MISCELLANEA GEOGRAPHICA – REGIONAL STUDIES ON DEVELOPMENT

Vol. 23 • No. 3 • 2019 • pp. 180-184 • ISSN: 2084-6118 • DOI: 10.2478/mgrsd-2019-0012

The saga of women’s status

in ancient Indian civilization

Abstract
Foundation of human civilization and endorsement of its potency are the Bhaswati Pal
consequences of prolonged women endeavor, which through its history of
superiority and confinement, convey the picturesque of civilization. Since
ages, the Indian societal structure has played an active role in stimulating
the trends of change in women’s status, which with time also proved to Department of Geography, University of Kalyani,
be hindrance to the progress of this country. In this context, the study has Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India
attempted to emphasize the women’s status in ancient Indian civilization e-mail: [email protected]
based on the ancient scripts and texts. The ancient era has been
categorized into four distinct periods viz. the Vedic period, the Epic period,
the period of Jainism and Buddhism and the age of Dharmaśāstras,
Mánusmṛiti onward. The study has portrayed the relegation of the women’s
dignified role and position entirely to a subservient one from Vedic period
to the period of Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmṛiti onward.

Keywords
Dharmaśāstras • India • Jainism and Buddhism • Mahābhārata •
Rāmāyaṇa • vedic period
Received: 22 November 2018
© University of Warsaw – Faculty of Geography and Regional Studies Accepted: 21 February 2019

Introduction
Women play a key role in strengthening the dynamism of Buddhist texts; the Smritis; the Purānas; and the Dharmaśāstras;
human civilization. According to Altekar (1938, p. 1), “one of the best this study has made an attempt to assess women’s roles and
ways to understand the spirit of a civilization and to appreciate its positions in ancient Indian civilization. Following the chronology
excellences and realise its limitations is to study the history of the of the ancient period in Indian history, the study has been confined
position and status of women in it.” Although the ancient Indian to four distinct periods: the Early Vedic or Rig Vedic period (1500
texts have focused on women’s visibility in this regard, historians, BC–1000 BC), the Epic or Later Vedic period (1000 BC–600 BC),
while reconstructing the past, have created certain spaces for the Jainism and Buddhism period (600 BC–200 BC) and the age
women that exist merely within definite parameters (Chakravarti of Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmriti (200 BC–647 AD).
& Roy 1988). In regard Indian history, women’s studies have a The Dharmaśāstras are part of Hindu discourse, and the
tendency to throw light on the broad terminology of women’s Dharmaśāstras period is considered to be from 600 BC to 200
status, which has, consequentially, focused on a restricted set AD. On the other hand Jainism and Buddhism also flourished in
of queries. These queries, as well as their parameters seek to ancient India during the same period. Women’s status began to
explore women’s roles and positions in different socio-cultural, decline in 200 BC during the Dharmaśāstras period with Mánu’s
as well as economic and political spheres of the country (Sharma codification (Mánusmriti) of societal legislation. Therefore, to
2014). Moreover these parameters have tended to create a avoid an overlap of periods and to highlight women’s status
major lacuna in our perception of the societal structure that had in ancient Indian civilization irrespective of religious bias, the
endeavored to shape gender roles and positions in ancient India. Jainism and Buddhism period and the period of Dharmaśāstras,
The influence of Indian society on gender has varied widely over Mánusmriti is considered separately as 600 BC to 200 BC, and
time and space due to the differences in socio-cultural traditions 200 BC to 647 AD, respectively.
and practices (Chakravarti & Roy 1988). Since early times, societal
structure has played an active role in stimulating change in Discussions
women’s roles and positions, but with time has also hindered the
progress of the country. In this context, this study has made an The Early Vedic or the Rig Vedic Period (1500 BC–1000 BC)
attempt to assess women’s status and to highlight the structural Women were dignified with a respectable status in early
framework of gender relations in ancient Indian civilization. Vedic civilization. Dravidian culture “has had a very long history
as a referential term for the southern portion of India” (Marr 1975,
Materials and Methods p. 30), in which women were honored as well as empowered in
Based on the ancient Indian manuscripts and texts: the the affairs of the home and family. They were also honored by
Védas; the Great Epics, the Rámáyana and the Mahābhārata; the their participation in all the socio-cultural activities of early Indian

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Vol. 23 • No. 3 • 2019 • pp. 180-184 • ISSN: 2084-6118 • DOI: 10.2478/mgrsd-2019-0012

civilization. Moreover, “the Aryan culture, based on the Vedic were never allowed to inherit their father’s property. However,
culture, remained the centralizing factor” (Burrow 1975, p. 29) of the spinsters had access to patrimony in the form of one-fourth of the
early Vedic civilization. Women’s freedom to participate in war, share allocated to their brothers.
gymnastics, archery, horse riding, public activities, education, In addition to this, in early Vedic religious discourses,
decision making, and in the selection of male partners has women had the privilege and full right to regularly participate in
portrayed the nature of women’s status in the social canvas ceremonies and rituals. In Rig Vedic society the women would
of the Rig Vedic period (Altekar 1938). As explained in Devi and have been honored to carry out sacrifices jointly with their better
Subrahmanyam (2014), the value of women and the respect shown half. Women also had the liberty to read sacred literature, and
towards them was not only limited to the idea of mistress of also had the right to take part as debaters in public assemblies.
the household, rather, women demonstrated huge potential for Special attention to the female’s priority and satisfaction
contributing to human civilization during the Vedic period. The during sex has been markedly observed in Vātsyāyana’s
Ṛg-Vedá-Saṃhitā text revealed that the “goddess Durgā” (trans. Kāmasūtra, which highlights the Rig Vedic’s sexual eroticism
Müller 1869, p. 211); “Aditi, the goddess of freedom” (trans. and emotional fulfillment in life (trans. Fosse 2012). Moreover,
Müller 1869, p. 243); and Sárasvatī the “best mother, best of Jayadeva’s Ratimañjari (based on the Kāmasūtra) has thrown
rivers, best of goddesses” (trans. Griffith 1896, Hymn XLI) were a light on a profound illustration of káma during the Rig Vedic
worshipped with complete dedication. Sculptures representing period (trans. Rossella 2010). As written in the Ratimañjari,
early Vedic society have also shown that women were placed in other than being described as wives, girlfriends, or prostitutes;
a higher status in this society. women were, significantly, considered to be partners in giving
Despite the existence of a preference for sons, daughters pleasure to men and for being completely satisfied by him at
were always accepted and treated well in early Vedic India, where the same time in the area of sex (trans. Rossella 2010). In the
the “girls’ education passes through the stages of Upanayana Rig Vedic civilization, prostitutes, along with their practices,
and Brahmachárya leading to the marital state” (Tharakan & were never considered to be undignified or shameful, rather
Tharakan 1975, p. 117). During the Rig Vedic period all genders were female sex workers were depicted as classy women, without
offered the privilege of equal educational opportunity to study the societal restrictions (Nandal & Rajnish 2014). In the Arthaśāstra,
Vedāḥ (Vedic literatures), and the role of women in ancient Indian while emphasizing the legal position of prostitutes during the
literature became of great importance. The Ṛg-Vedá-Saṃhitā Rig Vedic period, Kautilya referred to several special classes of
mentioned several women seers and sages, of which Sulabhā prostitute: Ganiká, Rúpájíva, Vésya, Pratiganiká, Dási, Devadási,
Maitreyī, Gārgī Vāchaknavī, Lopāmudra, Ghōṣa, Visvavārā, and Rúpadási (trans. Shamasastry 1956). Besides, prostitutes
Vadavā Prāchiteyī, and Sikatā Nivāvarī represented renowned were also portrayed as being beautiful, talented, and prosperous
female authors of the Vedic mántras (hymns), as well as being within this societal canvas (trans. Shamasastry 1956). Moreover,
persons of intelligence due to their learning during that era. Early a broad understanding of sexuality through tantra sex (divine
Vedic texts have also revealed two types of women scholars of the prostitution) has been revealed in early Vedic society. Thus the
period: the Brahmavādínis, women who never married and who Rig Vedic civilization endeavored to create a picture of the idyllic
studied the Vedāḥ throughout their lives; and the Sadyodvāhās conditions of women’s sexuality (Chakravarty 1988).
who studied the Védas until they married. The Vedāḥs referred
to female teachers as upadhyāyās (unmarried female teachers) The Epic or Later Vedic Period (1000 BC–600 BC)
or upadhyāyānīs (married female teachers) within Vedic society. Womanhood was idealized as an honorable position
The early Vedic period was therefore characterized by women’s both in and outside the home during the Epic period of Indian
glorious role in education. civilization. The two great epics of India, the Rāmāyaṇa by
In early Vedic family affairs, women who enjoyed both Válmíki and the Mahābhārata by Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa,
their autonomy and their role as wives were considered to be depicted women as the root of dharma, pleasure, and prosperity.
ardhangini (better half) and sahadharmini (equal partner). According to Thakur (2017, p. 382), “the bride is designated as the
Marriage was never forcibly imposed on women in Rig Vedic queen of the house whose position is supreme above all the
society. The Ṛg-Vedá-Saṃhitā has often referred to spinsters as members of groom’s family.” The Rāmāyaṇa emphasized the
“Amajuh, one who grows old in (one’s parents’) house” (Altekar line “tell of Sítá’s noble life” (trans. and ed. Griffith 1870-1874,
1938, p. 38). After puberty and the completion of their education, p. 31). Moreover, Sítá, Draupadi, Kaikeyi, Rukmani, Sabitri, and
girls had permission to take up married life by selecting their life Satyabhama symbolized the great value, strong willpower, and
partners through swayamvara (choosing a husband). The Ṛg- the courageous role and position of women in Epic society.
Vedá-Saṃhitā has disclosed the existence of both polygamy and In the Rāmāyaṇa, ideal womanhood was well illustrated as
polyandry during the early Vedic period. In some passages of the glorifying the value of pativratya (devotion to one’s husband) and
Vedāḥ too, the “wife is mentioned in connection with husbands has also idealized Sítá as the “best of womankind” (trans. and
in plural” (Altekar 1938, p. 132). Remarrying was also socially ed. Griffith 1870-1874, p. 493) and the most esteemed aspect of
acceptable for widows; however, divorce was not permitted Indian heritage. Sítá has been symbolized as a devoted wife in
in Rig Vedic’s marriage system. As Bala states (2014, p. 123), the Rāmāyaṇa, representing the ideal character that all women
“the tradition of child marriage cannot be traced to the Védas.” were expected to strive towards (Wadley 1977). However, during
Women were honored as the “very source of Puruṣārthas, not the Epic period, “in later Vedic literature it is pointed out in several
only Dhárma, Artha and Káma, but even Mokṣa” (Nandal & Rajnish places how polyandry is not permissible, though polygamy is
2014, p. 22) in Rig Vedic India. legal” (Altekar 1938, p. 132). Traditionally, the life and characters
Women of the early Vedic period enjoyed absolute economic of Sāvitrī, Sítá, Anusūyā, Damayanti, and Arundhatī have also
freedom. They engaged in professions for increasing health and been widely celebrated as pativratas in the Rāmāyaṇa and
well-being, as well as in teaching professions as achāryās in Mahābhārata (Kang 2015).
Rig Vedic society (Altekar 1938). During this period, women also Women possessed unconditional economic freedom during
earned money through the spinning and weaving of clothes at the Epic civilization period, while the Mahābhārata upheld the
home, while also helping their husbands in agricultural activities. religious importance of the mother in the betterment of the family.
However, the Vedāḥ has emphasized women’s greatly restricted As Ganguli indicated (1883–1896), the character as well as the
right to the inheritance of property, in which married daughters contribution of the Mothers, that is, Gaṅgā, Gāndhārī, Pārvatī,

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Uttarā, and Kuntī, towards their families’ benediction was In the Arthaśāstra, while explaining “the duty of marriage, the
considered worth mentioning in the Mahābhārata. property of a woman, and compensations for remarriage” (trans.
The prevalence of the devadási practice emerged during the Shamasastry 1956, p. 222), Kautilya stated that men, “having
Epic period, in which women were psycho-sexually devoted to given his wives the proportionate compensation and an adequate
the gods. Being recognized as devadásis, these dedicated girls subsistence (vritti), he may marry any number of women; for
were bound to spend the rest of their lives serving the priests and women are created for the sake of sons” (trans. Shamasastry
the pilgrims (Das 2017). 1956, p. 222).
Women were given “sexual liberty” (Ganguli 1883-1896, Apart from this, motherhood had been “glorified as
Section XXX, p. 65), and higher roles and positions in war, during compensation for an imposed reality in which women merely
the Epic period of Indian civilization. The Rāmāyaṇa and the gratified society’s preference for male progeny” (Bhattacharji 1990,
Mahābhārata offer a picture of Kṣatriya women taking part in p. WS50). During this age, the contribution of women to society
wars to defend and protect their culture. On the other hand, the was always outshone by that of the men. Self-sacrifice and the
Mahābhārata also disclosed men’s dependency on women in the observation of social rituals for the welfare of the male members
area of sex during the Epic period (Ganguli 1883-1896). of their family was considered to be a woman’s duty. As in
Śūdraka’s Mṛcchakaṭikā (500 AD), the custom of avagunthana,
The Jainism and Buddhism Period (600 BC–200 BC) also named purdah, began approximately 100 BC; it was also
The existence of a persistent gender equity was observed practiced by married females while going about in public (trans.
during the period of Jainism and Buddhism. In the Tipitaka, the Basham & Sharma 1994). Moreover, the act of widow’s re-
“Vimana Vatthu Pali” (ed. Ko Lay 1990, p. 139) section of the marrying was strictly declared illegitimate, while the prevalence
“Khuddaka Nikaya” (ed. Ko Lay 1990, p. 133) chapter portrays of satī, or sahagamana, increased markedly in society (Altekar
women’s freedom in education, and religious and cultural 1938).
activities in society. During this period the various Indian cultures Mánu’s codification of social norms considered women to
were “united by a common culture, of which the Aryans were the be impure as well as second class citizens. Following from this,
original founders, but to which Dravidians and others also made a strict prohibition and oppression of women offering prayers,
their contributions” (Burrow 1975, p. 29). sacrifices, and undertaking pilgrimages, was declared during
During the period of Jainism and Buddhism, Buddhist the of Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmṛiti period. In addition, they were
philosophy encouraged women to lead a liberal and honorable strictly prohibited from practicing penance.
life. Moreover, the Tipitaka disclosed the “admission of Women were completely deprived of inheriting any share of
bhikkhunis in order” (ed. Ko Lay 1990, p. 23), and emphasized their husband’s property under the-then Indian socio-economy.
that the Buddha considered women “capable of attaining Magga The Arthaśāstra disclosed that “no woman shall succeed in her
and Phala insight” (ed. Ko Lay 1990, p. 23). Women were found attempt to establish her title to the property of her husband”
not to be just restricted to domestic jobs but also able to pursue (trans. Shamasastry 1956, p. 220). Furthermore, Mánu’s
educational careers if they desired. Sanghamitra, the daughter codification declared that women would be dispossessed of any
of Ashoka, was able to get herself inducted into the preaching of sort of property inheritance and thus snatching away women’s
Buddhism. With regards to the Jain texts, Jayanti, the Kaushambi independence. In the Mánusmṛiti, while codifying “the duties of
princess remained a spinster in order to study philosophy and women” (trans. Buhler 1964, p. 33) Mánu stated that “by a girl, by
religion. Moreover Buddhist nuns were found to have composed a young woman or even by an aged one, nothing must be done
hymns, while other women were, significantly, observed to have independently, even in her own house” (trans. Buhler 1964, p.
written Sanskrit plays and verses. They also achieved excellence 33). These laws also stated that “in childhood a female must be
in painting, music, and other fine arts. subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when her lord is
During the period of Jainism and Buddhism, women dead to her sons; an women must never be independent” (trans.
occupied esteemed positions in religion and were permitted to Buhler 1964, p. 33).
become Sanyāsinis. In the Tipitaka, women “left the household During this period “the growth of monogamous families with
life like their menfolk” (ed. Ko Lay 1990, p. 23) to lead a Buddhist insistence on female chastity indicated the direct influence of
monastic-life during this period. Women who had superior economic developments in favour of male domination” (Tharakan
intellect had enough confidence to run their own sangha (also & Tharakan 1975, p. 119). According to Wadley (1977, p. 119) “the basic
known as bhikkhunisangha), as directed by a set of legislation, rules for women’s behavior, as expressed in the Laws Mánu,
which was not gender-biased. Women were also observed to ca. A.D. 200, stress the need to control women because of their
involve themselves in participation in socio-cultural services and evil character.” Mánu’s codification also asserted that females
activities, creating abundant prospects for public life. were not at all independent, either in childhood or adulthood,
However, women’s economic status deteriorated during the nor when she is aged (Wadley 1977). Moreover, women’s
Jainism and Buddhism period, in which they were also prohibited character was depicted as being fully malevolent in which they
from political participation. The low politico-economic status of became possessed and acted like slaves in order to satisfy the
nuns compared to that of monks indicated a deterioration in uncontrollable vice of masculine demand and sexuality. Therefore,
women’s roles and positions during the of Jainism and Buddhism the age of Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmṛiti, was characterized by the
period. subordination of women’s status.

The Age of Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmṛiti (200 BC–647 AD) The Relegation of Women’s Status from the Vedic period to the
Women’s right to education was fully withdrawn with Mánu’s Period of Dharmaśāstras
codification of the laws governing society. During the age of In the subsequent period to the Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmṛiti
Dharmaśāstras (the rules of right conduct), Mánusmṛiti, a number with the introduction of Brahmanism, the dignity and fame
of problems started to creep in with the introduction of various of women’s status was entirely reduced to one of virtual
restrictions on women’s ability to obtain an education. subservience. The conflicting social and religious thoughts
Pre-puberty marriage (child marriage) occupied a significant converted the position of women in to a subordinate and
place in societal customs and husbands were given the status of unsatisfactory one (Halli & Mullal 2016). During the age of the
god during the age of Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmṛiti (Altekar 1938). Smṛitis (Holy Scriptures of Hindu) women had the right to attain

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an education related only to household purposes. Moreover, as Conclusion

written in the Arthaśāstra (350 BC–275 BC), being deprived of The dignified role and position of women in the early
formal education, girls were considered to be an inconsequential Vedic period, the Epic period, and the Jainism and Buddhism
section within a patriarchal society (Jaiswal 2001). Women were not period was completely reduced to one of virtual subservience
only deprived of learning the Védas but also had a strict prohibition during the age of Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmṛiti. Although the
on becoming Brahmacharinis. Gender inequity had started to Mánusmṛiti considered women’s subordination to be a common
creep into society during the Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmṛiti period, phenomenon, the socio-cultural set-up further hardened the
and gradually women’s positions were degraded to such an form and extent of women’s confinement during the age of
extent that they were deprived of all sorts of freedoms. Women Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmṛiti. During the period 1500 BC to 647
were restricted in exercising their human rights as well as being AD, the deterioration in women’s roles and position can be
barred from enjoying fundamental freedoms. A preference for attributed to the imposition of Mánu’s codification of social rules,
sons was at its apex during this period, which, too, curtailed the gender based discrimination, Brahmanical austerity applied to the
freedom of women and girls (trans. Shamasastry 1956, p. 222). entire Indian society, the crudest materialization of women, the
Hence the roles and position of women was gradually turned implementation of rigid restrictions induced by the societal caste
around through the major changes that occurred during the period system and the system of joint families, women’s exclusion from
of Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmṛiti. During this period the “caste educational facilities, foreign invasions, as well as the introduction
hierarchy and gender hierarchy are the organising principles of non-Aryan females as wives in Aryan families. Historical
of the brahmanical social order and closely interconnected” studies and women’s contemporary status have disclosed that
(Chakravarti 1993, p. 579). Women were also barred from practicing although Indian society has never accepted womanhood as
religious activities, although women who devoted themselves being equal since the age of Dharmaśāstras, Mánusmṛiti, even
to being satī by burning themselves on their husbands funeral today women’s stories are reflected repeatedly as interesting
pyre were honored as well as proclaimed goddesses by the episodes from the ancient period of Indian civilization.
patriarchal society (Wadley 1977). Moreover, being gender
prejudiced, the-then Brahmanical society stressed its power over Acknowledgement
women’s sexuality. The Mánusmṛiti (200 BC–200 AD) stated that The author would like to acknowledge the University of
a woman’s submission to male control in any sexual relationship Kalyani, West Bengal, India for providing financial assistance in
was the principal duty of her life (Wadley 1977). In the prologue to the form of a fellowship under the scheme of University Research
Mánu’s codification of societal rules “the concept of women as Scholar (URS) in carrying out this research.
chattel or a commodity for a man’s enjoyment is borne out” (Saxena The author would also like to extend sincere gratitude to Dr.
2006, p. 5). Thus, women’s unsatisfactorily subordinate position in Tarun Kumar Mondal, Ph.D. Supervisor and Assistant Professor,
the Dharmaśāstras period jeopardized not only women’s status Department of Geography, University of Kalyani, West Bengal,
and security, but also the socio-cultural as well as the politico- India for his guidance in this research.
economic stability and well-being of Indian civilization.

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