Full Download Book Essentials of Psychology PDF
Full Download Book Essentials of Psychology PDF
Full Download Book Essentials of Psychology PDF
PSYCHOLOGY
SEVENTH EDITION
Douglas A. Bernstein
University of South Florida
University of Southampton
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Essentials of Psychology, Seventh Edition © 2019, 2014 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Douglas Bernstein WCN: 02-300
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For Doris
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Brief Contents
Preface xix
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Contents
Preface xix
vii
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viii Contents
4 Consciousness 127
Mental Processing without Awareness 129
THINKING CRITICALLY ■
Can Subliminal Messages Change
Your Behavior? 131
FOCUS ON RESEARCH ■
Subliminal Messages in Popular
Music 133
Altered States of Consciousness 134
Sleeping and Dreaming 134
The Scope of Consciousness 128 Stages of Sleep 134
Consciousness States 128 Sleep Disorders 136
Levels of Consciousness 129 Why Do People Sleep? 138
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Contents ix
LINKAGES ■
Meditation, Health, and Stress 146 LINKAGES DIAGRAM 157
Summary 157
Psychoactive Drugs 146
Psychopharmacology 147
5 Learning 161
Classical Conditioning: Learning Signals
and Associations 162
Pavlov’s Discovery 163
Conditioned Responses over Time: Extinction
and Spontaneous Recovery 164
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination 165
The Signaling of Significant Events 166
Some Applications of Classical Conditioning 168
Instrumental and Operant Conditioning: Learning the Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps 184
Consequences of Behavior 170 Insight and Learning 186
From the Puzzle Box to the Skinner Box 170 Observational Learning: Learning by Imitation 186
Basic Components of Operant Conditioning 171
THINKING CRITICALLY ■
Does Watching Video Violence Make
Forming and Strengthening Operant Behavior 173
Children More Violent? 188
Why Reinforcers Work 177
Punishment 177 Using Research on Learning to Help People Learn 191
Some Applications of Operant Conditioning 179 Active Learning 191
LINKAGES ■
Networks of Learning 181 Skill Learning 192
Classrooms across Cultures 193
Cognitive Processes in Learning 182
LINKAGES DIAGRAM 194
Learned Helplessness 183
Summary 194
FOCUS ON RESEARCH ■
An Experiment on Human
Helplessness 183
6 Memory 199
The Nature of Memory 200
Basic Memory Processes 200
Types of Memory 201
Models of Memory 202
Storing New Memories 206
Sensory Memory 206
Short-Term Memory and Working Memory 206
Long-Term Memory 208
Distinguishing between Short-Term Retrieval from Semantic Memory 212
and Long-Term Memory 210
Constructing Memories 214
Retrieving Memories 211
FOCUS ON RESEARCH ■
I Could Swear I Heard It! 215
Retrieval Cues and Encoding Specificity 211
Context and State Dependence 211 Constructive Memory and Neural Network Models 216
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x Contents
LINKAGES ■ Memory, Perception, and Eyewitness Testimony 217 The Biochemistry of Memory 226
Brain Structures and Memory 227
Forgetting 220
How Do We Forget? 220 Improving Your Memory 229
Why Do We Forget? 220 Mnemonic Strategies 229
Guidelines for More Effective Studying 230
THINKING CRITICALLY ■
Can Traumatic Memories Be
Repressed, Then Recovered? 222 LINKAGES DIAGRAM 233
Summary 234
Biological Bases of Memory 225
Language 261
Learning to Speak: Stages of Language
Development 261
How Is Language Acquired? 263
Basic Functions of Thought 238 Testing Intelligence 265
The Circle of Thought 239 A Brief History of Intelligence Tests 266
Mental Representations: Intelligence Tests Today 267
The Ingredients of Thought 240 Calculating IQ 268
Concepts 240 Evaluating Intelligence Tests 268
Propositions 241 Defining Statistical Reliability 269
Schemas, Scripts, and Mental Models 241 Defining Statistical Validity 269
Images and Cognitive Maps 243 The Statistical Reliability and Validity of Intelligence
Thinking Strategies 244 Tests 269
Formal Reasoning 244 IQ as a Measure of Inherited Ability 271
Informal Reasoning 245 Group Differences in IQ 273
Problem Solving 247 THINKING CRITICALLY ■
Are Intelligence Tests Unfairly Biased
Strategies for Problem Solving 248 against Certain Groups? 275
FOCUS ON RESEARCH ■
Problem-Solving Strategies in the Real Diversity in Intelligence 277
World 249 Practical and Creative Intelligence 277
Obstacles to Problem Solving 250 Multiple Intelligences 277
Problem Solving by Computer 254 Unusual Intelligence 279
Creative Thinking 255 LINKAGES DIAGRAM 281
Decision Making 257 Summary 282
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Contents xi
Hunger and Eating 295 Relations and Conflicts Among Motives 313
Biological Signals for Hunger and Satiation 295 Maslow’s Hierarchy 313
Hunger and the Brain 296 LINKAGES ■
Conflicting Motives and Stress 314
Flavor, Sociocultural Experience, and Food Selection 297
Unhealthy Eating 298 The Nature of Emotions 315
Defining Characteristics and Dimensions 315
Sexual Behavior 302
The Biology of Emotions 317
FOCUS ON RESEARCH ■
A Survey of Human Sexual
Behavior 302 Theories of Emotion 319
James’s Peripheral Theory 319
The Biology of Sex 304
Cannon’s Central Theory 321
Social and Cultural Factors in Sexuality 305
Cognitive Theories of Emotion 322
Sexual Orientation 306
Communicating Emotion 324
THINKING CRITICALLY ■
What Shapes Sexual Orientation? 306
Innate Expressions of Emotion 325
Achievement Motivation 309 Social and Cultural Influences on Emotional Expression 325
Need for Achievement 309 LINKAGES DIAGRAM 327
Achievement and Success in the Workplace 311
Summary 328
Achievement and Well-Being 312
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xii Contents
11 Personality 415
THINKING CRITICALLY ■
Are Personality Traits Inherited? 426
Evaluating the Trait Approach 428
The Social-Cognitive Approach 429
Prominent Social-Cognitive Theories 429
Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Approach 431
The Humanistic Psychology Approach 432
Prominent Humanistic Theories 432
Evaluating the Humanistic Approach 434
The Psychodynamic Approach 416
The Structure of Personality 417 LINKAGES ■ Personality, Culture, and Human Development 435
Stages of Personality Development 418 FOCUS ON RESEARCH ■
Personality Development Over
Variations on Freud’s Personality Theory 419 Time 437
Contemporary Psychodynamic Theories 420
Assessing Personality 438
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach 421
Projective Personality Measures 439
The Trait Approach 422 Nonprojective Personality Measures 440
Early Trait Theories 422
The Five-Factor Personality Model 423 LINKAGES DIAGRAM 442
Biological Trait Theories 424 Summary 443
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Contents xiii
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xiv Contents
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Contents xv
16 Neuropsychology 617
Foundations of Neuropsychology 618
A Brief History of Neuropsychology 619
Modules and Networks 620
Lesion Analysis 621
Neuropsychological Assessment 623
Mechanisms of Brain Dysfunction 623
Cerebral Infarcts 623 Perceptual Disturbances 632
Traumatic Brain Injury 625 FOCUS ON RESEARCH ■
Studying Hemineglect 634
Neurodegenerative Diseases 625
LINKAGES ■
Language Disorders and the Brain 634
Neuropsychological Disorders 626
Amnestic Disorders 626 Disorders of Movement Control 636
Consciousness Disturbances 628 Dementia 637
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Features
xvii
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Another random document with
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we can only mention a few of the families, many of which, indeed,
differ from one another in small characters.
Fam. Lysianassidae.—The first joint of the first antenna is
short, with an accessory flagellum. Mandible with a palp, and with an
almost smooth cutting edge. The third joint of the second gnathopod
is elongated. This family is entirely marine, comprising forty-eight
genera, with species distributed in all seas. One genus,
Pseudalibrotus, inhabits the brackish water of the Caspian Sea.
Lysianassa has several common British and Mediterranean species.
Fam. Haustoriidae.—The members of this family are specially
adapted for burrowing, the joints of the hinder thoracic limbs being
expanded, and furnished with spines for digging. Some of the species
are common on the British coasts, e.g. Haustorius arenarius.
Pontoporeia has an interesting distribution, one species, P.
femorata, being entirely marine, in the Arctic and North Atlantic, P.
affinis inhabiting the Atlantic, and also fresh-water lakes in Europe
and North America, P. microphthalma being confined to the Caspian
Sea, and P. loyi to Lakes Superior and Michigan.
Fam. Gammaridae.—Includes fifty-two genera. The first
antennae are slender, with the accessory flagellum very variable. The
mandibles have a dentate cutting edge, spine-row, and molar
surface, and a three-jointed palp. The first two thoracic limbs are
subchelate. This family includes a few marine, but mostly brackish
and fresh-water species. Crangonyx is entirely subterranean in
habitat, as is Niphargus, N. forelii occurring, however, in the deep
waters of Lake Geneva. Both these genera are blind. Gammarus has
thirty species, G. locusta being the common species on the North
Atlantic coasts, and G. pulex the common fresh-water species of
streams and lakes in Europe. A number of Gammaridae inhabit the
Caspian Sea, e.g. Boeckia, Gmelina, Niphargoides, etc., while the
enormous Gammarid fauna of Lake Baikal, constituting numerous
genera, showing a great variety of structure, some of them being
blind, belong to this family, e.g. Macrohectopus (Constantia),
Acanthogammarus, Heterogammarus, etc.
Fig. 95.—Gammarus locusta, ♂ (above) and ♀ (below), × 4.
Abd.1, First abdominal segment; T, telson; Th, seventh free
thoracic segment (= 8th thoracic segment); U, third uropod.
(After Della Valle.)
Sub-Order 3. Hyperina.
DIVISION 3. HOPLOCARIDA.
The carapace leaves at least four of the thoracic somites distinct.
The eyes are pedunculate. The mandibles are without a lacinia
mobilis; there are no oostegites, the eggs being carried in a chamber
formed by the maxillipedes. The hepatic caeca are much ramified,
the heart is greatly elongated, stretching through thorax and
abdomen, with a pair of ostia in each segment. The spermatozoa are
spherical, and there is a complicated and peculiar metamorphosis.
Order. Stomatopoda.
Fig. 98.—Lateral view of Squilla sp., × 1. A.1, A.2, 1st and 2nd
antennae; Ab.1, 1st abdominal segment; Ab.6, 6th abdominal
appendage; C, cephalothorax, consisting of the head fused with
the first five thoracic segments; E, eye; M, 2nd maxillipede; T,
telson. (After Gerstaecker and Ortmann.)
DIVISION 4. EUCARIDA.
The carapace fuses with all the thoracic segments. The eyes are
pedunculate. The mandible is without a lacinia mobilis. There are no
oostegites, the eggs being attached to the endopodites of the
pleopods. The hepatic caeca are much ramified, the heart is
abbreviated and saccular, the spermatozoa are spherical with
radiating pseudopodia, and development is typically attended by a
complicated larval metamorphosis.
Order I. Euphausiacea.
Sub-Order 1. Macrura.
Tribe 1. Nephropsidea.