused on a brief discussion of various
4
Fig. 4. Timeline of solar pond developments.
types, construction, and new development of solar ponds. Solar ponds evaporation. The transmitted radiation travels rapidly through, and
are further categorized: (1) SGSPs, (2) shallow solar ponds (SSPs), (3) some of the heat is lost by convection and radiation heat transfer. NCZ is
solar gel ponds (SGPs), (4) equilibrium solar ponds (ESPs), (5) mem a relatively thicker part with a strong salt concentration gradient that
brane solar ponds (MSPs), and (6) partitioned solar pond (PSPs). All captures the remaining radiation from UCZ [104,105]. NCZ’s depth
these types are discussed briefly in the following sections. depends on operational temperature, the thermal conductivity of water,
and solar transmission properties. NCZ also provides heat insulation
from the bottom part. Eventually, the stored/absorbed energy gets
3.1. Salt gradient solar ponds (SGSPs) converted to heat in the bottom zone, i.e., LCZ with constant salt con
centration/temperature profiles. The LCZ contains heat absorbance
The SGSP is one of the most commonly utilized types of non- materials such as jet-black plastic film low/high-density polyethylene,
convecting solar ponds type. They are considered a potential candi woven polyester yarn, and Hypalon-reinforced nylon mesh [44].
date for commercially available thermodynamically/economically The thermal efficiency and effective performance of salt gradient
competitors as well as conventional energy technologies. Dr. Rudolph solar ponds are heavily dependent on certain factors [106], such as
Bloch (1954) proposed the initiative of creating artificial solar ponds incident solar radiation, heat losses from UCZ and walls, nature/mate
[102]. Typically, it is about 1–3 m deep and relatively shallow, which rial of insulation [107], layers thicknesses, salt consumption [101],
has the stability of a salinity gradient. The strong density gradient from stability of temperature profile, heat extraction mode [108] and estab
the bottom to the top overcomes the thermal convection across layers lishment of the salt gradient for long-term heat storage/extraction ap
and allows for maintaining the temperature by capturing solar radiation plications. Usually, the thermal efficiency of the salt gradient solar pond
energy. The presence of density gradient depends on the consumption of is in the range of 10–30 % for the storage zone temperature of 40–80 ◦ C
various salts such as NaCl, MgCl2, and NaNO3 with dissolution in water, [109].
and concertations are usually varied from 20 to 30 % at the bottom of Besides the potential advantages of SGSPs for the manifestation of
the pond and almost zero at the UCZ [44]. The increase in salinity also solar energy capture/storage, their low thermal efficiency is the main
decreases the thermal conduction of the salt solution and behaves as a operational problem. The research was carried out to enhance the effi
heat-insulating chamber in the pond [103]. cient performance of SGSPs. Alcaraz et al. [60] investigated improved
UCZ receives a part of the incident solar radiation, and the remaining thermal efficiency by conducting a series of experiments on solar pond
part is reflected in the surrounding environment. Most solar radiation pilot plants in different locations at different seasonal temperature
transmits through the top surface of the UCZ toward the bottom of the conditions. The heat extraction system was developed by using both
pond. The upper layer of water has nearly zero salt concertation, and lateral and bottom heat exchangers and achieved up to 80 %
some of the losses are associated with convection currents via wind and
5
Table 1
Summary of salt solutions and their contributions to solar ponds.
Authors Composition of salt solution Highlighting contributions Ref.
Karakilcik et al. Sodium chloride • The byproduct, i.e., NaOH, Cl2, and H2 [40]
(NaCl) solution The solar radiation intensity of 600 W/m2
Maximum energy/exergy efficiencies of 22.47 and 17.02 %,
respectively.
Kurt et al. Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) • A temperature difference of 12 ◦ C between UCZ and LCZ [89]
16 % salinity range.
Kurt and Ozkaymak Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) • A temperature difference of 21 ◦ C between UCZ and LCZ [90]
18 % salinity range.
13.33 % thermal efficiency at a radiation intensity of 524 W/m2
Berkani et al. Sodium chloride • The highest temperature of 75.09 ◦ C with CaCl2 [91]
(NaCl), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), and calcium chloride Quick thermal response of CaCl2
(CaCl2)
Bozkurt et al. Saturated magnesium chloride (MgCl2) • Maximum energy/exergy efficiencies of 27.41 and 26.04 %, [92]
respectively.
LCZ temperature of 52 ◦ C
Sodium chloride • LCZ temperatures for NaCl and coal cinder are 43 and 37 ◦ C, [93]
(NaCl) and coal cinder respectively.
The solar radiation intensity of 835 W/m2
Assari et al. Mixtures of Sodium chloride (NaCl) and sodium sulfate • LCZ temperature of 48 ◦ C [94]
(Na2SO4) High thermal efficiency of 93 %
Maximum heat extraction with 0.75 % Na2SO4
Dineshkumar and Raja Potassium nitrite-potassium nitrate (KNO2-KNO3) mixture • Maximum LCZ temperature of 66 ◦ C [95]
Energy efficiency up to 33.5 %
Sathisha and Sodium chloride (NaCl) and Pebbles • The solar radiation intensity of 950 W/m2 [96]
Jegadheeswaran Maximum LCZ temperature of 32 ◦ C
Ines et al. Salt hydrates phase change material (PCM) • Maximum LCZ temperature of 55 ◦ C [97]
Enhanced thermal stratification
Marx et al. Potassium sulfate (K2SO4) • Less bittern remains [98]
Desai et al. Nitrogen-phosphorous-potassium (NPK) salts • A maximum temperature drop of 30 ◦ C [99]
High energy storage density
Stappen et al. Brine shrimp Artemia • Improvement in salinity stability [100]
Nie et al. Natural brine from Zabuye Salt Lake • Maximum LCZ temperature of 39.1 ◦ C [101]
34.4 % salinity range
effectiveness in the hot season. Verma and Das [110] proposed an carbonate solution at LCZ and showed a supersaturation of lithium
analytical model via a three-zone heat extraction system for the carbonate with an increased yield of lithium from 48.3 % to over 80 %
improved thermal power output, which increases with the mass flow [116,117].
rates of heat exchangers. Date et al. [107] developed an experimental The establishment of a salt gradient depends on the attributes such as
study on the bottom insulation with an optimum thickness of poly the nature of salt, high dissolution with high solution densities, stability
styrene. Beiki and Soukhtanlou [111] dispersed three nanoparticles, i.e., with varying temperatures, transparency to solar radiations, eco-
SiO2, Fe3O4, and ZnO, in water and achieved a maximum LCZ temper friendly, easy to use, and ease of availability on-site location at low
ature of 47 ◦ C at a thermal efficiency of 35 %. Moreover, Hua Wang et al. costs [118]. The addition of saturated salt solution at the lowest part can
[112] introduced porous materials at the bottom layer of the solar pond, provide appropriate stability to the salt gradients. Natural diffusion,
such as marbles, limestones, and cinders, with a detailed study on stacking, redistribution, and falling are some methods for the efficient
transient exergic performance. The experimental results showed high establishment/maintenance of salt gradient across solar ponds. Natural
temperature, high volume heat capacity at low thermal diffusivity in diffusion involves the presence of a large area where the layers of ponds
SGSPs with a maximum energy efficiency of about 33 % and exergy are constantly maintained by keeping the water and salt concentrations
efficiency of 20 %. Nourollahi et al. [113] investigated the enhanced to a certain level. It is a relatively slow process, and it needs an infinite
performance of solar pond layers under various climatic conditions by time for the build-up of salinity gradient [119]. Stacking consists of
employing the Taguchi method. At LCZ’s optimum thickness of 190 cm, multi-layers of salt solutions with varied concentrations dispersed with
the maximum temperature of 102.6 ◦ C was achieved. Assari et al. [94] high-concentration solutions. Generally, the LCZ layers are filled first,
conducted experimental studies with the mixture of NaCl/Na2SO4 to and gradually, the other layers are floated upon the lower denser layers,
optimize the salt gradient, radiation flux, and layer temperature with hence, making a salt gradient from the bottom saturation to upper
internal heat exchangers. Moreover, NaCl/Na2SO4 was considered a freshwater with negligible salt concentrations [120]. Turbulent mixing
phase change material (PCMs) for heat/salinity stability during the heat and continuous molecular diffusion support the mechanisms of stacked
extraction process [94]. Poyyamozhi and Karthikeyan [114] enhanced salt concentration across the pond’s depth. In addition, redistribution
the performance of solar ponds with the addition of PCM (paraffin wax) methods are the most preferable for the large area pond [121]. It consists
and nanomaterials (carbon nanotubes and silver-titanium oxide) and of a diffusor system that acts as a stirrer and injected freshwater into
showed an increased energy storage capacity of the solar pond by 7.8, homogeneous salt layers. Diffusor uniformly distributes the brine with
21.8, and 25 % with pristine paraffin wax, silver-titanium oxide/paraffin continuous upward/downward/stepwise movements until all zones
wax, and carbon nanotubes/paraffin wax, respectively. The extraction become uniform salt concentration gradient. The falling pond method is
of maximum heat energy from the solar pond is the primary goal for an considered an efficient approach that involves continuous withdrawal of
optimum design/construction at the cost of minimum maintenance/ the hot brine (water and salt) from the lowest past. It causes no effect on
corrosion problems. It requires a heat exchanger/diffuser assembly the upper layers and moves towards a flash evaporator, which makes
placed at the bottom or near the bottom of solar ponds [115]. In another sure high concentration/small volume and moves the water back to the
study, SGSPs have been used to extract lithium from carbonate salt so pond, hence, maintaining the salt concentration gradient. Makeup water
lution (direct mineral exploitation) with the addition of sodium is also added to fulfill the deficiency of low water levels during the
6
evaporations phenomenon [115]. developed SSPs based on the plastic bag water heater method and pro
The researchers have continued their experimental investigations for posed a honeycomb structure with two partitioned transparent foils. The
the enhancement of thermal efficiency of salt gradient solar ponds as a system was composed of a black PVC film acting as an absorber, and a
competitive candidate for thermodynamic/economic aspects in com transparent cover that sealed the water inlet/outlet ends [124]. Kudish
parison with other conventional energy technologies. and Wolf [125] discussed the idea of portable/compact SSPs with a PVC
pond encapsulated inside an insulated wooden container. The upper
layer was glazed with 0.1 mm Tedlar film, and the container served itself
3.2. Shallow solar ponds (SSPs)
for two purposes: (1) solar reflector via aluminized mylar film in
daylight and (2) thermal insulator for heated water storage. Gopffarth
SSPs are used to supply heat energy to a large quantity of water for
et al. [126] experimented on a horizontal plastic shallow solar pond
industrial/domestic applications and work on the same principle as
water heater where the outer mirror due were placed to promote the rate
SGSPs at a competitive cost of solar energy conversion into low-grade
of solar energy collection in the daylight. The top layer was covered with
thermal energy. SSPs are the cheapest, simplest in design, and most
a polyethylene water bag, while the bottom part was held inside Sty
promising method for harnessing solar energy. Thermal efficiency with
rofoam/Tedlar box in a wooden framework. Aboul-Enein et al. [127]
and without glass cover has been reported as 40 % and 33 %, respec
investigated the thermal performance of SSP under the batch mode of
tively, with SSPs [122]. In SSPs, water’s depth is typically 4–15 cm and
heat extraction. They also carried out a detailed discussion about effect
covered by the plastic film on the upper water layers, which is likewise a
of the pond’s water depth, wind speed, and insulation thicknesses on the
conventional solar pot where evaporation of saltwater by solar heat also
configurational and operational performances. The experimental results
takes place and causes a cooling effect [70]. In addition, the bottom
showed a maximum temperature of about 60 ◦ C at sunset and 47 ◦ C at
surface is also covered with black film or paint, which absorbs solar
sunrise and were considered promising for most domestic applications.
radiation rapidly. In general, several losses (conduction, convection, and
A similar study was carried out by Ramadan et al. [70], who performed
radiation) factors/mechanisms of thermal absorption reduce the po
experiments on SSPs to determine the heat loss coefficients, the rates of
tential performance of the total sun’s energy. The consumption of suit
energy losses, and energy collection under open/batch modes of heat
able insulation materials can prevent these losses and help to improve
extraction. A heat exchanger was welded to the bottom of the pond’s
the overall performance of designs for both water bag types and large-
absorber plate and achieved an average temperature of 48.5 ◦ C.
scale SSPs. For instance, convection/radiation losses can be avoided
Thermal performance can be enhanced by minimizing the heat los
by covering transparent sheets on the pond surface, i.e., glazing [123].
ses, which paved novel pathways for the utilization of semitransparent/
Fig. 5 shows a schematic diagram and the thermal process in the shallow
multilayer insulation system integration on the upper surface of the
solar pond [123].
pond. These efforts were previously addressed from flat-plate/
The idea of SSPs was first discovered by Sodha et al. [124], who
Fig. 5. A schematic diagram and the thermal process in the shallow solar pond [123].
7
convecting solar collectors [128,129]. In addition, factors such as inci good optical and low thermal conductivities are key attributes of poly
dent angles/spectral compositions of the solar radiations, effective mer gel [138]. Gum Arabic, locust bean gum, starch, and gelatin are
transmission/absorption of radiation in water, and water quality play an examples of polymers that are potentially utilized in solar gel pond
important part in the performance of SSPs. Vitoshkin et al. [130] dis technology [115]. Fig. 6 displays an experimental gel pond at the Uni
cussed thermal properties and total heat flux through semitransparent/ versity of New Mexico (UNM) [139].
multilayer insulation with a focus on glass, polymers, and Al-films, In the history of solar gel ponds, Wilkins (1991) [140] developed the
which resulted in overall heat transfer coefficients up to 70–80 %. A design, construction, and start-up of a solar gel pond with an area of 400
similar study was carried out by Kamiuto and Oda [131], who investi m2 with 5 m depth and located in New Mexico, USA. The gel thickness of
gated the transient heat-storage/collection performance with an incre 0.60 m was maintained with Tedlar bags. The salt concentration in LCZ
ment of surface-insulation layers for shallow solar-pond water. was 2–7 wt% or higher. For the first year of operation with this design,
Moreover, the introduction of a baffle plate inside the system was also SGP achieved a temperature of 60 ◦ C without gel-degradation [140].
explained experimentally by researchers. The enhanced thermal per Yogev and Mahlab [141] synthesized a gel by copolymerizing an acrylic
formance of SSPs can be attributed to good contact between the insu uni-functional monomer/acrylic bifunctional monomer in an aqueous
lation and the covering material. The thermal efficiency was solution in the presence of sunlight. The resulting gel was highly
considerably higher as compared to SSPs without baffles [132]. In transparent, stable to solar radiation, and a thermal insulator for
addition, SSP with an integrated black-painted baffle plate was studied conductive heat loss to the medium above the gel. Their novel invention
theoretically/experimentally in batch operation at varied mass flow achieved a peak temperature of 100 ◦ C or greater (approximately to a
rates of water. The experimental validation showed that baffle plates boiling pint of water) [141]. In a similar study, Wilkins and Michael
made from Al and mica achieved a temperature of 71 ◦ C in the afternoon [142] cross-linked polyacrylamide to achieve maximum heat extraction
and 43 ◦ C in the early morning with peak thermal efficiency of 64.3 % efficiency. The resulting gel was dispersed on the saltwater surface,
[132]. Dutt et al. [133] incorporated an inclined strong/rigid baffle which remarkably showed good transparent and thermally insulating
plate in SSP and proposed a simplified design at a low cost. Kooi [134] properties in LCZ. Matsumoto et al. [143] discussed ionized poly
concluded that a circular cylindrical reflector was more effective than acrylamide solution as of thicknesses (1–15 cm)/insulating layer for
other options for harnessing tilted solar energy. An increased annual solar gel pond with a concentration in the range of 0.1–0.5 wt%. An
electrical energy production by 40 % was the major outcome of this exposure test was carried out for the possible degradation of the polymer
arrangement. and obtained a temperature of up to 80 ◦ C. Sozhan et al. [144] implied
Moreover, the thermal performance of the SSP with batch/open polymer gel (carbo-wax) with astonishing characteristics of solubility
modes of heat extraction was briefly discussed in the literature. For with hot/cold liquids, physical/chemically uniformity, non-opaque,
instance, Aboul-Enein et al. [127] investigated theoretically and high viscosity, non-toxic, high solar insolation absorptivity, low-cost,
experimentally the thermal performance of SSP under the batch mode of and corrosion resistance. They also considered a glass pond of solution
heat extraction with double glass covers, and an outer tilt angled mirror of 3–8 % NaCl used to construct the storage zone (LCZ) by using two
angle and showed a maximum temperature of 60 ◦ C at sunset with 88 L insulators, i.e., sawdust and polystyrene. Furthermore, 1 cm polymer
of hot water. Furthermore, El-Sebaii et al. [135] studied SSP under an thickness achieved a transmissivity of 97.43 %, which led to the
open-cycle heat extraction operation with a serpentine heat exchanger. pathway for the future potential of the solar gel pond with appreciable
They achieved a maximum temperature of 60 ◦ C at a solar radiation gel thickness for performance enhancement [144]. Jayaprakash et al.
value of 910 W/m2 at noon with a mass flow of 0.004 kg/s. Moreover, [73] utilized carboxymethyl cellulose gel for coving the layers of liquid
single-slope single-basin solar still was integrated with SSP under an and studied the effect of thickness on the performance of solar gel ponds.
open cycle with welded heat exchanger. At an optimum mass flow rate Sayer et al. [145] conducted experimental studies to grasp the behavior
of 0.0009 kg/s, the annual average values of the daily productivity and by introducing a thin layer (0.5 cm) of paraffin in Nasiriyah, Iraq, which
efficiency of the still with the SSP were 52.36 and 43.80 %, respectively, significantly reduced the rate of evaporation with a uniform tempera
higher than those without the SSP [136]. Besides, a comparative thermal ture profile after 50 days of operations. They also investigated the fac
analysis of the solar pond was carried out under open and closed cycle tors such as relative humidity, wind speed, surrounding temperature
continuous flow heating modes of heat extraction, and performances profile at low/extreme seasons, and the rate of dust accumulation on
were evaluated theoretically and experimentally [76]. With the inser paraffin layers. In addition, various analytical models on thermal
tion of the serpentine heat exchanger, the efficiencies were achieved at behavior, the optimum thickness of the non-convective layer (gel), and
59 and 33 % under the closed and open cycle modes, respectively. In a thermal efficiencies have been conducted, such as the Kooi model [146],
similar study, Ramadan et al. [70] experimentally investigated both Wang and Akbarzadeh model [147], and Bansal & Kaushik model [148].
modes and summarized the results in terms of heat loss coefficients, the Wang and Akbarzadeh achieved a temperature difference between the
rates of energy losses, and energy collection. Batch, closed, and open storage zone or LCZ/ambient environment up to 20 ◦ C and with annual
cycle (continuous) are the main three modes of operation for heat insolation of 250 W m− 2. Overall, Bansal and Kaushik model obtained
extraction in SSPs. Overall, the open cycle mode was preferably better thermal efficiency of 39 %, which was high than the Kooi model (37.2
than the batch/closed mode of heat extractions as heat is continuously %) and Wang and Akbarzadeh (32 %) [44]. Furthermore, those models
removed by heat exchanger assemblies with a constant rate of water in/ were investigated based on pond performance, which accounted for the
out circulation [70]. effect of ambient temperature, insulation, and storage temperature.
Campbell et al. [149] explored the optimal thicknesses of different
3.3. Solar gel ponds (SGPs) layers concerning temperature profiles and investigated the viability of
gel solar pond Runge-Kutta method via a transient thermal/economic
Another type of solar pond is the concept of the solar gel pond, which analysis.
shows remarkable advantages over other solar technology. It doesn’t In general, the solar gel ponds capitally cost more than SGSPs and
account for evaporation losses and salt concentration gradient, hence, can be considered a potential alternative to SGSPs only if the cheap/
minimizing the operational costs as well. In the working principle, the environmentally friendly polymers are synthesized and utilized as gel
lower convective zone is covered with a thick layer of polymer gel (in materials in the ponds. In addition, they could provide potential solu
termediate density of water and salt solution) and remains non- tions to the shortcomings of SGSPs.
convective throughout the operations [137]. The floating of polymer
gel on the surface also diminishes the salt leakage and the need of
handling salt, which can also cause environmental hazards. Besides,
8
Fig. 6. Schematic illustration of solar gel pond [139].
3.4. Equilibrium solar ponds (ESPs) the water layer zones. These high transparent membranes can be a
balanced arrangement of horizontal or vertical tubes/sheets, which
The establishment/maintenance of the salt concentration gradient in should be small in space and bulk in number in opposition to convection
the presence of insulating layers is the major concern of solar ponds, [138,153]. The membranes provide physical separation of LCZ from
which can be addressed with the insulating pond of non-convective fluid other layers and hinder the disruptions/interactions of LCZ and upper
layers, i.e., equilibrium solar ponds (ESPs). The working principle of a layers. It also increases buoyancy stability to layers during thermal
saturated solar pond is based on the solubility of the salt, which in extraction. On the other hand, the addition of transparent membranes
creases with temperature increments. The presence of an appropriate has a notorious effect on optical properties like reflection, transmission,
quantity of salts (solutes) can build a remarkable temperature gradient and absorption, which also decrease the performance of the pond [154].
through saturated/super-saturated concentration gradient conditions. Yeh and Ma [155] discussed the thermal behavior of membrane-solar
The strong dependence of solubility on the temperature leads to the ponds with vertical tube arrangements held in square cells and
stability of the salt gradient in solar ponds [150]. Hence, the study of the compared them with SGSP. The theoretical results showed that insola
equilibrium solar pond is carried out in comparison with the saturated tion transmission via the insulating zone was enhanced with time
solar pond with potential advantages. One of the key advantages of ESPs –temperature variations. In addition, Sathish and Jegadheeswaran
is the easy elimination of the salt concentration maintenance at regular [156] studied 4 mm thick horizontal glass as a transparent membrane,
intervals, i.e., zero salt flux, which also decreases the overall operational and the salt concertation profile was maintained with the help of NaCl.
costs as well with the help of available experimental techniques in the After a 5 day of operation, they achieved average temperature at LCZ,
literature. The net-zero salt flux is maintained by the balance of regular NCZ and UCZ recorded as 51, 46, and 42 ◦ C, respectively, and thermal
and cross-diffusion salt fluxes, which also stabilizes the concentration performance was comparable to SGSPs.
gradient [151]. In ESPs, a significant cold fluid is needed for the crys
tallization, which can also reduce the intensity/penetration of solar ra
diations while in the saturated solar pond, even the slightest cooling can 3.6. Partitioned solar ponds (PSPs)
cause crystallization. In addition, the bottom of ESPs is free from solid
salt accumulation, hence, the energy can be more absorbed as compared Partitioned solar ponds are a special class of solar ponds that are
to saturated ponds. These advantages improve the thermal efficiency of usually used for large-scale solar energy collection and long-term stor
ESPs as well by achieving high bottom temperatures (below the boiling age for industrial/commercial applications, especially power produc
point of the salt solution) [44]. The most common salt examples are tion. Solar ponds face operational problems such as algae/bacteria
Na2B4O7 (borax), KAl(SO4)2 (potassium alum), CaCl2 (calcium dichlor growth of algae and bacteria, dust accumulation, loss of water during
ide), MgCl2 (magnesium dichloride), and NH4NO3 (ammonium nitrate). evaporation, and deterioration of salt concentration gradient during
Sreenivas et al. [152] briefly explained Nielsen’s equilibrium by using heat extractions [157]. These problems are suppressed by the intro
turbulent entrainment and cross-diffusion of the gradient zone and duction of transparent partitions on the top/bottom of the surface of the
summarized the results. These results paved a path for future predictions pond, which significantly reduces reflective losses at water-partition
and showed the dependence of equilibrium conditions on the mixed interfaces. One of the key advantages of the partitions in PSPs is the
layer depth, salinity, and temperature gradients. stability and enhanced heat extraction efficiency, which is attributed to
the separation of the insulating layer from the convective layer. More
over, lower stiff partitions (glass) and flexible partitions (Tedlar sheet)
3.5. Membrane solar ponds (MSPs) are recommended to balance the buoyancy driving forces [115]. Heat
extraction just below the partition can be obtained by running the
Membrane solar ponds (MSPs) are classified as non-salt and parti freshwater through heat exchanger assemblies, which also cause
tioned solar ponds, where transparent membranes are inserted among improved convection. Kaushik et al. [158] performed a detailed analysis
9
of the performance of PSPs with temperatures and heat fluxes evalua 4.1. Direct heat extraction mode
tion. By introducing mathematical modeling governed by the Fourier
heat conduction equation, thermal efficiencies of values 42, 33.5, 29.55, In direct heat extraction mode, the hot brine solution is directly
and 26.5 % were predicted at temperatures of 40, 60, 80, and 100 ◦ C, withdrawn from the top of LCZ via a pump with an external heat
respectively. However, based on a real solar-pond system, the efficiency exchanger assembly where the heat of the brine solution is exchanged
was found to be upraised with ambient temperatures. Table 2 represents with cold water and then returned at a low temperature to the bottom of
a summary of the various structural advancements in solar ponds. LCZ, as shown in Fig. 7 [72]. The brine pump velocity is carefully
monitored for the prevention of salt erosion at the interface of LCZ and
4. Heat extraction modes and storage in solar ponds NCZ. This method is considered a better option for heat transfer effec
tiveness as compared to the indirect mode of heat extraction. The
The previous part of the discussions has focused on the early history remarkable characteristics are cost-effectiveness, minimal heat losses,
and the various types of solar ponds for the storage of maximum thermal fewer control systems, and good for localized applications. It is usually
energy from solar radiations. Thermal efficiency can be defined as the used for shallow solar ponds (SSPs), which also showed a promising
ratio of the amount of extracted heat to the actual amount of solar ra performance towards thermal efficiency. Angeli et al. [167] performed
diation incident upon a pond over a specified time (solar insolation) mathematical analysis by using a finite-difference approach and a U-
[166]. The thermal performance/efficiency of the solar ponds is shape design was proposed with an external heat exchanger assembly. In
dependent on heat extraction mechanisms, which are also connected addition, Yaakob et al. [168] investigated a method of extracting heat
with the salinity gradient and stability of the ponds. A significant and from a solar pond via theoretical modeling of a thermosiphon heat
effective heat extraction also depends on the design and energy collected exchanger (THE). Overall, about 2283 W of heat was extracted from the
LCZ. The stored thermal energy can be extracted by two modes for the lab-scale model with a focus on the improvement of the overall thermal
power generation/desalination systems, i.e., direct, and indirect heat efficiency of solar ponds. In addition, various studies on the application
extraction modes. of direct heat extraction mode have been reported in the literature as
reported by Date et al. [169]. Leblanc et al. [72] extracted heat from the
gradient layer, which was further experimentally/theoretically investi
Table 2
gated. A polyethylene pipe-based heat exchanger received heat from a
Summary of the various structural advancements in solar ponds.
gradient layer with a thermal efficiency of up to 55 %. However, this
Authors Design modifications Highlighting contributions Ref.
novel method of heat extraction needs more experimental investigation
Bozkurt et al. Transparent covers • High energy savings and [159] based on brine extraction/re-injection, stability of the salinity gradient,
(glass, polycarbonate, storage economic feasibility, and overall improved thermal efficiencies. Tundee
and mica) Reduction in thermal
et al. [170] presented an experimental/theoretical analysis of the heat
energy losses.
The highest efficiency of extraction mode from LCZ. A small-scale solar pond of 1.5 m deep and an
glass is 17.86 % among area of 7.0 m2 in Thailand, was constructed. Heat energy was taken out
other covers. via a two-phase heat pipe heat exchanger (HPHE) and achieved
Assari et al. Glazing plastic cover • Maximum temperature of [160]
maximum effectiveness of 43 % with the air inlet velocity decreased
rectangular and circular
solar ponds with 74 and
from 5 to 1 m/s. The theoretical modeling based on the effectiveness-
71 ◦ C, respectively. NTU approach showed good agreement with the experimental study
Reduction in heat losses with a maximum temperature of 40 ◦ C for 3 h of the heat extraction
and accumulation of dust. operation. Shallow solar ponds (SSPs) usually work on the batch mode of
Ganesh and Transparent PVC • The highest temperature of [122]
heat extraction (other types of direct heat extraction). The hot brine or
Arumugam plastic sheet 81.5 ◦ C.
The maximum rate of water is taken out directly from the LCZ without any heat exchanger
energy is up to 260 W with assemblies. Cost-effectiveness and ease of implementation are two major
an efficiency of 66 %. concerns in the experimental adaptation of external heat exchangers for
Sayer et al. Paraffin cover layer • Negligible evaporation loss [145]
commercial applications. In this regard, special attention has been dis
LCZ maximum
temperature of 51 ◦ C.
cussed to internal heat exchangers and compared to both performances
Silva et al. Floating discs • LCZ maximum temperature [161] to minimize the economic concerns in the assessed literature.
of 49.1 ◦ C.
Reduction in evaporation 4.2. Indirect heat extraction mode
loss.
Dhindsa and Glass-covered vertical • Total productivity of 56.92 [162]
Mittal section %. The indirect heat extraction mode involves an internal heat
Daily cumulative exchanger in LCZ where the heat energy is transferred to the cold
efficiency of 80.29 %. working fluid by conduction/convection, which is further pumped to an
Enhanced diurnal
external fluid–fluid heat exchanger. Then the working fluid is returned
productivity.
Dhindsa and Double-glass-covered • LCZ thermal efficiency of [163] at a low temperature to the bottom of LCZ, as shown in Fig. 8 [72]. A
Mittal trapezoidal section 32.73 %. heat transfer takes place in a closed cycle, i.e., (1) extraction of stored
The sunny area ratio is 11 thermal energy through an internal heat exchanger and (2) transfer of
% more than the cuboid the thermal energy through an external heat exchanger. The high
section.
Padhi and Inclined pyramid • Distillate output by 12–27 [164]
lighting features are zero-scaling formations inside the pump, fewer
Kumar single basin solar pond %. maintenance costs, and can be used as a central heating system to supply
Enhanced water heat energy to multiple locations.
purification efficiency by up In addition, open/closed cycle modes of heat extraction are also
to 16 %.
employed in SSPs [127]. In an open cycle mode, the continuous flow of
Wang et al. Coal clinder at bottom • High LCZ temperature of [165]
84 ◦ C. water takes place between the internal heat exchanger placed at the LCZ
Salinity range of 5–30 %. and the insulated reservoir. While, in the closed cycle, heat is taken out
Cheap material with from the bottom of the pond through a heat exchanger, and then it is
perfect thermal transmitted to the storage tank by another heat exchanger [127]. In the
performance.
literature, the pond performances are compared experimentally/
10
Fig. 7. Direct heat extraction mode with external heat exchanger [72].
Fig. 8. Indirect heat extraction mode with external heat exchanger [72].
theoretically under both batch/open cycle modes of heat extraction efficiency was recorded. Moreover, Andrews and Akbarzadeh [177]
(continuous flow-heating) as reported by Ramadan et al. [70], El-Sebaii proposed an alternative method of heat extraction from the gradient
et al. [76], and Monjezi and Campbell [171]. layer and the LCZ of the pond. The effect of gradient-layer thickness and
Several investigations have been summarized by Natarajan et al. heat rates from NCZ/UCZ on the energy efficiency of the pond was also
[172], Sathish and Jegadheeswaran [173], Khalilian et al. [108], investigated. Zeynali et al. [178] discussed different working fluids in
Musharavati et al. [174], Kumar et al. [175], and Raju et al. [176]. internal heat exchangers to study the performance cycle for the power
Jaefarzadeh [68] designed an internal heat exchanger, which used the generations, i.e., organic Rankine cycle (ORC), trilateral flash cycle
circulation of freshwater from LCZ and exchanged its heat with an (TFC), and their modified forms. The results exhibited that the energy/
external heat exchanger. A detailed analysis was carried out on the effect exergy efficiency of the ORC was significantly better than those of the
of the hourly/daily temperature variations in LCZ, UCZ, NCZ, and the TFC. Assari et al. [94] arranged five SGSPs with internal heat exchanger
inlet/outlet of the internal heat exchanger. Overall, a low thermal assemblies in the presence of mixtures of NaCl and Na2SO4. Ziapour
11
et al. [179] selected two-phase closed thermosyphons as large/rational industrial SGSP in Spain and marked the maximum temperature of
system sizes with high heat transfer capacity, as illustrated in Fig. 9. This about 60 ◦ C in August. The overall performance was evaluated, which
model was compared with the single-phase mode heat transfer. The showed a good reduction in fuel oil consumption by up to 68 % and an
results obtained the optimum size of the pond layers thickness as δUCZ = increased thermal efficiency of up to 28 %. Bozkurt et al. [185] pre
0.3 m, δNCZ = 1 m, and δLCZ = 1.2 m with LCZ temperature of 100 ◦ C in sented an experimental/theoretical investigation of the different sizes of
the presence of toluene as the working fluid. solar ponds for solar storage. The results showed a maximum heat
Aramesh et al. [180] discussed a transient modeling method for the storage performance of 30.16 % and a temperature of 68.84 ◦ C for
heat extraction process by inserting a tube in the center of LCZ of the August. In addition, phase change material (PCM) for thermal energy
hypothetical pond in Tehran. For all three months, i.e., August, storage (TES) has been discussed and attributed to high energy storage
September, and November, the rate of heat extraction was higher in density at a constant temperature [186]. Kasaeian et al. [187] presented
August (about 40 % of the operation time), which reduced after 70 % of a detailed study on the integration of a solar pond with phase change
the total operation and became zero at steady-state conditions. material (PCM) latent heat storage. A comparison was carried out based
Furthermore, water-based nanofluids, i.e., Ag/water, Cu/water, CuO/ on theoretical (the finite difference method) and experimental (two
water, Al2O3/water, SWCNT/water, and MWCNT/water with different parallel/series configurations) investigations. The average efficiency
concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 5 % were considered [181]. The with PCM was increased by 6.1 % for the series layout and 5.4 % for the
results from a hypothetical rectangular solar pond showed a maximum parallel layout, comparable to the pristine solar pond. A similar study
amount of ~10.29 GJ heat extraction for the SWCNT/water nano-fluid was carried out by Ines to predict the simulator specter’s effect on the
[181]. temperature distribution among the different layers of the pond [97].
Table 3 displays an overview of heat extraction and storage methods in
solar ponds.
4.3. Heat storage
5. Applications of salt gradient solar ponds
The effective performance of solar ponds is also associated with heat
storage. The researchers have focused their attention on the optimiza Solar pond technologies have played a vital role in the collection,
tion of the supply/extraction of thermal energy from the solar pond storage, and continuous supply of heat for various low-grade energy
under different conditions of operation. Zhou et al. [182] investigated a industrial/commercial applications. These applications also include salt
novel method of heat extraction and coupled a solar pond with a solar production via improved evaporation and remarkable purification of
chimney power system. The results showed a promising power genera salt, refrigeration/air-conditioning, desalination, domestic/industrial
tion of up to 5 MW in the daytime and 2.21 MW in the night operation. process heat, electric power generation, etc., [104,188]. A detailed
Moreover, improved combined power outputs were attributed to high discussion of the potential applications is given in the following sections.
collector temperature and the mass flow rates of hot brine. Valderrama
et al. [183] constructed a cylindrical SGSP for the capturing and storage
of solar energy in the presence of salt (NaCl). The pilot plant achieved a 5.1. Hybrid systems
maximum temperature of 55 ◦ C in August and further studies were
conducted on the stability of salt gradient and heat storage under 5.1.1. Hybrids for solar power generation systems
different weather conditions. Alcaraz et al. [184] developed a 500 m2 Nowadays, the gradual rise in the consumption of fossil fuels for
Fig. 9. (a) Conventional solar pond, (b) Two-phase closed thermosyphon solar pond [179].
12
Table 3 investigation resulted in the setting up of a large-scale solar pond plant

An overview of heat extraction and storage methods. of area 2,50,000 m2 area with a 5 MW ORC turbine and generated 800
Authors Design modifications Highlighting contributions Ref. kW [193]. Mittal et al. [51] discussed the performance of the ORC and
air turbine with an internal heat exchanger for different working fluids,
Angeli U-shaped solar pond • Stabilized salinity-gradient. [167]
et al. with external heat Analysis and reduction of which demonstrated excellent energy/exergy efficiency and good ther
exchanger the diffusion problems. mal energy conversion into electrical energy. In a similar study, a
Yaakob External thermosiphon • Heat extraction up to 2283 W. [168] thermoelectric generator (TEG) and ORC with Solar were discussed by
et al. heat exchangers Up to 30 % improved using climate data of Palermo city (Italy) and showed an increased
thermal efficiency.
Aramesh Transient heat • The heat source for ORC. [180]
power output of 5561 kWh at an efficiency of 6.7 % [194]. In recent
et al. extraction Predictability of the thermal years, the concept of hybrid systems has revolutionized power genera
behavior of rectangular ponds. tion with salt gradient solar ponds [195,196]. The integration of SGSPs
LCZ temperature of 56 ◦ C. with low-grade temperature power generation systems is briefly studied
Aramesh Water-based • LCZ temperature of 98.66 ◦ C [181]
in the literature, i.e., ORC [197,198,199,200], thermosyphon modules,
et al. nanofluids with 40.5093 GJ of stored
thermal energy. thermoelectric cells/ generator, ejector refrigeration, and desalination
Maximum heat extraction of systems. The following section is focused on the contribution of SGSPs in
10.2892 GJ by SWCNT/water. power output systems.
El-Sebaii Serpentine heat • Thermal efficiency of 59 and [76]
et al. exchangers 33 % under closed and open
cycle modes, respectively. 5.1.1.1. Organic Rankine cycle (ORC). Over the past decades, the con
Temperatures in the closed- sumption of energy resources has risen the waste of heat energy, i.e., hot
cycle mode are higher than in flue gases from industrial plants and turbines, which are being discarded
the open-cycle mode. in the environment without considering the effects of hazards and
Tundee Heat pipe heat • A 43 % increased [170]
et al. exchanger with R134a effectiveness.
pollution. There are several ways to convert low-grade waste heat as an
working fluid The heat extraction rate of auxiliary application. Low-grade thermal energy is converted into
about 100 W. electrical energy via solar thermal power, industrial waste heat power
Optimum air inlet velocity generation, geothermal power generation, biomass power generation,
of 1 m/s.
and so on. Ordinary steam power cycles are based on high-pressure
Ziapour Two-phase closed • Optimized layer thicknesses. [179]
et al. thermosyphons Size reduction of the steam where the temperature goes beyond 500 ◦ C. As water is abun
wickless heat pipe. dantly available in the universe and is the most preferable working fluid
Improved thermal over the other fluids. With remarkable characteristics such as a high
efficiency. boiling point, large latent heat of vaporization, high specific heat ca
Ould Dah Internal heat • LCZ temperature of 54 ◦ C. [71]
pacity, and non-toxic/non-hazardous, it’s mostly used in thermal engi
et al. exchanger Reduction of the lower
interface stability. neering for various applications. Steam power cycles are not suitable for
Date et al. Heat extraction from • 47 % improved efficiency. [169] low temperature/pressure conditions due to large exhaust steam
different layers of solar Enhance mass fluxes of the enthalpy [201].
pond heat exchanger.
On the other hand, the ORC is deployed for harnessing the low-grade
A stable temperature
difference of 20 ◦ C. waste heat and generally works between 80 and 250 ◦ C [202]. The ORC
Bozkurt Prediction of heat • Theoretical/experimental [185] has shown significant attraction, which includes economical utilization
et al. storage model efficiency of 28.41 and 30.16 of energy resources, a small system for conversions, minimal emissions
%, respectively. of atmospheric pollutants, and above all, ORC can give better perfor
Reduction in heat losses.
mance recovering waste heat with a low temperature than steam power
Amirifard The latent heat storage • Improvement of efficiency for [187]
et al. system series and parallel layouts of cycle [203]. It is mainly composed of a pump (isentropic process), an
values 6.1 and 5.4 %, evaporator (isobaric process), an expander or turbine (isentropic pro
respectively. cess), and a condenser (isobaric process), as shown in Fig. 10(a) [204].
Uniform distribution of heat
ORC system is a simple and low-cost design with organics as the working
transfer fluid.
fluid, e.g., water, organic fluids, and CO2. In recent times, the use of
solar radiations coupled with ORC technology has shown promising
power generation has raised an alarming situation regarding global outcomes toward power generation and good compatibility between the
warming concerns, irreparable environmental effects, and limited re operating temperatures of thermal energy collector technologies and the
serves for the future [81]. Therefore, significant attention has been paid cycle temperature requirements. Fig. 10(b) demonstrates a basic dia
to the utilization of low-grade waste heat for reducing the consumption gram of an ORC with SGSP [200].
of non-renewable sources. In this regard, solar energy is considered an Organic fluids have lower critical temperatures than water, which
infinite and clean source of energy [189,190]. Solar ponds are consid made them a potential candidate for low/medium temperature heat
ered an alternative renewable energy source for supplying the most sources. Optimum temperature compatibility between the heat sources
promising/viable thermal energy at a temperature of more than 100 ◦ C and organic fluids can be an ideal condition for the best performance of
to low temperatures for power generation in solar thermal power plants. ORC [205]. In addition, the choice of working fluids plays an important
In general, large-area solar ponds require sufficient insolation and part in enhancing thermodynamic performance. Various properties of
tropical conditions for the construction/operation of long-term these have been studied, which include environmentally friendly, non-
applications. flammability, and non-toxicity organic fluids. Examples of environ
Thermal efficiency is also associated with low operating temperature mentally friendly working fluids are R141b, R500, R717, R600a, R123,
(70–100 ◦ C) and commonly organic working fluids, i.e., halocarbons R718, R114, R32, R113, R134a, R290, R12, R600, Ethanol, R152a,
and hydrocarbons play an important part to improve the performance of Methanol, R407C, R601, cyclohexane, and RC318 [206]. Among all
solar ponds [115]. In 1963, the first large-area, simple, and inexpensive these fluids, R134a is considered the most appropriate for small-scale
solar pond was established for power generation [191]. Additionally, solar applications. Rayegan and Tao [207] studied a detailed compari
Tabor and Doron [192] initially coupled solar pond technology with an son of 11 working fluids in the ORC system based on their molecular
ORC of the power output of 6 and 150 kW capacity. Finally, their structures, their thermal efficiency with power generation capacities,
13
Fig. 10. (a) ORC working diagram [204] and (b) Principle working of SGSP with ORC [200].
and their exergy efficiency. The collector efficiencies were increased the summer month with excess thermal energy.
from 70 to 100 % with the solar collector integrated with ORC. Desai and Khanmohammadi et al. [209] carried out an exergoeconomic anal
Bandyopadhyay [208] discussed ORC with solar parabolic trough col ysis for the production of hydrogen with solar flat-plate collectors in
lector (PTC) and linear Fresnel reflector (LFR) with 12 working fluids. tegrated with ORC. The effect of solar irradiation intensity was studied
Furthermore, thermo-economic comparisons of ORC and SRC were re with inlet temperatures to organic Rankine cycle turbine, outlet tem
ported based on power-generating diagrams, and PTC was higher in peratures of the generator, collector mass flow rates, and collector areas.
optical efficiency as compared to LFR [208]. Erden et al. [77] designed a The optimized results exhibited an increased exergy efficiency from 1.72
system to enhance thermal performance and electric/hydrogen pro to 3.2 %. Ziapour et al. [43] investigated the potential performance of a
duction from the electrolysis with ORC with flat-plate collectors assisted TEG using thermal energy from SGSP coupled with ORC. Their models
by a solar pond. Fig. 11 exhibits a schematic diagram of integrated were based on SGSPs-TEG in the condenser of ORC with/without a heat
design. Solar ponds were utilized to pre-heat the working fluid for effi exchanger, as displayed in Fig. 12(a) and (b), respectively. Isobutene,
cient ORC [77]. In addition, thermodynamic analysis was validated by isopentane, toluene, and R11 were used as working fluids, and isobutene
the theoretical calculations via Engineering Equation Solver (EES). The showed maximum performance in terms of the total efficiency/work of
results showed that the thermal performance of the hybrid system was the system. The thickness of the optimized layer was reported as δUCZ =
enhanced by up to 90 % with 380 MJ of electrical energy production in 0.15 m, δNCZ = 1.2 m, and δLCZ = 1.4 m with an LCZ temperature of
14
Fig. 11. An ORC system with integrated flat-plate collectors assisted by SGSPs [77].
Fig. 12. (a) SGSPs-TEG without heat exchanger assembly (model 1) and (b) SGSPs-TEG with heat exchanger assembly (model 2) [43].
15
90 ◦ C. ORC/KC for the production of water (RO assembly) and electrical energy
Ghaebi and Rostamzadeh [197] studied two cogeneration systems using SGSP. ORC/KC/RO system showed a reduction in exergy loss up to
based on SGSPs for the production of electricity and freshwater via ORC 62.75 kW, which was compared with the highest value as recorded by
containing R600a fluid and a Kalina cycle (KC) with reverse osmosis the KC/KC/RO system of value 84.4 kW. Zeynali et al. [178] performed
(RO) assembly, respectively. The TEG was considered to enhance the a detailed study on the power generation/performance enhancement
power output through heat captured from the UCZ. The experiment/ with ORC and Trilateral Flash Cycle (TFC) in the presence of working
theoretical results were compared. Likewise, SGSP-ORC/RO system fluids with an internal heat exchanger in NCZ. Ammonia, R152a, R600,
provided freshwater and net electricity of 3.3 m3/h and 15.5 kW, R245fa, R123, and R134a were considered working fluids, and the en
respectively, with an exergy efficiency of about 47 %. In a similar study, ergy/exergy efficiencies of the ORC (52.28 % and 20.44 %) were still
Namin et al. [210] proposed three combined systems based on cascade more than TFC (46.53 and 15.94 %). In a similar study, Date et al. [75]
Fig. 13. Schematic diagram of cycles with SGSP integration (a) an APC and (b) an ORC [211].
16
investigated TFC integrated with SGSPs for freshwater and power gen [215]. These shortcomings included the utilization of the extracted solar
eration in northern Victoria, Australia. Mosaffa and Farshi [46] con radiation energy to pump operations/increased costs of the forced cir
ducted a thermodynamic evaluation of SGSP/ORC with a zeotropic culation system, and extra space requirement/position limitations in the
mixture as a working fluid. The results show that the highest value of natural circulation system. Moreover, reverse flow of cooled water and
LCZ temperature of 352.5 K, maximum heat extraction of 89.1, and pipe corrosion are additional problems that harm the quality of water
488.3 kW from LCZ and NCZ, respectively. With a zeotropic mixture of and decrease the rate of heat transfer from the fluid. The possible so
R245ca/R236ea, the energy generated was about 95.67 MJ year− 1 m− 2 lution to tackle all these problems is the heat pipes (also known as
at an efficiency of 3.28 %. Li et al. [211] harnessed the solar energy from thermosiphons), which work best under gravity with the condenser,
SGSP and utilized it in two cycles, i.e., ORC/zeotropic mixture and ab which is placed above the evaporator and eliminated the additional
sorption power cycle (APC) coupled with TEG/PEM. Both cycles were power requirement or capillary actions. Closed two-phase thermosi
analyzed thermo-economically for hydrogen and electricity production. phons or wickless gravity-assisted heat pipes are commonly used and
ORC was based on six zeotropic mixtures, including isobutane/pentane, assisted by solar collectors (thermosiphon tubes with refrigerant).
butane/pentane, R142b/pentane, R236ea/pentane, R236fa/pentane, Fig. 15 shows a basic diagram of integrated thermosiphon and TEG for
and R245fa/pentane as the working fluids. While in APC, a mixture of electric power generation using SGSP [85].
ammonia and water was utilized. The results showed the highest exergy Experimental studies have been carried out on the properties of
destruction rate of about 6.18 and 10.91 kW for APC and ORC genera phase change fluids or refrigerants, and the performances are carefully
tors, respectively. Furthermore, energy efficiency and exergy efficiency manifested with the application of thermosiphon-based solar technolo
were raised to 42.44 and 27.54 %, respectively, with an LCZ tempera gies. Esen et al. [215] investigated an experimental study on three small-
ture of 364.35 K. Fig. 13 illustrates a schematic diagram of both APC and scale solar water heating systems using refrigerants R-134a, R407C, and
ORC systems integrated with SGSPs [211]. R410A. The thermal performances of a two-phase closed thermosiphon
solar collector with refrigerants were analyzed based on collection ef
5.1.1.2. Hybrid solar updraft tower plants. Solar updraft tower (SUT) ficiency. Soin et al. [216] presented a model based on the thermal ef
plants are considered a novel setup based on the buoyancy and green ficiency of thermosiphon collectors and resulted in a higher percentage
house effect, providing carbon-free power with the help of solar energy (4–6 %) than conventional water heaters in clear sky conditions. Boiling
absorption. SUT has shown promising applications such as the desali acetone/petroleum ether was considered to investigate the effect of
nation process, agricultural product drying, and industrial ventilation insolation/liquid level on the thermosiphon performance. Schreyer
for space heating and cooling systems [212]. Akbarzadeh et al. [213] [217] installed a thermosiphon collector based on fluorocarbon (tri
developed a hybrid system with the combination of STU with solar chlorofluoromethane), which exhibited high efficiency of 83 % at the
ponds by capturing solar energy from the solar pond and directing it to lowest temperatures, i.e., 10 ◦ C. He found that the maximum peak col
heat the air which drives the air turbine and produced electricity from lector energy was 2.8 MJ/m2.hr and the efficiency of a boiling refrig
the generator placed across its flow path. The hot brine (solar heat erant was 6 % more than that of a conventional fluid. The remarkable
capture by heat exchanger) was taken out from the center and bottom of out-comings were non-toxic, non-corrosive, non-freezing, and elimina
the convective layer, as shown in Fig. 14. In another study, solar ponds tion of pump or electronic controls in the system. Pluta and Pomierny
were utilized with the developments/progressive configurations of STU [218] studied the two-phase solar thermosiphon for domestic applica
to increase the power plant performance and solar capacity [214]. tions. The system contained a solar collector, water storage tank, and
Freon R22 as the phase-changing medium, which showed excellent
5.1.1.3. Thermosiphon modules. The transfer of stored thermal energy thermal performance and system applicability. Similar studies based on
from LCZ to TEG is done by a thermosiphon, which is placed in UCZ. theoretical/experimental investigation of thermosiphon flat-plate solar
Generally, pipes are used to transfer fluid, such as water, via natural/ collectors were reported by Hamamd [219], Radhwan et al. [220], Chun
forced circulation from the heat collector to another storage tank. et al. [221], Ghaddar and Nasr [222], and Joudi et al. [223].
Forced/natural circulations are associated with compromised concerns Tundee et al. [48] performed an experimental study on a combined
Fig. 14. A proposed hybrid SUT with solar pond coupling [213].
17
Fig. 15. Integrated thermosiphon/TEG using SGSP [85].
system of gravity-assisted heat pipes as thermosiphons with SGSP of an respectively. The results showed improved thermal performance with an
area of 7 m2 and a depth of 1.3 m in Thailand. By using R134a as a 18 % lower height of the solar pond. Fig. 16 depicts a schematic design
working fluid, the maximum temperature of 41 ◦ C with the generated of combined SGSP-TEG-thermosiphon resistances [224].
electricity of 234.25 mV in TEG. The placement of TEG, i.e., LCZ, UCZ, Goswami and Das [225] performed an experimental study based on a
or outside the pond, plays a vital role in the effective generation of two-phase thermosiphon coupled with TEG and SGSP. With solar radi
electricity from SGSPs. Singh et al. [74] designed a combined system of ation intensity ranging from 26 to 976 W/m2, the maximum tempera
thermosiphon/thermoelectric modules (TTMs), which indicated ture of 45.62 ◦ C was obtained and considered a low-cost thermoelectric
enhanced power generation from low-grade heat sources. Kumar et al. power generation comparable to diesel power generation. Furthermore,
[224] predicted the lengths of various zones of a solar pond coupled Zhong et al. [226] established two-phase closed thermosiphon-TEG with
with TEG-thermosiphon by using a genetic algorithm-based optimiza copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles and nanofluid as the working fluid.
tion method. A copper thermosiphon with R134a as working fluid was The addition of nanoparticles enhanced thermal performance by up to
considered within LCZ and UCZ as evaporator and condenser, 27.90 % and a power output of 3.136 W. Karthick et al. [227] presented
Fig. 16. A schematic design of combined SGSP-TEG-thermosiphon [224].
18
an integrated design based on thermosiphon with TEG-PCM-TEM and extraction modes, different climatic variations, temperature polar
reversible solar power generation. Thermal/electrical parameters of isations, and the conversion efficiency on thermal/electrical perfor
open/closed circuit voltage and electric power output were observed mance. A 4.834 kWh/year.m2 at heat extraction efficiency of 15 %
with varied heat fluxes. At a heat flux of 5.5 kW/m2, the heating cycle resulted in SGSP with an LCZ temperature of 80 ◦ C. Singh et al. [237]
and cooling cycle produced a power output of 0.39 and 0.31 W, presented an experimental investigation of a TEG heat exchanger inte
respectively. Rostamzadeh et al. [38] combined the humidification- grated with LCZ of an SGSP for the production of electricity at a tem
dehumidification (HDH) unit with TEG-SGSP and performed a perature of 90 ◦ C. In addition, the concepts of computational fluid
detailed analysis of the fresh water and power generation. The major dynamics were utilized with a TEG heat exchanger for power generation
outcomes were the production of 4.5 m3/h distilled water and 3.16 kW in tropical countries like Malaysia [238]. Date et al. [239] presented a
net electricity with an exergy efficiency of 4.87 %. design of a plate-type power generation unit (PTPGU) with Bi2Te3, as
shown in Fig. 17, and targeted its usability with a solar pond. By utilizing
5.1.1.4. Thermoelectric generator (TEG) with thermoelectric cells (TECs). TECs with TEGs, a power output of 35.9 W was obtained at the flow rate
Thermoelectric cells (TECs) are used for large-scale electric power pro of 5.1 LPM (liter per minute) and LCZ temperature of 81 ◦ C. Musharavati
duction and are also considered an alternative source of low-power et al. [174] investigated a novel hybrid system based on a proton ex
generation for domestic/industrial applications [228]. The increasing change membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) and a TEG, coupled with SGSP/
cost of fuels and their continuous depletion from a sustainable point of ORC, as demonstrated in Fig. 18. The performance of PEMFC-TEG-
view have suppressed the implementation of TEGs as a supplement for SGSP/ORC was studied on the showcase of energy, exergy, and eco
electrical energy production [229]. Seebeck effect and Peltier effect are nomic (3E) analysis. The simulated results showed that the proposed
considered for the efficient operation of TEGs under the occurrence of system obtained an output power of 2288.8 kW with energy and exergy
temperature gradients. Thermoelectric potentials with open-circuit efficiency of 11.26 and 13.17 %, respectively. In addition, multi-criteria
conditions and their correlated temperature difference are governed decision analysis (MCDA) was studied and exhibited an improved output
by the Seebeck effect [85]. The Seebeck effect involves the influence of power, energy, and exergy efficiency by 52.6, 49.6, and 61.8 %,
material properties and life expectancy of the thermoelectric cells on respectively. In a theoretical investigation by Rostamzadeh and Nourani
thermal/electrical conductivity [230]. In addition, various materials [42], TEG was coupled with SGSP and ejector refrigeration cycle (ERC)
have been studied with the TEGs enhanced performance, which in for the production of electric energy from heat. The performance of the
cludes: ceramics, alloys, complex crystals, oxide materials, and nano integrated system was optimized, and results showed an electricity
composites [231]. In this regard, BiTe-based materials are mostly production of 1.026 kW at an LCZ temperature of 359.7 K with energy
utilized in TEGs for low-grade thermal applications (<150 ◦ C), and they and exergy efficiencies of about 28.26 and 29.95 %, respectively.
are commercially available. The hot and cold junctions are the main part Liu et al. [240] compared the performance of solar pond-based
of TEGs, which operate with temperature differences across them and refrigeration cycles based on two models i.e. absorption-based (Model
their different results in electric power generation. Several thermo 1) and ejector-based (Model 2) and utilized both models with TEG for
electric cells and characterized thermoelectric materials are needed to low-temperature waste heat recovery and electricity generation. Using
obtain maximum power output at a fixed temperature difference with non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II, energy/exergy/economic
low costs [232,233]. Wang et al. [234] discussed an improved perfor (3E) analysis was investigated and compared with real climatic condi
mance using the various phase change materials (PCMs) and evaluated tions. Overall, the results exhibited an exergy of 17.93 % (Model 1 with
heat transfer enhancements, open-circuit voltage, and thermal conduc Butane-R143a zeotrope), which was 83 % more than Model 2. Cao et al.
tivity in TEG. [241] aimed at the integration of KC/HDH/TEG with SGSP to carry out a
In recent times, the integration of TEGs has been accommodated parametric study on the design factors and their performances under
with heat exchanger systems, solar heat extractions, industrial waste optimized conditions. The resulting system improved the energy utili
heat recoveries, and hybrid systems (solar photovoltaic systems) [235]. zation factor (EUF), exergy efficiency, and total unit cost (TUCP) by
Ding et al. [236] predicted the solar energy performance by transient 14.09, 5.5, and 27.93 %, respectively. With δUCZ = 0.35 m, δNCZ = 1.35
heat transfer model with TEG-TECs-SGSP under three groups of climatic m, and δLCZ = 1.65 m with an LCZ temperature of 97 ◦ C, the minimum
conditions. A detailed study was carried out based on the effect of heat rate of freshwater was 0.152 m3 h− 1 with a net power output of 35.21
Fig. 17. A working diagram of the PTPGU-SGSP system [239].
19
Fig. 18. Schematic diagram PEMFC-TEG-SGSP/ORC [174].
kW between 20 March and 20 April. In recent, Lv et al. [242] developed mechanical/electrical. Multistage flash distillation (MSF), multi-effect
a new integrated system based on terrestrial solar power generation distillation (MED), and thermal vapor compression (TCV) are exam
devices located in East China. The influences of solar radiation intensity, ples of vaporization-based thermally driven processes with the evapo
water temperature, and water quality are discussed, and the experi ration/condensation coupling of the natural water cycle. It requires
mental investigation revealed a thermal efficiency of 53 % by TEG. thermal energy to carry out sensible/latent heat changes. Hence, hybrid
systems are mostly preferred to promote thermal energy efficiency and
5.1.2. Hybrids for desalination systems desalination productivity [249]. On the other hand, membrane distil
The existence of water plays a vital role in our daily lives. It is one of lation (MD) [250], humidification dehumidification (HDH) [251], and
the most valuable and abundantly available natural resources around adsorption desalination (AD) [252] are examples of low-cost/low-
the globe. With the rapid increase in population, these recourses are temperature evaporation-based thermal processes. On the counterpart
continuously polluted with primary and secondary pollutants and of minimized energy/desalinized costs, high-capacity flexibilities, and
causing an alarming situation for future aspects [243]. In general, water fewer environmental concerns, MD has overtaken thermal desalination,
resources have been classified as (1) natural or conventional and (2) especially RO. The RO membrane is a mechanically-driven process that
non-conventional reserves. Conventional or natural water resources only allows water molecules to pass and rejected the solutes such as
have consisted of fresh and saline water, which are present under and desired/undesired constitute up to 99.5 % [253]. Furthermore, elec
above the earth’s surface. Underground water resources have high trodialysis/electrodialysis reversal (ED/EDR) and capacitive ionization
salinity and comprised 0.76 % of the total water on earth, and they can (CDI) is the least usable electrically-driven desalination processes due to
be used for renewable water purposes [244]. Surface freshwater is high energy demand and operational costs [254].
mainly present in rivers and fresh lakes, which accounted for only 0.27 Among all the above desalination processes, the alarming environ
% of the net water resources on the earth [245]. On the other hand, most mental impacts of fossil fuel consumption can be suppressed by
of the freshwater is encapsulated in the form of glaciers and permanent replacing the existing energy source with renewable energy-powered
snow lakes, which are still inaccessible. Oceans, seas, and saltwater lakes desalination [255,256,257]. The huge potential/promising results of
represent the saline water reserve and are considered the major portion SGSPs technology have been considered for the desalination processes to
of water resources on the earth, i.e., ~97.5 % of total water [246]. While build a steady energy supply. Lu et al. [44] summarized the 16-year
non-conventional water resources have consisted of desalinized water, operation of E1 Paso salinity-gradient solar pond technology for the
urban wastewater, and artificial rains. There are several water treatment desalination of brine concentration processes. Additionally, long-term
methods available on a commercial level that aim to provide freshwater reliability, improvement of thermodynamic efficiency, and economics
to human life. Among all of them, water desalination has shown huge were discussed for various desalination systems. Szacsvay et al. [258]
potential and is considered a reliable method for water supply in many developed a self-regulating ATLANTIS “Auto-flash” multistage desali
countries. Global issues such as lack of conventional water resources, nation (MSD) system and integrated it with SGSPs to produce potable
availability of saline water, and water distribution network coupled with water from the sea- or brackish water. The results showed that signifi
renewable energy requirements, are being addressed by the desalination cant costs were reduced with the arrangement of micro-scale units. Parsa
methods [173,247]. The improved technical aspects/economic feasi et al. [104] integrated SGSP with a MED system with thermodynamic/
bilities for the implementation of desalinated plants have upraised economic/ sensitivity analysis. Their study showed up to 20,000 tons of
global desalination capacity, especially in the Middle East and North potable could be produced with a forward feed multi-effect desalination
Africa (MENA) region. Desalination is the removal of dissolved minerals, system with SGSP of an area of 10,000 m2. Furthermore, Saleh et al.
which could be categorized according to feed water nature, such as [259] set up an SGSP of an area of 3000 m2 near the Dead Sea with a
seawater desalination (SWD), brackish water desalination (BWD), or production rate of 4.3 L/min distilled water, which was more than the El
wastewater desalination (WWD) [248]. Paso solar pond with 3.3 L/min in the same area. Moreover, their in
Based on energy utilization, desalination can be thermal/ vestigations exhibited a maximum heat extraction rate of 191.2 kW at a
20
collection efficiency of 0.277 % and thermal efficiency of 0.3179 %. Al- systems and studied the parameters, i.e., zero brine discharge, evapo
Othman et al. [29] investigated an MSF desalination system with a solar ration performances, heat/mass flux and heat transfer coefficient, wind
pond with the use of a PTC located in the UAE. Computational analysis velocities, and temperature polarization coefficient. Suárez et al. [263]
showed a production rate of desalinated water, i.e., 1880 m3/day (out of accessed an attractive/integrated system with direct contact membrane
40,000 m3/day of seawater processed). Based on the simulation results, distillation (DCMD) powered by SGSP for the production of freshwater.
two PTC collectors (area of 3160 m2) and a solar pond o (area of 0.53 An average water flux of about 0.12 × 10− 3 m3/d and thermal efficiency
km2) were enough to meet the desalination water demands. The rising of 70 % were major outcomes and considered a commercial candidate
applications of cascade power generation technologies for heat extrac for the improvement of operational fluxes. Similar studies on DCMD/
tion from SGSPs have been investigated to produce freshwater. Namin SGSP were reported by Kurt et al. [90], Salata and Coppi [264],
et al. [210] designed a RO desalination system based on a cascade ORC/ Akbarzadeh et al. [213], and Velmurugan et al. [265]. Mansouri et al.
KC and integrated it with SGSP. The thermodynamic/thermoeconomic [86] investigated numerically/experimentally an autonomous seawater
analysis was also conducted, which showed the lowest total exergy of RO desalination system integrated with SGSP, as shown in Fig. 21.
loss by 62.75 kW with the maximum power generation of 29.97 kW in Electric power generation up to 0.28 MW (~54 % exergy efficiency) was
May. Moreover, a RO-electrodialysis system was investigated with SGSP recorded with ORC coupled with 31 hybrid pressure vessels and 3
for the production of freshwater and hydroponic fertilizer solution pressure exchanger assemblies. With a water production of about 2381
(magnesium, calcium, and sulfate ions) [260]. With the LCZ tempera m3, the proposed system was able to provide annually 73.3 % of potable
ture of 90 ◦ C and R113 as working fluid, the system generated 4.52 kg/s water.
of freshwater, 4.75 kg/s of the hydroponic solution, and overall energy/ Tong et al. [266] proposed a hybrid system based on SGSP and
exergy efficiencies of 20.36 and 2.55 %, respectively [260]. vacuum freezing ejector absorber (VFEA), which worked on the prin
Mohamed and Bicer [84] utilized the SGSP’s thermal energy for a ciple of solid ice crystals. The impurities were solidified from the
MED process with a targeted annual water capacity of 14,000 m3. This seawater and excluded as crystalline structures. VFEA was considered a
study aimed to assess the feasibility of incorporating systems for the potential alternative to traditional thermal distillation processes because
useful production of fresh water, hot water, electricity, hydrogen, of less energy consumption. Moreover, the latent heat of fusion (335 kJ/
chlorine, and sodium hydroxide. Pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) was kg) was lower than the latent heat of evaporation (2503 kJ/kg). Monjezi
considered for the brine injection with a photo-assisted chloralkali et al. [30] presented a novel system for freshwater production based on
reactor, as illustrated in Fig. 19 [84]. The effect of ambient conditions, the regeneration of DME solute as a draw solute in forwarding osmosis
solar radiation intensity, solar pond design, and brine salinity on the (FO) coupled with SGSP. A solar pond of an area of 10,000 m2 was
performance of the system, was also carried out. Fig. 20 displays the considered, which aimed to run FO for 5210 m3 of freshwater capacity in
dependency of production rates of H2/Cl2 on the power generation from the first two years of operation in Iran. Choubani and Ennetta [267]
the PRO system with peak values during the months of May to August. carried out thermodynamic performance analysis on direct contact
Moreover, increased energy and exergy efficiencies of 16.4 and 1.4 % membrane distillation (DCMD) with SGSPs and studied the effect of
were also observed [84]. Generally, PRO could be operated utilizing the operational parameters on the performance of desalination system with
discharge of any desalination process, for example, RO and MSF, hence, permeate flux under day conditions in LCZ and UCZ for a year. The
it lowered the ecological effect of the concentrated brine of a desalina proposed model showed a rise in feed water temperature from 40 ◦ C
tion process [261]. (January) to 86 ◦ C (August) with the permeate water temperature
Rahaouic et al. [262] coupled the SGSP with membrane desalination increasing from 14.5 ◦ C (January) to 26.5 ◦ C, corresponding to the flow
Fig. 19. An illustration of MED/PRO/SGSP with a photo-assisted chloralkali reactor [84].
21
Fig. 20. Annual production of H2/Cl2 (mg s− 1) [84].
Fig. 21. A schematic diagram of RO desalination driven by SGSP in the Mediterranean [86].
rate of 12 L/min on the permeate side. area (125 m2) with a solar pond area of 400 m2. Furthermore, the effects,
Overall, the experimental/numerical studies have shown the supe i.e., the soil condition under the solar pond, moisture content, soil type,
riority of coupling SGSPs for the desalination process and power gen sandy soil texture, and the depth of the water table, were studied, and
eration in hybrid systems. Still, the scope of studies is limited to only the thermal performances were evaluated with an absorption chiller
small-scale applications where the cost and uninhabited coastal areas [269]. Elsarrag et al. [270] developed a thermal model based on SGSP
are the major affecting factor. Hence, the investigation of the large-scale by using seawater bitterns and MgCl2 as the desiccant and low-grade
hybrid system is recommended for future studies on desalination and energy source. On the other hand, the application of solar ponds can
power generation. be employed in low-grade thermal energy in the absorption/adsorption
refrigeration cycle. Esmaeiliona et al. [154] assessed the novel models
5.1.3. Hybrids for air-conditioning systems and refrigeration for the reduction of heat losses from side walls, and upper, and lower
Besides the vast application of solar ponds in power generation and zones, and utilized them in the refrigeration cycle with a solar pond.
desalination systems, air-conditioning systems are also coupled with Unfortunately, the literature about the utilization of SGSP for refriger
solar ponds to meet the energy demands in residential and commercial ation and air-conditioning is very limited, and it is anticipated for future
buildings. Salata et al. [268] exploited the natural thermo-ventilation of considerations.
residential buildings, coupled with solar chimneys and solar ponds for
the moving of air (Archimedes thrust). Kanan et al. [41] investigated a 5.1.4. Industrial/domestic hybrids
promising approach to drive the absorption chiller, powered by the solar In the literature, the application of industrial/domestic hybrids is
pond in hot and dry conditions. The optimized results from MATLAB/ discussed with solar ponds. For instance, Garrido et al. [52] utilized the
TRNSYS and experimental work showed an appropriate cooling of floor thermal energy from the solar pond (area of 1.43 km2 with a thermal
22
efficiency of 19.4 %) for supporting and uprising the leaching stream’s 5.2. Poly-generation energy systems
temperature in the copper mining process. Cu-mining was accomplished
by hydrometallurgy via a three-step low-energy process: (1) heap Nowadays, poly-generation systems assisted by renewable solar en
leaching, (1) concentration by solvent extraction, and (3) metal recovery ergy have attracted a notable solution for mitigating greenhouse gas
by electro-winning. The results showed LCZ temperature in a range of emissions. This system is comprised of solar photovoltaic thermal (PVT)
50–70 ◦ C, thermal supply of 626 GWh/year and gross saving of 59,000 collectors and solar ponds with organic Rankine cycle (ORC), proton
tons of diesel oil. Johnson et al. [213] combined SGSP with a chimney exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells for novel electricity [277], heat,
coupled with an air turbine for the production of power in salt-affected and green hydrogen production at low capital costs [278]. Luqman et al.
regions. The thermal performance, output power, and efficiency were [279] developed a solar-driven poly-generation energy system to
discussed. The integrated system generated 60 kW of output power at a address the high-salinity brine discharge and energy loss issues. A multi-
chimney’s air temperature of 50 ◦ C. In a similar study by Garrido and stage flash (MSF) desalination unit was operated with solar pond tech
Vergara [271], preheating water was made possible with a solar pond nology to produce fresh water which was followed by an organic
(collecting area of 23,240 m2 and collecting efficiency of 24 %) for the Rankine cycle to capture the auxiliary heat to produce electricity. A
washing of the Cu-cathodes. These ponds significantly reduced annual pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) was set up to minimize the high-
diesel demand by 77 % and recorded maximum power of 12,300 MWh/ salinity brine and produce surplus electricity. The results showed an
year. Yu et al. [272] worked on lithium extraction for the production of electricity production of 583.3 kW, ~4284 kW of cooling, and 1140 m3
high-grade lithium carbonate in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. A technique of freshwater per day with energy and exergy efficiencies up to 34.54 %
based on an integrated heat exchanger driven by solar ponds was uti and 14.55 %, respectively. In another proposal study, the organic
lized to raise the temperature of the brine. Zhang et al. [273] discussed Rankine cycle and supercritical CO2 power cycle were combined with
thermophilic anaerobic digestion (TAD) with a solar pond for the reverse osmosis (desalination unit) at low temperatures using solar
treatment of waste-activated sludge. The integrated system was attrib ponds [280]. Musharavati et al. [174] presented a poly-generation
uted to low cost, thermal stabilities, and maintained digestion perfor system based on the application of SGSPs with a proton exchange
mance. The modified TAD reactor resulted in the removal of chemical O2 membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) and TEG which synergized the output
demand (COD) by 65 % and produce surplus biogas of up to 79 %. power, energy, and exergy efficiencies up to 52.6 %, 49.6 %, and 61.8 %,
Chavaco et al. [274] demonstrated a detailed study on the degradation respectively. Habibollahzade et al. [281] discussed a novel energy sys
of the dye reactive orange with solar pond reactors via Fenton/photo- tem based on solar energy-driven ORC with TEG and PEM electrolyzer
Fenton treatments. Decolorization (99 %), COD removal (~55 %), for hydrogen production (2.28 kg/h) and electricity production with an
total organic carbon removal (TOC up to 28 %), and bio- exergy efficiency of 13.29 %. In a similar study, a novel configuration for
compatibilization (15 %) were the major outcomes of this study. Date green hydrogen production was investigated with solar Rankine cycle/
and Akbarzadeh [275] introduced a novel and theoretical investigation PEM fuel cells/PEM electrolyzer which resulted in an exergy efficiency
of the thermodynamic power cycle (TPS) for thermal water pumps of 17.6 % at $ 492.4/h [282]. Sathish and Jegadheeswaran [173] dis
coupled with solar ponds, as shown in Fig. 22. The results showed cussed the heat removal strategies from the heat storage zone with solar
overall efficiency of 40 % and a driving temperature difference of 60 ◦ C ponds and utilized them in the ORC. Furthermore, and as previously
with acetone as a working fluid. Table 4 provides a comparison between shown in Fig. 11 [77], the benefit of solar pond integration in an ORC
different hybrid systems coupled with SGSP. system could be observed in such systems with flat-plate collectors
assisted by SGSPs hydrogen and oxygen.
Fig. 22. Configuration of thermal power pump with TPC [275].
23
Table 4 commercial and industrial applications. As the sun has enormous energy
Comparison of different hybrid systems coupled with SGSP. and can prove itself as an alternative renewable energy source. A brief
Authors Highlighting contributions Ref. discussion of various types of solar ponds has been carried out, which
include SGSPs, shallow solar ponds (SSPs), solar gel ponds (SGPs),
Tabor and Doron • Stabilized large-scale solar pond plant of area [193]
2,50,000 m2 area with a 5 MW ORC turbine. equilibrium solar ponds (ESPs), membrane solar ponds (MSPs), and
Generation of 800 kW power. partitioned solar pond (PSPs). Moreover, the desired mechanical and
Rayegan and Tao • Irreversibility reduction and exergy efficiency [207] thermal properties can be achieved by the design/fabrication of the SPs,
enhancement of 35 and 5 at the collector which reduce the thermal energy losses by providing employing cover/
efficiency from 70 % to 100 %, respectively.
Desai and • Cycle efficiency up to 31.21 % with Toluene as [208]
floating disks on UCZ.
Bandyopadhyay the working fluid with PTC. The exploitation of heat extractions from solar ponds plays an
Erden et al. • Thermal efficiency enhancement up to 90 % [77] important part in the salinity gradient and stability of the ponds. The
with 380 MJ electrical energy production novel accomplishments in the field of heat extraction mode have pro
through flat-plate collectors’ solar ponds.
moted the implementation and applications of nanofluids as the working
Steinfeld et al. • The exergy efficiency of 29 % when solar cavity- [276]
receiver operating at 2300 K with a solar flux medium. Nanofluids have shown promising applicability in the internal/
concentration ratio of 5000. external heat exchangers and centers of NCZ. In addition, experimental
Ghaebi and • Exergy efficiency up to 47.2 %. [197] studies on the implementation of low-grade thermal energy of SGSPs
Rostamzadeh Freshwater and net electricity of 3.3 m3/h and have been carried out. The applications of thermal energy conversion for
15.5 kW.
Thermal efficiency of 7.22 % and net power
power generation via ORC, thermosiphon modules, and TEG with TECs
output of 286.3 kW. were broadly exploited in this review.
Namin et al. • The exergy efficiency of 17.42 % and the net [210] Further, a comprehensive performance assessment has been made on
power output of 29.97 kW. hybrid/poly-generation energy systems for electricity production and
Li et al. • Exergy and energy efficiency of values 42.44 % [211]
desalination applications. The SGSPs are integrated with an MSF desa
and 27.54 % with an LCZ, respectively, at the
temperature of 364.35 K. lination system, DCMD, solar collectors, reverse osmosis RO, and PV
The highest exergy destruction rate of about cells. Overall, the employment of solar energy has paced up the pro
6.18 and 10.91 kW for APC and ORC generators, duction of potable water with cost-effective and eco-friendly in
respectively. tegrations. In addition, the realistic growth of solar ponds needs
Schreyer • Thermosiphon collector based on fluorocarbon [217]
environmental/economic evaluations on a broad scale with exergy-
with high efficiency of 83 % at the lowest
temperatures, i.e., 10 ◦ C. economic analysis and viability tests. High greenhouse gas (GHG)
Maximum peak collector energy of value 2.8 emission thermal units can be replaced by energy arbitrage through
MJ/m2.hr hybridization with renewable energy systems. Combining hybrid tech
Hammad • Collector efficiency of 60 % with heat pipes at [219]
nology with traditional baseload thermal enables operational resources
90 ◦ C.
Kumar et al. • Improvement thermal performance with an 18 [187] optimization to prevent off-design activities that raise emissions and the
% lower height of the solar pond with TEG- cost of operating a unit. There are several economic and environmental
thermosiphon. challenges associated with such hybrid systems. The intensified use of
Zhong et al. • Enhanced thermal performance up to 27.90 % [226] wind and solar generation poses an impact on system planning, opera
and power output of 3.136 W with two-phase
tions, reliability, costs, emissions, and other environmental system
closed thermosiphon-TEG with copper oxide
(CuO) nanoparticles and nanofluid. performance metrics. Integration studies have helped legislators, utili
Karthick et al. • Power generation at a heat flux of 5.5 kW/m2 [227] ties, and other market participants foresee and understand these effects.
with a net power output of 0.39 W.
Musharavati et al. • The output power of 2288.8 kW with energy and [174]
7. Future recommendations
exergy efficiency of 11.26 and 13.17 %,
respectively.
Rostamzadeh and • Electricity production of 1.026 kW at LCZ [15] Widespread literature reviews and comprehensive investigations
Nourani temperature of 359.7 K. have been conducted on various salts, additives, nanofluids, and PCMs
Energy and exergy efficiencies of about 28.26 to enhance the thermal performance of solar ponds. However, some key
and 29.95 %, respectively.
Cao et al. • Improved the energy utilization factor (EUF), [241]
challenges and limitations associated with solar ponds still need an
exergy efficiency, and total unit cost (TUCP) by efficient/effective solutions, which are: inner lining, turbidity control,
14.09, 5.5, and 27.93 %, respectively. wind speeds, rain effects, ecological and economic studies associated
Production rate of freshwater of value 0.152 with large-scale SGSPs, and materials utilized in SGSPs. For example, the
m3/h with a net power output of 35.21 kW.
use of synthetic material (i.e., clay soils associated with a polyethylene
Saleh et al. • A maximum heat extraction rate of 191.2 kW at [259]
a collection efficiency of 0.277 % and thermal film of low density (PLDE) as hydraulic barriers) has demonstrated
efficiency of 0.3179 %, comparable to the El excellent performance towards water-tightness and thermal isolation by
Paso solar pond. overcoming underground contaminations. Future searches should be
Mohamed and Bicer • An increased energy and exergy efficiencies of [84] focused on the reduction of overall costs of the design construction and
16.4 and 1.4 %, respectively.
Suárez et al. • An average water flux of about 0.12 × 10− 3 m3/ [263]
the risk of contamination of subsoil for large solar ponds applications. In
d and thermal efficiency of 70 %. addition, the effect of growing turbidity levels has shown a negative
Mansouri et al. • 0.28 MW of electric power with an exergy [86] impact on the performance of solar ponds. Several studies have been
efficiency of around 54 %. validated experimentally and with theoretical data and transient nu
Garrido and Vergara • collecting area of 23,240 m2 and collecting [271]
merical solutions in the literature. The increase in the uniform/non-
efficiency of 24 %.
Maximum power of 12,300 MWh/year. uniform turbidity levels also decreases the overall storage capacities
and solar radiation absorption. The use of dissolved-Aluminum con
centration on hydrochloric acid injection has minimized microbial
6. Conclusions growth and controlled the turbidity at an acceptable level in the solar
ponds. Future attempts can be directed towards the adaptation of
Overall, the review has been written to investigate the promising different performance evaluation criteria models, i.e., less maturation
contributions of solar ponds with a focus on salt gradient solar ponds for period and large extraction power at available pond volumes. Addi
the enhancement of performances and efficiencies in various tionally, the effect of wind can generate wave phenomena among the
24
layers of solar ponds, which could also provide turbulence and disturb [3] Tiwari A, Rathod MK, Kumar A. A comprehensive review of solar-driven
desalination systems and its advancements. Environ Dev Sustain 2023;25(2):
the salt concentration gradients. The introduction of different wind
1052–83.
suppressors can be a potential solution to enhance performance. Besides, [4] Tawalbeh M, Al-Ismaily M, Kruczek B, Tezel FH. Modeling the transport of CO2,
the definite evaluations of the expectation of ecological effect and cost of N2, and their binary mixtures through highly permeable silicalite-1 membranes
utilizing every substance are important. The utilization of novel trans using Maxwell− Stefan equations. Chemosphere 2021;263:127935. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127935.
parent materials, such as transparent PV cells, is recommended. Another [5] Alami AH, Abu Hawili A, Tawalbeh M, Hasan R, Al Mahmoud L, Chibib S, et al.
recommendation can be considered by utilizing a liquid liner at the top Materials and logistics for carbon dioxide capture, storage and utilization. Sci
layer of the primary zone, which has lower conductivity and greater Total Environ 2020;717:137221.
[6] Yaqoob AA, Ibrahim MNM, Rodríguez-Couto S. Development and modification of
thickness toward the potential arrangement of SGSP. The optimum materials to build cost-effective anodes for microbial fuel cells (MFCs): An
thickness is still questionable. overview. Biochem Eng J 2020;164:107779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Studies on the SGSP’s arrangements had some conflicting results, bej.2020.107779.
[7] Sorrell S. Reducing energy demand: A review of issues, challenges and
which show that there is a requirement for additional review. One more approaches. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;47:74–82. https://doi.org/
conceivable arrangement for SGSP could be a hemispherical shape, 10.1016/j.rser.2015.03.002.
which presumably lessens the concealing impact. The objective of the [8] Hosenuzzaman M, Rahim NA, Selvaraj J, Hasanuzzaman M, Malek ABMA,
Nahar A. Global prospects, progress, policies, and environmental impact of solar
development of SGSP is engrossing solar radiations for the storage of photovoltaic power generation. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;41:284–97.
thermal energy as large-energy units. The endeavors have been made to https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.08.046.
further improve thermal performance. The utilization of nanofluids can [9] Tawalbeh M, Al-Othman A, Kafiah F, Abdelsalam E, Almomani F, Alkasrawi M.
Environmental impacts of solar photovoltaic systems: A critical review of recent
be a legitimate supplement technique to enhance the stability and heat
progress and future outlook. Sci Total Environ Mar. 2021;759:143528. https://
extraction modes. Moreover, the introduction of nanoparticles for doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143528.
permeation of PCM should be carried out to investigate their perfor [10] Ali I, Singh P, Aboul-Enein HY, Sharma B. Chiral analysis of ibuprofen residues in
mance with/without solar collectors. Furthermore, the solar distillation water and sediment. Anal Lett 2009;42(12):1747–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00032710903060768.
unit needs detailed experimental/theoretical works and should be [11] Basheer AA. New generation nano-adsorbents for the removal of emerging
focused on its efficiency, profitability, and optimum cost of water contaminants in water. J Mol Liq 2018;261:583–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
production. molliq.2018.04.021.
[12] Gasanzade F, Witte F, Tuschy I, Bauer S. Integration of geological compressed air
Although solar ponds appear feasible for large-scale applications, energy storage into future energy supply systems dominated by renewable power
however the prospects of their hybridization remain challenging due to sources. Energy Convers Manag 2023;277:116643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
low-grade thermal energy. Hence, hybrid systems are considered an enconman.2022.116643.
[13] Basheer AA, Ali I. Water photo splitting for green hydrogen energy by green
approximate solution, and studies are being conducted to improve the nanoparticles. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2019;44(23):11564–73. https://doi.org/
overall performance concerned with operational and economic aspects. 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.03.040.
The establishment of salt gradients needs an optimum solar pond design [14] Nauman Javed RM, Al-Othman A, Nancarrow P, Tawalbeh M. Zirconium silicate-
ionic liquid membranes for high-temperature hydrogen PEM fuel cells. Int J
with the prime factors, i.e., local types/availability/cost of salt and their Hydrogen Energy 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.05.009.
environmental effects on salt runoff as well. The exploitation of other [15] Nauman Javed RM, Al-Othman A, Tawalbeh M, Olabi AG. Recent developments
hybrid and renewable energy resources has secured a significant in graphene and graphene oxide materials for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel
cells applications. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2022;168:112836. https://doi.org/
attraction. The researchers are more focused on making it more effective
10.1016/j.rser.2022.112836.
and cost-efficient units than individual systems. Moreover, environ [16] Ali I, Imanova GT, Garibov AA, Agayev TN, Jabarov SH, Almalki ASA, et al.
mental concerns with utilizing solar ponds must be identified and Gamma rays mediated water splitting on nano-ZrO2 surface: Kinetics of
correlated with other renewable energy resources to make the envi molecular hydrogen formation. Radiat Phys Chem 2021;183:109431.
[17] Zhang S, Yan Y. Thermal performance of latent heat energy storage system with/
ronment less susceptible to harmful pollutants. without enhancement under solar fluctuation for Organic Rankine power cycle.
Energy Convers Manag 2022;270:116276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Declaration of Competing Interest enconman.2022.116276.
[18] Ali I, Imanova G, Agayev T, Aliyev A, Jabarov S, Albishri HM, et al. Seawater
splitting for hydrogen generation using zirconium and its niobium alloy under
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial gamma radiation. Molecules 2022;27(19):6325.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence [19] Al-Smairan M, Shawaqfah M, AlMomani F. Techno-economic investigation of an
integrated boiler-solar water heating/cooling system: A case study. Energies
the work reported in this paper. 2020;14(1):1. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14010001.
[20] Bhosale RR, AlMomani F, Rashid S. Solar thermochemical H2 production via
Data availability MnSO4/MnO water splitting cycle: Thermodynamic equilibrium and efficiency
analysis. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2020;45(17):10324–33. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.08.096.
Data will be made available on request. [21] Salameh T, Assad MEH, Tawalbeh M, Ghenai C, Merabet A, Öztop HF. Analysis of
cooling load on commercial building in UAE climate using building integrated
photovoltaic façade system. Sol Energy 2020;199:617–29. https://doi.org/
Acknowledgments
10.1016/j.solener.2020.02.062.
[22] Esmaeilion F. Hybrid renewable energy systems for desalination. Appl Water Sci
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from 2020;10(3):84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-020-1168-5.
the University of Sharjah through the competitive research grant project [23] Thirugnanasambandam M, Iniyan S, Goic R. A review of solar thermal
technologies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14(1):312–22. https://doi.org/
number: 22020406230. Open Access funding provided by the Qatar 10.1016/j.rser.2009.07.014.
National Library. [24] Moosa I, Kazem HA. Review of basic renewable energy in GCC countries: Current
status and future vision. Int J Comput Appl Sci 2019;6:397–406.
[25] Khouya A. Performance evaluation of a MED-MVC desalination plant driven by a
References concentrated photovoltaic thermal system and an organic Rankine cycle. Energy
Convers Manag 2022;274:116428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[1] Salameh T, Tawalbeh M, Juaidi A, Abdallah R, Hamid A-K. A novel three- enconman.2022.116428.
dimensional numerical model for PV/T water system in hot climate region. [26] Apeh OO, Meyer EL, Overen OK. Contributions of solar photovoltaic systems to
Renew Energy 2021;164:1320–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. environmental and socioeconomic aspects of national development—A review.
renene.2020.10.137. Energies 2022;15(16):5963. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15165963.
[2] Tawalbeh M, Muhammad Nauman Javed R, Al-Othman A, Almomani F. The [27] Posnansky M. Technical and economical aspects of solar desalination with
novel contribution of non-noble metal catalysts for intensified carbon dioxide particular emphasis on solar pond powered distillation plants. Desalination 1987;
hydrogenation: Recent challenges and opportunities. Energy Convers Manag 67:81–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/0011-9164(87)90235-9.
2023;279:116755. [28] Abdullah AA, Fallatah HM, Lindsay KA, Oreijah MM. Measurements of the
performance of the experimental salt-gradient solar pond at Makkah one year
25
after commissioning. Sol Energy 2017;150:212–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [56] Njoku HO, Agashi BE, Onyegegbu SO. A numerical study to predict the energy
solener.2017.04.040. and exergy performances of a salinity gradient solar pond with thermal
[29] Al-Othman A, Tawalbeh M, El Haj Assad M, Alkayyali T, Eisa A. Novel multi-stage extraction. Sol Energy 2017;157:744–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
flash (MSF) desalination plant driven by parabolic trough collectors and a solar solener.2017.08.079.
pond: A simulation study in UAE. Desalination 2018;443:237–44. https://doi. [57] Verma S, Das R. Transient study of a solar pond under heat extraction from non-
org/10.1016/J.DESAL.2018.06.005. convective and lower convective zones considering finite effectiveness of
[30] Monjezi AA, Mahood HB, Campbell AN. Regeneration of dimethyl ether as a draw exchangers. Sol Energy 2021;223:437–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
solute in forward osmosis by utilising thermal energy from a solar pond. solener.2021.05.072.
Desalination 2017;415:104–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2017.03.034. [58] Verma S, Das R. Effect of ground heat extraction on stability and thermal
[31] Nower M, Elashaal A, El-serafy S. Solar Ponds as Source of Non-Conventional performance of solar ponds considering imperfect heat transfer. Sol Energy 2020;
Energy Case Study in Fayoum, Egypt. Int J Sci Eng Sci 2022;6(2):115–20. 198:596–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.01.085.
[32] Agha KR. The thermal characteristics and economic analysis of a solar pond [59] Hull JR, Liu KV, Sha WT, Kamal J, Nielsen CE. Dependence of ground heat loss
coupled low temperature multi stage desalination plant. Sol energy 2009;83(4): upon solar pond size and perimeter insulation calculated and experimental
501–10. results. Sol Energy 1984;33(1):25–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(84)
[33] Saxena A, Cuce E, Bandhu Singh D, Mert Cuce P, Gupta P, Suryavanshi A, et al. 90113-0.
A thermodynamic review on solar ponds. Sol Energy 2022;242:335–63. [60] Alcaraz A, Valderrama C, Cortina JL, Akbarzadeh A, Farran A. Enhancing the
[34] Dickes R, Desideri A, Casati E, and Quoilin S. From 1885 to nowadays: a (short) efficiency of solar pond heat extraction by using both lateral and bottom heat
techno-historical review of solar organic Rankine cycle systems, 2021. exchangers. Sol Energy 2016;134:82–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[35] Ahmed O, Bawa S. The combined effect of nanofluid and reflective mirrors on the solener.2016.04.025.
performance of PV/Thermal solar collector. Therm Sci 2018;(00):92. [61] Kalecsinsky AV. Ueber die ungarischen warmen und heissen Kochsalzseen als
[36] Abdelsalam E, Kafiah F, Almomani F, Tawalbeh M, Kiswani S, Khasawneh A, et al. natürliche Wärmeaccumulatoren, sowie über die Herstellung von warmen
An innovative design of a solar double-chimney power plant for electricity Salzseen und Wärmeaccumulatoren. Annalen der Physik 1902;312(2):408–16.
generation. Energies 2021;14(19):6235. https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.19023120212.
[37] Alami AH, Faraj M, Aokal K, Abu Hawili A, Tawalbeh M, Zhang D. Investigating [62] Rabl A, Nielsen CE. Solar ponds for space heating. Sol Energy 1975;17(1):1–12.
various permutations of copper iodide/FeCu tandem materials as electrodes for https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(75)90011-0.
dye-sensitized solar cells with a natural dye. Nanomaterials 2020;10(4):784. [63] Wilson AT, Wellman HW. Lake Vanda: An Antarctic Lake: Lake Vanda as a solar
https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10040784. energy trap. Nature 1962;196(4860):1171–3. https://doi.org/10.1038/
[38] Rostamzadeh H, Namin AS, Nourani P, Amidpour M, Ghaebi H. Feasibility 1961171a0.
investigation of a humidification-dehumidification (HDH) desalination system [64] Hoare RA. Problems of heat transfer in Lake Vanda, a density stratified Antarctic
with thermoelectric generator operated by a salinity-gradient solar pond. Lake. Nature 1966;210(5038):787–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/210787a0.
Desalination 2019;462:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2019.04.001. [65] Hudec PP, Sonnenfeld P. Hot brines on Los Roques, Venezuela. Science 80- 1974;
[39] Bawahab M, Faqeha H, Ve QL, Faghih A, Date A, Akbarzadah A. Industrial 185(4149):440–2. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4149.440.
heating application of a salinity gradient solar pond for salt production. Energy [66] Tabor H. Solar ponds. Sol Energy 1981;27(3):181–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/
Procedia 2019;160:231–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2019.02.141. 0038-092X(81)90120-1.
[40] Karakilcik M, Erden M, Cilogulları M, Dincer I. Investigation of hydrogen [67] Lu H, Swift AHP, Hein Herbert Jr D, Walton JC. Advancements in salinity
production performance of a reactor assisted by a solar pond via gradient solar pond technology based on sixteen years of operational experience.
photoelectrochemical process. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2018;43(23):10549–54. J Sol Energy Eng 2004;126(2):759–67. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1667977.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.01.031. [68] Jaefarzadeh MR. Heat extraction from a salinity-gradient solar pond using in
[41] Kanan S, Dewsbury J, Lane-Serff GF. Simulation of solar air-conditioning system pond heat exchanger. Appl Therm Eng 2006;26(16):1858–65. https://doi.org/
with salinity gradient solar pond. Energy Proc 2015;79:746–51. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2006.01.022.
10.1016/j.egypro.2015.11.561. [69] Punyasena MA, Amarasekara CD, Jayakody JRP, Perera PAA, Ehamparam P. An
[42] Rostamzadeh H, Nourani P. Investigating potential benefits of a salinity gradient investigation of rain and wind effects on thermal stability of large-area saltpan
solar pond for ejector refrigeration cycle coupled with a thermoelectric generator. solar ponds. Sol Energy 2003;74(6):447–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-
Energy 2019;172:675–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.01.167. 092X(03)00227-5.
[43] Ziapour BM, Saadat M, Palideh V, Afzal S. Power generation enhancement in a [70] Ramadan MRI, El-Sebaii AA, Aboul-Enein S, Khallaf AM. Experimental testing of
salinity-gradient solar pond power plant using thermoelectric generator. Energy a shallow solar pond with continuous heat extraction. Energy Build 2004;36(9):
Convers Manag 2017;136:283–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 955–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2004.03.002.
enconman.2017.01.031. [71] Ould Dah MM, Ouni M, Guizani A, Belghith A. The influence of the heat
[44] Ranjan KR, Kaushik SC. Thermodynamic and economic feasibility of solar ponds extraction mode on the performance and stability of a mini solar pond. Appl
for various thermal applications: A comprehensive review. Renew Sustain Energy Energy 2010;87(10):3005–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.04.004.
Rev 2014;32:123–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.020. [72] Leblanc J, Akbarzadeh A, Andrews J, Lu H, Golding P. Heat extraction methods
[45] Tian D, Qu ZG, Zhang JF, Ren QL. Enhancement of solar pond stability from salinity-gradient solar ponds and introduction of a novel system of heat
performance using an external magnetic field. Energy Convers Manag 2021;243: extraction for improved efficiency. Sol Energy 2011;85(12):3103–42. https://doi.
114427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114427. org/10.1016/j.solener.2010.06.005.
[46] Mosaffa AH, Farshi LG. Thermodynamic feasibility evaluation of an innovative [73] Rajan J, Perumal K, Thirugnanasambantham A, Kumar S, Kojima T. Effect of
salinity gradient solar ponds-based ORC using a zeotropic mixture as working carboxymethyl cellulose gel on thermal-energy storage by ground shallow solar
fluid and LNG cold energy. Appl Therm Eng 2021;186:116488. https://doi.org/ ponds. J Chem Eng JAPAN 2011;44:816–20. https://doi.org/10.1252/
10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.116488. jcej.10we264.
[47] Ding LC, Akbarzadeh A, Singh B, Remeli MF. Feasibility of electrical power [74] Singh R, Tundee S, Akbarzadeh A. Electric power generation from solar pond
generation using thermoelectric modules via solar pond heat extraction. Energy using combined thermosyphon and thermoelectric modules. Sol Energy 2011;85
Convers Manag 2017;135:74–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. (2):371–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2010.11.012.
enconman.2016.12.069. [75] Date A, Alam F, Khaghani A, Akbarzadeh A. Investigate the potential of using
[48] Tundee S, Srihajong N, Charmongkolpradit S. Electric power generation from trilateral flash cycle for combined desalination and power generation integrated
solar pond using combination of thermosyphon and thermoelectric modules. with salinity gradient solar ponds. Procedia Eng 2012;49:42–9. https://doi.org/
Energy Proc 2014;48:453–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2014.02.054. 10.1016/j.proeng.2012.10.110.
[49] AL-Musawi OAH, Khadom AA, Manhood HB, Mahdi MS. Solar pond as a low [76] El-Sebaii AA, Aboul-Enein S, Ramadan MRI, Khallaf AM. Thermal performance of
grade energy source for water desalination and power generation: a short review. shallow solar pond under open and closed cycle modes of heat extraction. Sol
Renew Energy Environ Sustain 2020;5:4. Energy 2013;95:30–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2013.05.026.
[50] Simic M, George J. Design of a system to monitor and control solar pond: A [77] Erden M, Karakilcik M, Dincer I. Performance investigation of hydrogen
review. Energy Proc 2017;110:322–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. production by the flat-plate collectors assisted by a solar pond. Int J Hydrogen
egypro.2017.03.147. Energy 2017;42(4):2522–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.04.116.
[51] Mittal G, Singh DB, Singh G, Kumar N. A review of electric power generation from [78] Platikanov S, Tauler R, Cortina JL, Valderrama C. Multivariate analysis of the
solar ponds using organic rankine cycle and air turbine BT. Adv Energy Environ operational parameters and environmental factors of an industrial solar pond. Sol
2021:189–200. Energy 2021;223:113–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.05.045.
[52] Garrido F, Soto R, Vergara J, Walczak M, Kanehl P, Nel R, et al. Solar pond [79] Montalà M, Cortina JL, Akbarzadeh A, Valderrama C. Stability analysis of an
technology for large-scale heat processing in a Chilean mine. J Renew Sustain industrial salinity gradient solar pond. Sol Energy 2019;180:216–25. https://doi.
Energy 2012;4(5):053115. org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.01.017.
[53] Liu H, Jiang L, Wu D, Sun W. Experiment and simulation study of a trapezoidal [80] Atiz A, Bozkurt I, Karakilcik M, Dincer I. Investigation of turbidity effect on
salt gradient solar pond. Sol Energy 2015;122:1225–34. https://doi.org/ exergetic performance of solar ponds. Energy Convers Manag 2014;87:351–8.
10.1016/j.solener.2015.09.006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.07.016.
[54] Rghif Y, Bahraoui F, Zeghmati B. Experimental and numerical investigations of [81] Kasaeian A, Sharifi S, Yan W-M. Novel achievements in the development of solar
heat and mass transfer in a salt gradient solar pond under a solar simulator. Sol ponds: A review. Sol Energy 2018;174:189–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Energy 2022;236:841–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2022.03.033. solener.2018.09.010.
[55] Verma S, Das R. Wall profile optimisation of a salt gradient solar pond using a [82] Alcaraz A, Montalà M, Valderrama C, Cortina JL, Akbarzadeh A, Farran A.
generalized model. Sol Energy 2019;184:356–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Thermal performance of 500 m2 salinity gradient solar pond in Granada, Spain
solener.2019.04.003.
26
under strong weather conditions. Sol Energy 2018;171:223–8. https://doi.org/ [110] Verma S, Das R. Concept of triple heat exchanger-assisted solar pond through an
10.1016/j.solener.2018.06.072. improved analytical model. J Sol Energy Eng Mar. 2019;141(5). https://doi.org/
[83] Bozkurt I, Karakilcik M. Exergy analysis of a solar pond integrated with solar 10.1115/1.4043127.
collector. Sol Energy 2015;112:282–9. [111] Beiki H, Soukhtanlou E. Improvement of salt gradient solar ponds’ performance
[84] Mohamed AMO, Bicer Y. Integration of pressure retarded osmosis in the solar using nanoparticles inside the storage layer. Appl Nanosci 2019;9(2):243–54.
ponds for desalination and photo-assisted chloralkali processes: Energy and https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-018-0906-6.
exergy analysis. Energy Convers Manag 2019;195:630–40. https://doi.org/ [112] Wang H, Wu Q, Mei Y, Zhang L, Pang S. A study on exergetic performance of
10.1016/j.enconman.2019.05.032. using porous media in the salt gradient solar pond. Appl Therm Eng 2018;136:
[85] Ding LC, Akbarzadeh A, Tan L. A review of power generation with thermoelectric 301–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.03.025.
system and its alternative with solar ponds. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2018;81: [113] Nourollahi I, Bashirnezhad K, Beiki H, Reza Goshayeshi H. Investigating the
799–812. simultaneous effect of effective parameters on the performance of salinity
[86] El Mansouri A, Hasnaoui M, Amahmid A, Hasnaoui S. Feasibility analysis of gradient solar ponds using Taguchi analysis: Determination of optimum thickness
reverse osmosis desalination driven by a solar pond in Mediterranean and semi- of the middle layer. Alexandria Eng J 2022;61(7):5607–19. https://doi.org/
arid climates. Energy Convers Manag 2020;221:113190. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.aej.2021.08.088.
10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113190. [114] Poyyamozhi N, Karthikeyan A. Comparative energy storage study on solar pond
[87] Al-Nimr MA, Dawahdeh AI, Ali HA. Power generation by integrating a thermally with PCM coupled with different Nano particles. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part C J
regenerative electrochemical cycle (TREC) with a solar pond and underground Mech Eng Sci Aug. 2022;236(24):11564–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/
heat exchanger. Renew Energy 2022;189:663–75. 09544062221114789.
[88] Khalilian M. Experimental investigation and theoretical modelling of heat [115] El-Sebaii AA, Ramadan MRI, Aboul-Enein S, Khallaf AM. History of the solar
transfer in circular solar ponds by lumped capacitance model. Appl Therm Eng ponds: A review study. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15(6):3319–25. https://
2017;121:737–49. doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.04.008.
[89] Kurt H, Ozkaymak M, Binark AK. Experimental and numerical analysis of sodium- [116] Yu J, Wu Q, Bu L, Nie Z, Wang Y, Zhang J, et al. Experimental study on improving
carbonate salt gradient solar-pond performance under simulated solar-radiation. lithium extraction efficiency of salinity-gradient solar pond through sodium
Appl Energy 2006;83(4):324–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. carbonate addition and agitation. Sol Energy 2022;242:364–77.
apenergy.2005.03.001. [117] Wu Q, Yu J, Bu L, Nie Z, Wang Y, Renchen N, et al. The application of an
[90] Kurt H, Ozkaymak M. Performance evaluation of a small-scale sodium carbonate enhanced salinity-gradient solar pond with nucleation matrix in lithium
salt gradient solar pond. Int J energy Res 2006;30(11):905–14. extraction from Zabuye salt lake in Tibet. Sol Energy 2022;244:104–14.
[91] Berkani M, Sissaoui H, Abdelli A, Kermiche M, Barker-Read G. Comparison of [118] H. P. Garg, Advances in solar energy technology: Volume 3 Heating, agricultural and
three solar ponds with different salts through bi-dimensional modeling. Sol photovoltaic applications of solar energy. Springer Science & Business Media, 2012.
Energy 2015;116:56–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2015.03.024. [119] Faqeha H, Bawahab M, Vet QL, Faghih A, Date A, Akbarzadah A. An experimental
[92] Bozkurt I, Deniz S, Karakilcik M, Dincer I. Performance assessment of a study to establish a salt gradient solar pond (SGSP). Energy Procedia 2019;160:
magnesium chloride saturated solar pond. Renew Energy 2015;78:35–41. https:// 239–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2019.02.142.
doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.12.060. [120] Chepurniy N, Savage SB. Effect of diffusion on concentration profiles in a solar
[93] Sathish D, Veeramanikandan M, Thirunavukkarasu R, Tamilselvan R, pond. Sol Energy Jul. 1975;17:203–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(75)
Karthickmunisamy T. Thermal performance on portable mini solar pond using 90061-4.
NaCl and coal cinder. Appl Mech Mater 2018;877:430–5. [121] Gao CJ, Zhang Q, Wang L, Wang Y, Huang XP. Effect of water distribution ways
[94] Assari MR, Tahan MH, Jafar Gholi Beik A, Basirat Tabrizi H. Experimental study on the operation of solar pond. Adv Mater Res 2013;805–806:74–7. https://doi.
on thermal behavior of new mixed medium phase change material for improving org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.805-806.74.
productivity on salt gradient solar pond. J Therm Anal Calorim 2022;147(1): [122] Ganesh S, Arumugam S. Performance study of a laboratory model shallow solar
971–85. pond with and without single transparent glass cover for solar thermal energy
[95] Dineshkumar P, Raja M. Experimental study on the thermal performance of a conversion applications. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2016;134:462–6. https://doi.
KNO2-KNO3 mixture in a trapezoidal solar pond. J Mech Sci Technol 2021;35 org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.03.020.
(12):5765–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12206-021-1145-4. [123] Garg HP, Bandyopadhyay B, Rani U, Hrishikesan DS. Shallow solar pond: State-of-
[96] Sathish D, Jegadheeswaran S. Relative study of steel solar pond with sodium the-art. Energy Convers Manag 1982;22(2):117–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/
chloride and pebbles. Mater Sci Energy Technol 2018;1(2):171–4. https://doi. 0196-8904(82)90033-4.
org/10.1016/j.mset.2018.07.002. [124] Sodha MS, Bansal NK, Hrishikeshan DS, Bansal PK. A study of plastic shallow
[97] Ines M, Paolo P, Roberto F, Mohamed S. Experimental studies on the effect of solar pond water heater for domestic applications. Sol Energy 1985;34(6):
using phase change material in a salinity-gradient solar pond under a solar 505–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(85)90024-6.
simulator. Sol Energy 2019;186:335–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [125] Kudish AI, Wolf D. A compact shallow solar pond hot water heater. Sol Energy
solener.2019.05.011. 1978;21(4):317–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(78)90008-7.
[98] Marx H, Kaps S, Schultheis B, Pfänder M. Potassium sulfate-A precious by-product [126] Gopffarth WH, Davison RR, Harris WB, Baird MJ. Performance correlation of
for solar salt works. Bull Soc Sea Water Sci Japan 2019;73(2):89–93. horizontal plastic solar water heaters. Sol Energy 1968;12(2):183–96.
[99] Desai F, Atayo A, Prasad JS, Muthukumar P, Rahman M, Asmatulu E. [127] Aboul-Enein S, El-Sebaii AA, Ramadan MRI, Khallaf AM. Parametric study of a
Experimental studies on endothermic reversible reaction of salts for cooling. Heat shallow solar-pond under the batch mode of heat extraction. Appl Energy 2004;78
Transf Eng Aug. 2021;42(13–14):1107–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/ (2):159–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2003.06.001.
01457632.2020.1777002. [128] Sheikholeslami M, Farshad SA, Ebrahimpour Z, Said Z. Recent progress on flat
[100] Van Stappen G, Sui L, Hoa VN, Tamtin M, Nyonje B, Medeiros Rocha R, et al. plate solar collectors and photovoltaic systems in the presence of nanofluid: A
Review on integrated production of the brine shrimp Artemia in solar salt ponds. review. J Clean Prod 2021;293:126119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Rev Aquac 2020;12(2):1054–71. jclepro.2021.126119.
[101] Nie Z, Bu L, Zheng M, Huang W. Experimental study of natural brine solar ponds [129] Zhang N, Chen G, Xu Y, Xu X, Yu L. Power generation, evaporation mitigation,
in Tibet. Sol Energy 2011;85(7):1537–42. and thermal insulation of semitransparent polymer solar cells: A potential for
[102] Saxena A, Goel V. A technical note on fabrication and thermal performance floating photovoltaic applications. ACS Appl Energy Mater Aug. 2019;2(8):
studies of a solar pond model. J Renew Energy 2013;2013:1–5. 6060–70. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.9b01176.
[103] Garg HP. In: Advances in solar energy technology: Volume 3 heating, agricultural [130] Vitoshkin H, Haslavsky V, Barak M, Ziffer E, Arbel A. Numerical and experimental
and photovoltaic applications of solar energy. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; investigation of heat transfer across semi-transparent horizontal screen layers.
1987. p. 116–69. J Build Eng 2021;42:103082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103082.
[104] Masoud Parsa S, Majidniya M, Alawee WH, Dhahad HA, Muhammad Ali H, [131] Kamiuto K, Oda T. Thermal performance of a shallow solar-pond water heater
Afrand M, et al. Thermodynamic, economic, and sensitivity analysis of salt with semitransparent, multilayer surface insulation. Energy 1991;16(10):
gradient solar pond (SGSP) integrated with a low-temperature multi effect 1239–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/0360-5442(91)90153-D.
desalination (MED): Case study, Iran. Sustain Energy Technol Assessments 2021; [132] El-Sebaii AA. Thermal performance of a shallow solar-pond integrated with a
47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2021.101478. baffle plate. Appl Energy 2005;81(1):33–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[105] Rghif Y, Zeghmati B, Bahraoui F. Modeling the influences of a phase change apenergy.2004.05.003.
material and the Dufour effect on thermal performance of a salt gradient solar [133] Dutt DK, Rai SN, Tiwari GN. Transient analysis of a Shallow Solar Pond water
pond. Int J Therm Sci 2021;166:106979. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. heater integrated with a baffle plate. Energy Convers Manag 1987;27(3):303–7.
ijthermalsci.2021.106979. https://doi.org/10.1016/0196-8904(87)90092-6.
[106] Prajapati S, Mehta N, Yadav S. An overview of factors affecting salt gradient solar [134] Kooi CF. The circular cylindrical reflector: Application to a shallow solar pond
ponds. Mater Today Proc 2022;56:2742–52. electricity generating system. Sol Energy 1978;20(1):69–73. https://doi.org/
[107] Ganguly S, Date A, Akbarzadeh A. Effectiveness of bottom insulation of a salinity 10.1016/0038-092X(78)90142-1.
gradient solar pond. J Sol Energy Eng Mar. 2018;140(4). https://doi.org/ [135] El-Sebaii AA, Aboul-Enein S, Ramadan MRI, Khallaf AM. Thermal performance of
10.1115/1.4039416. shallow solar pond under open cycle continuous flow heating mode for heat
[108] Khalilian M, Pourmokhtar H, Roshan A. Effect of heat extraction mode on the extraction. Energy Convers Manag 2006;47(7):1014–31. https://doi.org/
overall energy and exergy efficiencies of the solar ponds: A transient study. 10.1016/j.enconman.2005.06.008.
Energy 2018;154:27–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.04.120. [136] El-Sebaii AA, Ramadan MRI, Aboul-Enein S, Salem N. Thermal performance of a
[109] Velmurugan V, Srithar K. Prospects and scopes of solar pond: A detailed review. single-basin solar still integrated with a shallow solar pond. Energy Convers
Renew Sustain Energy Rev Oct. 2008;12(8):2253–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Manag 2008;49(10):2839–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2007.03.011. enconman.2008.03.002.
27
[137] Shaffer LH. Viscosity stabilized solar ponds. In: de Winter F, and MBT-SMF S., Cox [168] Yaakob Y, Date A, Akbarzadeh A. Heat extraction from gradient layer using
E. (Eds.), Pergamon, 1978, pp. 1171–1175. doi: 10.1016/B978-1-4832-8407- external heat exchangers to enhance the overall efficiency of solar ponds. 2011
1.50230-0. IEEE Conf Clean Energy Technol (CET) 2011:23–8. https://doi.org/10.1109/
[138] Taga M, Matsumoto T, Ochi T. Studies on membrane viscosity stabilized solar CET.2011.6041453.
pond. Sol Energy 1990;45(6):315–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(90) [169] Date A, Yaakob Y, Date A, Krishnapillai S, Akbarzadeh A. Heat extraction from
90152-3. non-convective and lower convective zones of the solar pond: A transient study.
[139] Rizvi R, Jamal Y, Ghauri M, Salman R, Khan I. Solar pond technology for brine Sol Energy 2013;97:517–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2013.09.013.
management and heat extraction: A critical review. J Fac Eng Technol 2015;22. [170] Tundee S, Terdtoon P, Sakulchangsatjatai P, Singh R, Akbarzadeh A. Heat
[140] Wilkins E. Operation of a commercial solar gel pond. Sol Energy 1991;46(6): extraction from salinity-gradient solar ponds using heat pipe heat exchangers. Sol
383–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(91)90054-Z. Energy 2010;84(9):1706–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2010.04.010.
[141] Yogev A, Mahlab D. Aqueous gel for heat storage pond and method for making the [171] Monjezi AA, Campbell AN. A comparative study of the performance of solar ponds
gel. Google Patents 1984. under Middle Eastern and Mediterranean conditions with batch and continuous
[142] Wilkins ES, Wilkins MG. Polymer-gel covered solar energy collector and storage heat extraction. Appl Therm Eng 2017;120:728–40.
unit. Google Patents 1985. [172] Natarajan SK, Sahu SK, Singh A. Thermal performance of a salt gradient non-
[143] Matsumoto T, Kato N, Taga M. On the Polymer Thickener for Viscosity-Stabilized convective solar pond in subtropical region climatic conditions. IOP Conf Ser
Solar Pond. Jpn J Appl Phys 1998;37(Part 1(9A)):5088–93. https://doi.org/ Earth Environ Sci 2019;312(1):12019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/312/
10.1143/jjap.37.5088. 1/012019.
[144] Sozhan N, Senthilvelan T, Kaliyappan T, Vijayakrishna Rapaka E. Experimental [173] Sathish D, Jegadheeswaran S. Evolution and novel accomplishments of solar
investigation on a 0.25 m2 solar gel pond. Int J Innov Res Sci Eng Technol 2013;2: pond, desalination and pond coupled to desalination systems: a review. J Therm
3384–97. Anal Calorim 2021;146(5):1923–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-021-
[145] Sayer AH, Al-Hussaini H, Campbell AN. Experimental analysis of the temperature 10579-8.
and concentration profiles in a salinity gradient solar pond with, and without a [174] Musharavati F, Khanmohammadi S, Nondy J, Gogoi TK. Proposal of a new low-
liquid cover to suppress evaporation. Sol Energy 2017;155:1354–65. https://doi. temperature thermodynamic cycle: 3E analysis and optimization of a solar pond
org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.08.002. integrated with fuel cell and thermoelectric generator. J Clean Prod 2022;331:
[146] Kooi CF. The steady state salt gradient solar pond. Sol Energy 1979;23(1):37–45. 129908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129908.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(79)90041-0. [175] Kumar A, Verma S, Das R. Eigenfunctions and genetic algorithm based improved
[147] Wang YF, Akbarzadeh A. A parametric study on solar ponds. Sol Energy 1983;30 strategies for performance analysis and geometric optimization of a two-zone
(6):555–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(83)90067-1. solar pond. Sol Energy 2020;211:949–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[148] Bansal PK, Kaushik ND. Salt gradient stabilized solar pond collector. Energy solener.2020.10.032.
Convers Manag 1981;21(1):81–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/0196-8904(81) [176] Raju G, Kanidarapu N, Rao N. A review on efficiency improvement methods in
90010-8. organic Rankine cycle system: an exergy approach. Int J Adv Appl Sci Mar. 2022;
[149] Sayer AH, Al-Hussaini H, Campbell AN. New comprehensive investigation on the 11:1–10. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijaas.v11.i1.pp1-10.
feasibility of the gel solar pond, and a comparison with the salinity gradient solar [177] Andrews J, Akbarzadeh A. Enhancing the thermal efficiency of solar ponds by
pond. Appl Therm Eng 2018;130:672–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. extracting heat from the gradient layer. Sol Energy Jun. 2005;78(6):704–16.
applthermaleng.2017.11.056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2004.09.012.
[150] Subhakar D, Srinivasa Murthy S. Saturated solar ponds: 1. Simulation procedure. [178] Zeynali A, Akbari A, Khalilian M. Investigation of the performance of modified
Sol Energy 1993;50(3):275–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(93)90021- organic Rankine cycles (ORCs) and modified trilateral flash cycles (TFCs) assisted
F. by a solar pond. Sol Energy 2019;182:361–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[151] Harel Z, Tanny J, Tsinober A. The equilibrium solar pond: A laboratory model for solener.2019.03.001.
the gradient layer. J Sol Energy Eng 1993;115(1):32–6. https://doi.org/10.1115/ [179] Ziapour BM, Shokrnia M, Naseri M. Comparatively study between single-phase
1.2930021. and two-phase modes of energy extraction in a salinity-gradient solar pond power
[152] Sreenivas KR, Arakeri JH, Srinivasan J. Modeling the dynamics of the mixed layer plant. Energy 2016;111:126–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.05.114.
in solar ponds. Sol Energy 1995;54(3):193–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038- [180] Aramesh M, Pourfayaz F, Kasaeian A. Transient heat extraction modeling method
092X(94)00124-V. for a rectangular type salt gradient solar pond. Energy Convers Manag 2017;132:
[153] Hull JR. Membrane stratified solar ponds. Sol Energy 1980;25(4):317–25. 316–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.11.036.
[154] Esmaeilion F, Ahmadi A, Aliehyaei M. Low-grade heat from solar ponds: trends, [181] Aramesh M, Pourfayaz F, Kasaeian A. Numerical investigation of the nanofluid
perspectives, and prospects. Int J Ambient Energy 2022;43(1):5145–74. effects on the heat extraction process of solar ponds in the transient step. Sol
[155] Yeh H-M, Ma N-T. Performance of modified membrane-stratified solar ponds. Energy 2017;157:869–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.09.011.
Energy 1989;14(4):207–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/0360-5442(89)90064-9. [182] Zhou X, Yang J, Xiao B, Li J. Night operation of solar chimney power system using
[156] Sathish D, Jegadheeswaran S. Effective study of thermal behavior on membrane solar ponds for heat storage. Int J Glob Energy Issues 2009;31(2):193–207.
stratified portable solar pond. Mater Today Proc 2020;27:23–5. https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1504/IJGEI.2009.023895.
10.1016/j.matpr.2019.08.177. [183] Valderrama C, Gibert O, Arcal J, Solano P, Akbarzadeh A, Larrotcha E, et al. Solar
[157] Tabor H. Large-area solar collectors for power production. SPIE milestone Ser energy storage by salinity gradient solar pond: Pilot plant construction and
1993;54:539–44. gradient control. Desalination 2011;279(1-3):445–50.
[158] Kaushik ND, Bansal PK, Sodha MS. Partitioned solar pond collector/storage [184] Alcaraz A, Montalà M, Cortina JL, Akbarzadeh A, Aladjem C, Farran A, et al.
system. Appl Energy 1980;7(1):169–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-2619(80) Design, construction, and operation of the first industrial salinity-gradient solar
90057-4. pond in Europe: An efficiency analysis perspective. Sol Energy 2018;164:316–26.
[159] Bozkurt I, Atiz A, Karakilcik M, Dincer I. An investigation of the effect of [185] Bozkurt I, Mantar S, Karakilcik M. A new performance model to determine energy
transparent covers on the performance of cylindrical solar ponds. Int J Green storage efficiencies of a solar pond. Heat Mass Transf 2015;51(1):39–48. https://
Energy 2014;11(4):404–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2013.773900. doi.org/10.1007/s00231-014-1389-y.
[160] Assari MR, Basirat Tabrizi H, Kavoosi Nejad A, Parvar M. Experimental [186] Dorigato A, Canclini P, Unterberger SH, Pegoretti A. Phase changing
investigation of heat absorption of different solar pond shapes covered with nanocomposites for low temperature thermal energy storage and release. Express
glazing plastic. Sol Energy 2015;122:569–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Polym Lett 2017;11(9):738–52.
solener.2015.09.013. [187] Amirifard M, Kasaeian A, Amidpour M. Integration of a solar pond with a latent
[161] Silva C, González D, Suárez F. An experimental and numerical study of heat storage system. Renew Energy 2018;125:682–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
evaporation reduction in a salt-gradient solar pond using floating discs. Sol renene.2018.03.009.
Energy 2017;142:204–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.12.036. [188] Sukhatme SP, Nayak JK. Solar energy. McGraw-Hill Education; 2017.
[162] Dhindsa GS, Mittal MK. Experimental study of basin type vertical multiple effect [189] Kasaeian AB, Molana S, Rahmani K, Wen D. A review on solar chimney systems.
diffusion solar still integrated with mini solar pond to generate nocturnal Renew Sustain energy Rev 2017;67:954–87.
distillate. Energy Convers Manag 2018;165:669–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [190] Dhaouadi R, Al-Othman A, Aidan AA, Tawalbeh M, Zannerni R.
enconman.2018.03.100. A characterization study for the properties of dust particles collected on
[163] Dhindsa GS, Mittal MK. An investigation of double-glass-covered trapezoidal salt- photovoltaic (PV) panels in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Renew Energy Jun.
gradient solar pond coupled with reflector. Int J Green Energy 2018;15(2):57–68. 2021;171:133–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.02.083.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2017.1421199. [191] Tabor H. Solar ponds large-area solar collectors for power production. Sol Energy
[164] Padhi D, and Kumar S. Experimental study on an inclined pyramid-type single 1963;7(4):187–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(63)90165-8.
basin solar pond for water distillation BT - Advances in air conditioning and [192] Tabor HZ, Doron B. The Beith Ha’Arava 5 MW(e) Solar pond power plant
refrigeration. 2021. pp. 177–185. (SPPP)—Progress report. Sol Energy 1990;45(4):247–53. https://doi.org/
[165] Wang H, Zou J, Cortina JL, Kizito J. Experimental and theoretical study on 10.1016/0038-092X(90)90093-R.
temperature distribution of adding coal cinder to bottom of salt gradient solar [193] Einav A. Solar energy research and development achievements in israel and their
pond. Sol Energy 2014;110:756–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. practical significance. J Sol Energy Eng Jul. 2004;126(3):921–8. https://doi.org/
solener.2014.10.018. 10.1115/1.1758246.
[166] Al-Jamal K, Khashan S. Effect of energy extraction on solar pond performance. [194] La Rocca V, Morale M, Peri G, Scaccianoce G. A solar pond for feeding a
Energy Convers Manag 1998;39(7):559–66. thermoelectric generator or an organic Rankine cycle system. Int J Heat Technol
[167] Angeli C, Leonardi E, Maciocco L. A computational study of salt diffusion and heat 2017;35(1):S435–41.
extraction in solar pond plants. Sol Energy 2006;80(11):1498–508. https://doi. [195] Shboul B, AL-Arfi I, Michailos S, Ingham D, AL-Zoubi OH, Ma L, et al. Design and
org/10.1016/j.solener.2005.10.015. Techno-economic assessment of a new hybrid system of a solar dish Stirling
28
engine instegrated with a horizontal axis wind turbine for microgrid power [224] Kumar A, Singh K, Verma S, Das R. Inverse prediction and optimization analysis
generation. Energy Convers Manag 2021;245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. of a solar pond powering a thermoelectric generator. Sol Energy 2018;169:
enconman.2021.114587. 658–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.05.035.
[196] Yu Y, Niu T, Wang J, Jiang H. Intermittent solar power hybrid forecasting system [225] Goswami R, Das R. Experimental analysis of a novel solar pond driven
based on pattern recognition and feature extraction. Energy Convers Manag 2023; thermoelectric energy system. J Energy Resour Technol Jun. 2020;142(12).
277:116579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116579. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4047324.
[197] Ghaebi H, Rostamzadeh H. Performance comparison of two new cogeneration [226] Zhong K-Q, Xiao Y, Lu X, Deng J, Yin L, Tian Y, et al. Nanofluidic two-phase
systems for freshwater and power production based on organic Rankine and closed thermosyphon-assisted thermoelectric generator for heat recovery from
Kalina cycles driven by salinity-gradient solar pond. Renew Energy 2020;156: coal spontaneous combustion. Appl Therm Eng 2021;197:117397.
748–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.04.043. [227] Karthick K, Suresh S, Joy GC, Dhanuskodi R. Experimental investigation of solar
[198] Orosz M, Dickes R. Solar thermal powered organic rankine cycles. In: Organic reversible power generation in Thermoelectric Generator (TEG) using thermal
Rankine Cycle (ORC). Power Systems, Elsevier; 2017. p. 569–612. energy storage. Energy Sustain Dev 2019;48:107–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[199] Delgado-Torres AM, García-Rodríguez L. Design recommendations for solar esd.2018.11.002.
organic Rankine cycle (ORC)–powered reverse osmosis (RO) desalination. Renew [228] Rowe DM. Thermoelectrics, an environmentally-friendly source of electrical
Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16(1):44–53. power. Renew energy 1999;16(1–4):1251–6.
[200] Tchanche BF, Lambrinos G, Frangoudakis A, Papadakis G. Low-grade heat [229] Patyk A. Thermoelectric generators for efficiency improvement of power
conversion into power using organic Rankine cycles – A review of various generation by motor generators–environmental and economic perspectives. Appl
applications. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15(8):3963–79. https://doi.org/ Energy 2013;102:1448–57.
10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.024. [230] Hamid Elsheikh M, Shnawah DA, Sabri MFM, Said SBM, Haji Hassan M, Ali
[201] Zhang X, Wu L, Wang X, Ju G. Comparative study of waste heat steam SRC, ORC Bashir MB, et al. A review on thermoelectric renewable energy: Principle
and S-ORC power generation systems in medium-low temperature. Appl Therm parameters that affect their performance. Renew Sustain energy Rev 2014;30:
Eng 2016;106:1427–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.06.108. 337–55.
[202] Wang S, Fu Z. Thermodynamic and economic analysis of solar assisted CCHP-ORC [231] Ullah KR, Saidur R, Ping HW, Akikur RK, Shuvo NH. A review of solar thermal
system with DME as fuel. Energy Convers Manag 2019;186:535–45. refrigeration and cooling methods. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;24:499–513.
[203] Zhou T, Liu J, Ren J, Yang S. Conceptual design, modelling and optimization of an [232] Karabetoglu S, Sisman A, Ozturk ZF, Sahin T. Characterization of a thermoelectric
integrated system by combining Organic Rankine Cycle and absorption generator at low temperatures. Energy Convers Manag 2012;62:47–50.
refrigeration cycle for efficient energy recovery. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2022; [233] Fiameni S, Battiston S, Boldrini S, Famengo A, Agresti F, Barison S, et al. Synthesis
133:104276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2022.104276. and characterization of Bi-doped Mg2Si thermoelectric materials. J Solid State
[204] Chowdhury J, Nguyen BK, Thornhill D. Modelling of evaporator in waste heat Chem 2012;193:142–6.
recovery system using finite volume method and fuzzy technique. Energies Dec. [234] Wang Y, Peng Y, Guo K, Zheng X, Darkwa J, Zhong H. Experimental investigation
2015;8:14078–97. https://doi.org/10.3390/en81212413. on performance improvement of thermoelectric generator based on phase change
[205] Markides CN. Low-concentration solar-power systems based on organic Rankine materials and heat transfer enhancement. Energy 2021;229:120676. https://doi.
cycles for distributed-scale applications: Overview and further developments. org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.120676.
Front Energy Res 2015;3:47. [235] Kraemer D, Hu L, Muto A, Chen X, Chen G, Chiesa M. Photovoltaic-thermoelectric
[206] Tchanche BF, Papadakis G, Lambrinos G, Frangoudakis A. Fluid selection for a hybrid systems: A general optimization methodology. Appl Phys Lett 2008;92
low-temperature solar organic Rankine cycle. Appl Therm Eng 2009;29(11): (24):243503.
2468–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2008.12.025. [236] Ding LC, Akbarzadeh A, Date A. Transient model to predict the performance of
[207] Rayegan R, Tao YX. A procedure to select working fluids for solar organic Rankine thermoelectric generators coupled with solar pond. Energy 2016;103:271–89.
cycles (ORCs). Renew Energy 2011;36(2):659–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.02.124.
renene.2010.07.010. [237] Singh B, Baharin N‘, Remeli MF, Oberoi A, Date A, Akbarzadeh A. Experimental
[208] Desai NB, Bandyopadhyay S. Thermo-economic analysis and selection of working Analysis of Thermoelectric Heat Exchanger for Power Generation from Salinity
fluid for solar organic Rankine cycle. Appl Therm Eng 2016;95:471–81. https:// Gradient Solar Pond Using Low-Grade Heat. J Electron Mater 2017;46(5):2854–9.
doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.11.018. [238] ’Aadilia Baharin N, Arzami AA, Singh B, Remeli MF, Tan L, Oberoi A. Passive flow
[209] Khanmohammadi S, Heidarnejad P, Javani N, Ganjehsarabi H. Exergoeconomic heat exchanger simulation for power generation from solar pond using
analysis and multi objective optimization of a solar based integrated energy thermoelectric generators. AIP Conference Proceedings 2017;1828(1):20021.
system for hydrogen production. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2017;42(33):21443–53. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4979392.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.02.105. [239] Ding LC, Akbarzadeh A, Date A. Electric power generation via plate type power
[210] Shekari Namin A, Rostamzadeh H, Nourani P. Thermodynamic and generation unit from solar pond using thermoelectric cells. Appl Energy 2016;
thermoeconomic analysis of three cascade power plants coupled with RO 183:61–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.08.161.
desalination unit, driven by a salinity-gradient solar pond. Therm Sci Eng Prog [240] Liu B, Tang L, Feng L, Anqi AE, Alamri S. Comparing and optimizing the potential
2020;18:100562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2020.100562. advantages of a salinity-gradient solar pond for either absorption-based or
[211] Li J, Dhahad HA, Anqi AE, Rajhi AA. Thermo-economic investigation on the ejector-based refrigeration cycles combined with thermoelectric generators. Appl
hydrogen production through the stored solar energy in a salinity gradient solar Therm Eng 2023;219:119539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
pond: A comparative study by employing APC and ORC with zeotropic mixture. applthermaleng.2022.119539.
Int J Hydrogen Energy 2022;47(12):7600–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [241] Cao Y, Dhahad HA, Parikhani T, Anqi AE, Mohamed AM. Thermo-economic
ijhydene.2021.12.102. evaluation of a combined Kalina cycle and humidification-dehumidification
[212] Das P, Chandramohan VP. A review on recent advances in hybrid solar updraft (HDH) desalination system integrated with thermoelectric generator and solar
tower plants: Challenges and future aspects. Sustain Energy Technol Assessments pond. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2021;168:120844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
2023;55:102978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2022.102978. ijheatmasstransfer.2020.120844.
[213] Akbarzadeh A, Johnson P, Singh R. Examining potential benefits of combining a [242] Lv S, Ji Y, Qian Z, Pan Y, Zhang Y, He W. Preliminary experiment and
chimney with a salinity gradient solar pond for production of power in salt performance evaluation of a terrestrial solar thermoelectric generators under
affected areas. Sol Energy 2009;83(8):1345–59. fluctuant solar radiation. Appl Therm Eng 2021;190:116753. https://doi.org/
[214] Mustafa A. A survey on performance enhancement of solar updraft tower power 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2021.116753.
plants. Int J Eng Tech Res 2014;2:34–9. [243] Tawalbeh M, Al Mojjly A, Al-Othman A, Hilal N. Membrane separation as a pre-
[215] Esen M, Esen H. Experimental investigation of a two-phase closed thermosyphon treatment process for oily saline water. Desalination 2018;447:182–202. https://
solar water heater. Sol Energy 2005;79(5):459–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. doi.org/10.1016/J.DESAL.2018.07.029.
solener.2005.01.001. [244] Tawalbeh M, Al-Othman A, Singh K, Douba I, Kabakebji D, Alkasrawi M.
[216] Soin RS, Raghuraman S, Murali V. Two-phase water heater: Model and long term Microbial desalination cells for water purification and power generation: A
performance. Sol Energy 1987;38(2):105–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038- critical review. Energy 2020;209:118493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
092X(87)90033-8. energy.2020.118493.
[217] Schreyer JM. Residential application of refrigerant-charged solar collectors. Sol [245] Johnson DB, Gleick GH. The World’s Water 2006–2007: The Biennial Report on
Energy 1981;26(4):307–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(81)90176-6. Freshwater Resources. Environ Pract 2008;10(3):129.
[218] Pluta Z, Pomierny W. The theoretical and experimental investigation of the phase- [246] Elsaid K, Kamil M, Sayed ET, Abdelkareem MA, Wilberforce T, Olabi A.
change solar thermosyphon. Renew Energy 1995;6(3):317–21. https://doi.org/ Environmental impact of desalination technologies: A review. Sci Total Environ
10.1016/0960-1481(95)00018-F. 2020;748:141528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141528.
[219] Hammad M. Experimental study of the performance of a solar collector cooled by [247] Al-Othman A, Darwish NN, Qasim M, Tawalbeh M, Darwish NA, Hilal N. Nuclear
heat pipes. Energy Convers Manag 1995;36(3):197–203. desalination: A state-of-the-art review. Desalination May 2019;457:39–61.
[220] Radhwan AM, Zaki GM, Jamil A. Refrigerant-charged integrated solar water https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2019.01.002.
heater. Int J Energy Res 1990;14(4):421–32. [248] Elsaid K, Taha Sayed E, Yousef BAA, Kamal Hussien Rabaia M, Ali
[221] Chun W, Kang YH, Kwak HY, Lee YS. An experimental study of the utilization of Abdelkareem M, Olabi AG. Recent progress on the utilization of waste heat for
heat pipes for solar water heaters. Appl Therm Eng 1999;19(8):807–17. desalination: A review. Energy Convers Manag 2020;221:113105.
[222] Ghaddar N, Nasr Y. Experimental study of a refrigerant charged solar collector. [249] Dahdah TH, Mitsos A. Structural optimization of seawater desalination: II novel
Int J energy Res 1998;22(7):625–38. MED–MSF–TVC configurations. Desalination 2014;344:219–27. https://doi.org/
[223] Joudi KA, Al-Tabbakh AA. Computer simulation of a two phase thermosyphon 10.1016/j.desal.2014.03.026.
solar domestic hot water heating system. Energy Convers Manag 1999;40(7):
775–93.
29
[250] González D, Amigo J, Suárez F. Membrane distillation: Perspectives for [268] Salata F, Alippi C, Tarsitano A, Golasi I, Coppi M. A First Approach to Natural
sustainable and improved desalination. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;80: Thermoventilation of Residential Buildings through Ventilation Chimneys
238–59. Supplied by Solar Ponds. Sustainability 2015;7(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/
[251] Abdelmoez W, Mahmoud MS, Farrag TE. Water desalination using su7079649.
humidification/dehumidification (HDH) technique powered by solar energy: a [269] Kanan S, Dewsbury J, Lane-Serff GF, Asim M. The Effect of ground conditions
detailed review. Desalin Water Treat 2014;52(25–27):4622–40. under a solar pond on the performance of a solar air-conditioning system. Energy
[252] Rezk H, Alsaman AS, Al-Dhaifallah M, Askalany AA, Abdelkareem MA, Procedia 2016;91:777–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2016.06.243.
Nassef AM. Identifying optimal operating conditions of solar-driven silica gel [270] Elsarrag E, Igobo ON, Davies PA. Solar pond driven air conditioning using
based adsorption desalination cooling system via modern optimization. Sol seawater bitterns and MgCl 2 as the desiccant source. Low-temperature
Energy 2019;181:475–89. technologies. IntechOpen; 2019.
[253] Qasim M, Badrelzaman M, Darwish NN, Darwish NA, Hilal N. Reverse osmosis [271] Garrido F, Vergara J. Design of solar pond for water preheating used in the copper
desalination: A state-of-the-art review. Desalination 2019;459:59–104. cathodes washing at a mining operation at Sierra Gorda, Chile. J Renew Sustain
[254] Moustafa HM, Obaid M, Nassar MM, Abdelkareem MA, Mahmoud MS. Titanium Energy Jul. 2013;5(4):43103. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4812652.
dioxide-decorated rGO as an effective electrode for ultrahigh-performance [272] Yu J, Zheng M, Wu Q, Nie Z, Bu L. Extracting lithium from Tibetan Dangxiong Tso
capacitive deionization. Sep Purif Technol 2020;235:116178. Salt Lake of carbonate type by using geothermal salinity-gradient solar pond. Sol
[255] Abdelkareem MA, Assad MEH, Sayed ET, Soudan B. Recent progress in the use of Energy 2015;115:133–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2015.02.021.
renewable energy sources to power water desalination plants. Desalination 2018; [273] Zhang G, Wu Z, Cheng F, Min Z, Lee D-J. Thermophilic digestion of waste-
435:97–113. activated sludge coupled with solar pond. Renew Energy 2016;98:142–7. https://
[256] Abdelsalam E, et al. A New Sustainable and Novel Hybrid Solar Chimney Power doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.03.052.
Plant Design for Power Generation and Seawater Desalination. Sustainability [274] Chavaco LC, Arcos CA, Prato-Garcia D. Decolorization of reactive dyes in solar
2021;13(21). https://doi.org/10.3390/su132112100. pond reactors: Perspectives and challenges for the textile industry. J Environ
[257] Abdelsalam E, Kafiah F, Tawalbeh M, Almomani F, Azzam A, Alzoubi I, et al. Manage 2017;198:203–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.04.077.
Performance analysis of hybrid solar chimney–power plant for power production [275] Date A, Akbarzadeh A. Theoretical study of a new thermodynamic power cycle for
and seawater desalination: A sustainable approach. Int J Energy Res 2021;45(12): thermal water pumping application and its prospects when coupled to a solar
17327–41. pond. Appl Therm Eng 2013;58(1):511–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[258] Szacsvay T, Hofer-Noser P, Posnansky M. Technical and economic aspects of applthermaleng.2013.05.004.
small-scale solar-pond-powered seawater desalination systems. Desalination [276] Steinfeld A. Solar hydrogen production via a two-step water-splitting
1999;122(2):185–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(99)00040-5. thermochemical cycle based on Zn/ZnO redox reactions. Int J Hydrogen Energy
[259] Saleh A, Qudeiri JA, Al-Nimr MA. Performance investigation of a salt gradient 2002;27(6):611–9.
solar pond coupled with desalination facility near the Dead Sea. Energy 2011;36 [277] Safarzadeh Ravajiri E, Jalali A, Houshfar E. Multi-objective optimization and 4E
(2):922–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.12.018. analysis of an integrated system based on waste-to-energy, solar PV, power-to-
[260] Mir N, Bicer Y. Solar-pond assisted reverse osmosis-electrodialysis system for gas, and HDH-RO desalination. Energy Convers Manag 2023;277:116677.
seawater desalination and hydroponic fertilizer solution production. Energy https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2023.116677.
Sources, Part A Recover Util Environ Eff 2021:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/ [278] Rejeb O, Alirahmi SM, Assareh E, El Haj Assad M, Jemni A, Bettayeb M, et al.
15567036.2021.2008060. Innovative integrated solar powered polygeneration system for green Hydrogen,
[261] Tawalbeh M, Al-Othman A, Abdelwahab N, Alami AH, Olabi AG. Recent Oxygen, electricity and heat production. Energy Convers Manag 2022;269:
developments in pressure retarded osmosis for desalination and power 116073.
generation. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2021;138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [279] Luqman M, Ghiat I, Maroof M, Lahlou F-Z, Bicer Y, Al-Ansari T. Application of the
rser.2020.110492. concept of a renewable energy based-polygeneration system for sustainable
[262] Rahaoui K, et al. Sustainable membrane distillation coupled with solar pond. thermal desalination process—A thermodynamics’ perspective. Int J Energy Res
Energy Proc 2017;110:414–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.162. Dec. 2020;44(15):12344–62. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.5161.
[263] Suárez F, Ruskowitz JA, Tyler SW, Childress AE. Renewable water: Direct contact [280] Delgado-Torres AM, García-Rodríguez L. Solar desalination driven by organic
membrane distillation coupled with solar ponds. Appl Energy 2015;158:532–9. rankine cycles (Orc) and supercritical CO2 power cycles: An update. Processes
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.08.110. 2022;10(1):pp. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10010153.
[264] Salata F, Coppi M. A first approach study on the desalination of sea water using [281] Habibollahzade A, Gholamian E, Ahmadi P, Behzadi A. Multi-criteria
heat transformers powered by solar ponds. Appl Energy 2014;136:611–8. https:// optimization of an integrated energy system with thermoelectric generator,
doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.09.079. parabolic trough solar collector and electrolysis for hydrogen production. Int J
[265] Velmurugan V, Pandiarajan S, Guruparan P, Subramanian LH, Prabaharan CD, Hydrogen Energy 2018;43(31):14140–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Srithar K. Integrated performance of stepped and single basin solar stills with mini ijhydene.2018.05.143.
solar pond. Desalination 2009;249(3):902–9. [282] Razmi AR, Alirahmi SM, Nabat MH, Assareh E, Shahbakhti M. A green hydrogen
[266] Tong X, Liu S, Chen Y, Crittenden J. Seawater desalination using a salinity- energy storage concept based on parabolic trough collector and proton exchange
gradient solar pond-vacuum freezing ejector absorption hybrid system. AGU Fall membrane electrolyzer/fuel cell: Thermodynamic and exergoeconomic analyses
Meeting Abstracts 2020;2020:H117–208. with multi-objective optimization. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2022;47(62):
[267] Choubani K, Ennetta R. Effects of inlet operational parameters on the combined 26468–89.
salt gradient solar pond-direct contact membrane distillation system. Sol Energy
2022;244:289–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2022.08.014.
30

1-s2.0-S0196890423005265-main

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1-s2.0-S0196890423005265-main

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1-s2.0-S0196890423005265-main

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Energy Conversion and Management 289 (2023) 117180

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

1. Introduction energy sources has caused a steady increment of environmental pollu

Fig. 1. The distribution of the earth’s solar energy [24].

Fig. 2. Countries that are currently deploying/considering solar pond systems.

Fig. 4. Timeline of solar pond developments.

Fig. 6. Schematic illustration of solar gel pond [139].

Table 3 investigation resulted in the setting up of a large-scale solar pond plant

Fig. 15. Integrated thermosiphon/TEG using SGSP [85].

Fig. 16. A schematic design of combined SGSP-TEG-thermosiphon [224].

Fig. 17. A working diagram of the PTPGU-SGSP system [239].

Fig. 18. Schematic diagram PEMFC-TEG-SGSP/ORC [174].

Fig. 19. An illustration of MED/PRO/SGSP with a photo-assisted chloralkali reactor [84].

Fig. 20. Annual production of H2/Cl2 (mg s− 1) [84].

Fig. 22. Configuration of thermal power pump with TPC [275].

You might also like

1-s2.0-S0196890423005265-main

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1-s2.0-S0196890423005265-main

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1-s2.0-S0196890423005265-main

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Energy Conversion and Management 289 (2023) 117180

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

1. Introduction energy sources has caused a steady increment of environmental pollu­

Fig. 1. The distribution of the earth’s solar energy [24].

Fig. 2. Countries that are currently deploying/considering solar pond systems.

Fig. 4. Timeline of solar pond developments.

Fig. 6. Schematic illustration of solar gel pond [139].

Table 3 investigation resulted in the setting up of a large-scale solar pond plant

Fig. 15. Integrated thermosiphon/TEG using SGSP [85].

Fig. 16. A schematic design of combined SGSP-TEG-thermosiphon [224].

Fig. 17. A working diagram of the PTPGU-SGSP system [239].

Fig. 18. Schematic diagram PEMFC-TEG-SGSP/ORC [174].

Fig. 19. An illustration of MED/PRO/SGSP with a photo-assisted chloralkali reactor [84].

Fig. 20. Annual production of H2/Cl2 (mg s− 1) [84].

Fig. 22. Configuration of thermal power pump with TPC [275].

You might also like

1. Introduction energy sources has caused a steady increment of environmental pollu