Agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture
Is the growing of crops and rearing of livestock for a purpose. We grow crops like maize,
sorghum, nuts, cotton, sunflower etc. to feed ourselves and for raw materials for our industries.
Importance of Agriculture
Types of Agriculture
Subsistence agriculture
Involving the growing of crops and /or the keeping of livestock/animals for the family
consumption of the farmer and his family.
Forms of subsistence agriculture
Shifting Cultivation
Refers to the growing of crops and rearing of crops while moving from one place to another.
It is practiced in northern Zambia in Luapula District by the Bemba-Ushi people, parts of
Mozambique, Malawi and Tanzania and in the Amazon forests.
Nomadic Pastoralism
Is a system of farming whereby farmers (nomads) move with their livestock from place to
place in search of pastures and water for their animals. Practised by the Masai East of
Kenya.
Settled/Sedentary
Is a type of farming where farmers are permanently stationed at the farms. Communal
farming in Zimbabwe is an example of settled farming.
Commercial agriculture
Is the process of growing of crops and/or keeping of animals (livestock) for sale at the
market.
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Forms of commercial agriculture
Cattle Ranching
Ranching involves the production of beef.
Market Gardening
This is the production of vegetables, flowers and fruits that is also known as horticulture.
Dairy Farming
A specialised type of farming whereby the farmer rears cows for milk production and
other related products e.g. cheese, cream, butter etc.
Irrigation farming
This is the movement of regular amounts of water from lakes, dams, rivers, wells or
boreholes to cultivated land for various reasons e.g Gezira in Sudan.
Plantation agriculture
It is a large scale system of commercial farming involving the growing of perennial crops
e.g. tea, sugarcane, over a large piece of land on monocultural basis e.g Katiyo tea estate,
Triangle and Hippo Valley.
Labour supply
All farming activities need either human labour or machines to do the work. Availability
of labour may influence the type of farming. The farm wages, the skills and family labour
affect farming.
Demand/Market.
This is the customer who buys farm products. Farmers need to sell their crops and
animals to make a profit. The higher the demand the higher the price of the product: and
the lower the demand, the lower the price. The price of the produce and availability of the
market are important factors that affect farming.
Finance /Capital.
This is money for the payment of wages, purchase of farm inputs/ or imports. This can
affect the type and state of farming. Some crops are capital intensive e.g. money to set up
irrigation facilities etc. Money can be in the form of loans from banks or grants from the
government or capital saved by the farmer.
Government policies
Government provide subsidies and loans or inputs to encourage new farming practices but
they also place limits on production to prevent food surpluses. Government influence
farming through its police or through infrastructural development and support services e.g
providing tillage facilities through DDF.
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Transport
This is needed for the transportation of inputs to the farm and outputs to the market.
Transport network e.g roads and the type of transport affect farming activities. In
Zimbabwe commercial farming is concentrated along main roads.
Technology
Irrigation and machinery are two examples of expensive technology which increase
yields. Genetic engineering allow new plants to be grown, this reduces diseases and
droughts and give higher yields. Computer control in green houses provides suitable
conditions for good quality crops. Type and availability of equipment and service affect
farming activities.
Climate
The important considerations for farmers are the hours of sunshine, the average
temperature and the amount of rainfall.
Relief
The relief of the land is a very important factor in determining the type of agricultural
activity that can take place on it. Flat, sheltered areas are usually best for crops as it is
easy to use machinery and there will be the best climatic conditions for crop growth.
Steep slopes are more likely to be used for sheep and cattle farming,
Soils
Crops grow best on deep, fertile, free draining soils. Soil type and fertility influences the
types of crops that can be grown, the yields per unit area and the cost of production.
Aspect
The direction a slope faces. In the extreme northern hemisphere south-facing slopes are
best for growing crops and in the southern hemisphere north facing slopes are best for
crop production. (Why?)
Pest and diseases
These affect workers, crops and animals. Farmers have to fight them in order to avoid
disastrous effects. Pests which affect crops include locusts, birds, boring insects, worms.
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The table below shows the main components of a farming system
Inputs Processes Outputs
a)physical inputs Preparing land, Different variety of
Sun’s energy, soils, minerals, ploughing, animals e.g. cattle,
land, conducive temperature, cultivating, planting, weeding, goats, pigs, sheep,
water/rain. watering/irrigating, dosing animals, chicken etc., different
b) human inputs application of insecticides and variety of crops e.g.
labour, knowledge/skills, pesticides, harvesting, dipping maize, millet, wheat
c) Economic inputs animals, vaccinating animals, etc., money, milk and
Crops/seeds, animals, application of manure/fertilizers other dairy products,
machinery, capital, and other chemicals etc. eggs, different
infrastructure, pesticides/ variety of vegetables,
insecticides, use of the land,
different variety of
fertilizers/manure etc.
fruits, etc.
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Elements of a communal farm
Inputs Processes Outputs
Maize seeds, tobacco and Sowing, ploughing, weeding, Grains, rapoko,
vegetable seeds from harvesting, milking, slaughtering, sorghum, pumpkins,
previous harvest of certified. feeding, herding, spraying, etc. cow peas, vegetables,
Artificial and organic meat, cotton and
Fertilisers tobacco for sale, etc.
Hoes, axes, ploughs, tractors
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QN: a) Classify the inputs of a communal farm into physical, human and economic. (9)
b) Identify elements of market gardening. (9)
c) Discuss the elements of a dairy farm below with reference to a case study. (9)
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Land use zones in a community
Land use planning is the organisation and allocation of land to specialised functions. In a community land
can be used for:
1. Arable land – cultivation is a common land use in rural areas. At a rural home a lot of land is
placed under cultivation or used for growing of crops. However, uncultivated land can be left.
2. Grazing land – land is allocated for grazing of different livestock. It can be open of put into
paddocks.
3. Residential – used for houses where people live.
4. Transport – land occupied by roads and rail lines.
5. Game parks and wildlife reserves – some of the wildlife will be found in rural areas. This
shows you that one of the land uses in the rural is that of game reserves e.g Chirisa Game
reserve, Gonarezhou National Parks
6. Recreational – land used for dams and sporting activities.
7. Private land – some farms are privately owned for example commercial farms.
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Farming can be classified into three major criteria according to purpose of farm produce, type
or nature of land use and according to scale or intensity of production.
Classification of farming according to purpose or use of farm produce
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The land is abandoned and a new piece is cleared.
Reasons for shifting fields and homesteads
Decline in the fertility of the plot after three to ten years
High rainfall received especially in northern Zambia for example cause leaching which
leads poor acidic soils which cannot support permanent agriculture.
Distance to the fields become to long for daily walking.
Availability of space due to low population pressure in area where it is practiced.
The rudimentary type of housing used makes it easier to build new houses than to repair
the old ones.
Shifting Cultivation in Northern Zambia- By the Bemba-Ushi People (Farming
Calendar) May- June – land clearing, large trees are cut down.
September –November- burning of branches following a signal from village heads
November – December – planting of seeds.
March – June- harvesting.
Advantages of shifting cultivation
Ash provided fertility leading to high yield in the first year.
Allows land to recover.
System destroys pests and diseases (burning)
Cheap method of farming relying on natural inputs.
Free choice of land.
Part-time activities are possible such as hunting and fishing.
Use of natural inputs e.g. ash means less pollution to the environment.
Disadvantages of shifting cultivation
Wastes land and timber (wasteful system).
Promotes soil erosion
Low fertility with time/low yield.
System kills micro-organisms in the soil
Does not allow technical improvement on standard of living.
The system cannot accommodate large numbers of people.
Bush fallowing
This is another type of subsistence agriculture which involves the rotation of cultivated
land without necessarily changing the homes.
The land is left fallow for about 5 years the advantages and disadvantages are more or
less the same as those of shifting cultivation.
Nomadic pastoralism
This refers to the traditional herding of livestock such as cattle, goats, sheep and donkeys
following pastures without maintaining a permanent home. It is practiced by people
known as Nomads in areas of low rainfall such as the arid and semi-arid regions of Africa
such as
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West Africa. In Africa pastoral nomadism is practiced by the Masai of East Africa and the
Fulani of West Africa.
Case study
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Vegetation is semi – arid scrub with thorn bushes and baobab.
Pastures bloom from May to August due to short rainy season.
Water holes appear also during the rainy
season. Movements of Fulani
During summer, ITCZ moves northwards bringing rains and the Fulani moves north
ahead of the tsetse flies.
The nomads also move into highlands which are cooler and tsetse fly free.
Settle where there is plenty pastures and water.
They establish temporary settlements in groups of 20 to 40 families.
Men herd cattle while female do small scale agriculture.
As dry conditions occur due to the shift of ITCZ, nomads move to the south, but behind
tsetse belt.
These include physical and socioeconomic problems. The physical problems include:
a) Poor and heavily leached soils caused mainly by over cultivation and the fact that the
farmers cannot afford to by fertilizers to maintain fertility. (Make fertilizers available and
also resettle people).
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b) Cultivation of marginal land due to rapid population growth which comes with a higher
demand for food. (Practice effective family planning programmes to contain the
exponential growth of population).
c) Low and unreliable rainfall in most parts of Africa reduces productivity. (Harness water
through the construction of dams for irrigation purposes).
d) Pests such as the army worm, locusts, ticks and tsetse flies also reduce productivity. (Use
chemicals to control pests and also practice crop rotation.)
e) Diseases such as foot and mouth and anthrax also reduce animal productivity. (Vaccinate
the animals and control their movement avoiding the mixing of cattle with the wild
buffalo).
Plantation agriculture
- This is the large scale production of one crop on a large piece of land called an estate for
a long period of time. The crop can be perennial or annual.
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Characteristics of plantation agriculture
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They are owned by transnational companies or by government which can raise the large
capital needed to start and run the estate.
There is specialisation of production with specialists and research centres on the estate.
Each estate is self- contained and efficiently run with factories, workers houses schools,
clinics and recreational facilities on the estate.
Production is market oriented, the market being domestic or foreign.
There is production of both food crops and industrial raw materials.
They are usually attached to out growers.
They have monocultural tendencies.
They employ a large number of people raising the standards of their lives in the process
(examples to include hippo valley and triangle estate)
Disadvantages
a) Their monoculture tendencies result in rapid removal of nutrients from the soil resulting
in exhaustion of the soil.
b) Large sums of money are repatriated to the mother country since most are foreign owned.
c) They occupy large tracks of land while the indigenous people are landless.
d) They indulge in local politics and at times may sabotage the economy.
e) Extensive clearing of the land may have negative effects on the environment.
f) In some areas there is exploitation of workers as workers earn very little and also workers
live in squalid conditions.
g) They can sometimes rapidly plunder the land and then leave for other countries leaving
the land exhausted.
Case study 1
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- Infrastructural development-Hippo Valley High School, Chiredzi general hospital, banks,
country clubs, beer halls, thermal power station, rail and roads. State of the art irrigation
equipment.
Case Study 2
Planting stage
It is grown from seeds or cuttings in nursery beds, seeds takes a longer period before it is
ready for harvesting 2-3 years
Cuttings takes a short period
Growing from cuttings ensures high quality
When ready seedlings are transplanted into prepared fields (when about 15 cm high
Constant weeding, and pruning to allow the bush to grow
outwards Harvesting
Starts after 2-3 years if grown from seeds or 9 months if from cuttings.
Done by both females and males
Hired labour is required during this period
2 leaves and a bud is plucked and loaded into baskets
The baskets are offloaded into a tractor.
Harvesting is done at intervals i.e. after 5-7 days in the dry period.
The tea leaves are transported to the factory for
processing. Tea processing
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Withering- tea enters into heated whither and lose weight by 25%.
Extracting rubbish by machine.
Fermentation- leaf cells are broken oxidation changes the colour from green to brown
then blackish.
Drying- tea goes into drying trays.
Extractors remove fibre.
Sorting- black tea is sorted into sizes or grades.
Package- done by machines.
Market.
Local market- wholesalers, shops, etc.
Export.
Distribution of Plantations in Zimbabwe
Most are along the Eastern Highlands – Nyanga, Tanganda, Rusitu, Katiyo, Chiwira,
Transau and Nyamazura due to high rainfalls, cool temperatures for tree crops and fruits.
Many in S.E Lowveld – Chisumbanje, Middle Sabi, Hippo Valley, Tsvovane, Nandi and
Triangle because of low population density, high temperatures for sugarcane, large rivers
for dams for irrigation.
Low in the Central Highveld – Mazowe, Seke, Doreens Pride near Kadoma, due to
competing land uses, large population densities.
Few in the North – Sisi near Mhangura and Mushumbi.
Very few to none in the west and South west – Balu, Kezi, and Jotsholo because of too
hot and dry, diseases, poor soils, areas used for ranching and National parks.
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Irrigation farming
This refers to the artificial application of water to crops in order to grow crops when the
prevailing climatic and weather conditions cannot sustain crop growth.
Problems
Salinisation of the soil.
Irrigation water contains toxic chemicals derived from fertilizers and pesticides which can
contaminate drinking water sources.
Dams constructed for irrigation water can increase incidences of bilharzia.
Rapid siltation of dams.
It is expensive to set up.
Methods of Irrigation
Question 1. Describe and explain the distribution of irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe shown.
Dynamics of O’Level Geography page 131 [8].
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Case Studies Case
Study 1
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The Gezira plain is located in the triangle land between the Blue and the While Nile south
of Khartoum.
The Blue Nile is the source for the water supply for the Gezira Scheme
The Sennar dam is situated on the Blue Nile some 260 km southwest of Khartoum was
completed in 1925 to supply the Gezira irrigation scheme.
The Jebel Aulia dam is situated upstream of Sennar dam, was constructed and completed
in 1966 to provide storage for irrigation in the low water season (reservoir) and for
hydropower generation.
The irrigation system comprises of canals and flood irrigation.
The Managuil main canal was constructed in parallel to the old Gezira main canal to
serve the Managuil extension.
The uniform slope of the land has permitted a very regular layout of fields.
The soils are fairly uniform, and classified as vertisols that have clay content (rich
volcanic soils).
Movement of water in the soil is very slow. Where soils crack to good depth, water
penetrates to be followed by roots.
The climate of the area is semi-arid and continental characterised by a low rainfalls
The area has low population densities due to harsh conditions.
Roads have been built to link the scheme to markets. Industries e.g. ginneries have been
developed to process agric products.
Management
The Gezira Management Board, a large centrally managed corporation, is responsible for
the agricultural management of the scheme, lease land to tenants, determines crop
rotations and prepares the land for cotton. For cotton, the Board is responsible for
application of fertilizer and pesticides, seed propagation and distribution and ginning. It is
also responsible for the maintenance of the infrastructure, which includes a railway
network of 1,050 km in length, used for transporting cotton.
The Ministry of Irrigation is confined to ensuring the delivery of water into the minor
heads as indented by the block inspectors provided that the water demands are within the
canal carrying capacities.
Farmers do not own their lands; they are tenants.
Tenants supply or hire labour, tend the crops, pick seed cotton and transport it to ginnery
collection centres. They are responsible for land preparation for crops other than cotton.
Tenant participation in agriculture has fallen hence rely on family labour, hired resident
labour and migrant labour.
Case Study 2
Characteristics
Several products are produced in different seasons.
Livestock production complements crop production, with animals feeding on crop
residues while their dung contributes towards increasing humus and fertility of the soil. It
is highly mechanised with tractors combine harvesters, boom sprayers and silage cutters.
Skilled man power and management results in high outputs per unit area.
It is capital intensive and the money is used to buy machinery, vaccines, fertilizers, seeds,
extra feeds for livestock, herbicides and to pay workers.
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The money is also used to construct buildings sheds and storage facilities.
Mixed farms practice crop rotation
Advantages
a) Diversified production ensures that the farmer gets a steady income all year round. This
include food crops, industrial crops, and beverages, poultry, piggery, aquaculture plus a
herd of cattle for beef and for dairy products. It ensures that a farmer is not affected by
fluctuations of prices on the market since the farmer produces several products.
b) High outputs due to the complementary nature of raising animals and food crops.
c) There is maintenance of the ecosystem to some extent due to the rearing of animals and
the cultivation of crops on the same farm.
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Commercial ranching
- This refers to the rearing of cattle on a large scale with the sole aim of selling them for a
profit.
Characteristics
The farm covers large areas which are divided into paddocks. QN: How do you construct
a paddock? (4)
Rotational grazing is practiced.
Large amounts of capital are needed to purchase the land, fence, drilling of boreholes,
irrigating fodder crops, paying workers and veterinary services for the animals, purchase
concentrate for fattening.
Owned and operated by +rich individuals or by Parastatals .e.g. CSC. Lemco and Union
carbide Mat south.
There is extensive use of land characterised by low input per unit area of land.
Artificial insemination can be practiced to produce breeds with desirable characteristics.
No computers used.
Animal left to roam around looking for pastures.
Less capital required once initial capital has been used.
Ranches scientifically managed.
Animals are vaccinated and dipped regularly.
Diseased animals are slaughtered or treated; quarantining is also done followed by
treatment.
Cross breeding is done to suit conditions
Advantages
a) Earns the country valuable foreign currency as there is high demand for our beef in the EU.
b) It makes meat products available for local and foreign markets.
c) It leads to the sprouting of by-product industries such as glue manufacturing companies
and shoe making such as Bata.
d) Makes use of semi- arid land which is otherwise not suitable for agriculture.
e) Rotational grazing is sustainable.
f) Allows for integration with game ranching especially in the drier parts of the country e. g.
in Mwenezi.
Problems
a) Frequent droughts- drill bore holes and construct dams. Pen feed the animals.
b) Pests and diseases-buy pesticides, dip the animals and avoid mixing the cattle with the
buffalo, quarantine and vaccinate, kill the affected. Cross breed with other breeds which
are disease resistance
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Market gardening
Characteristics
Land is under cultivation all year round.
Perishables which require special attention and precise harvesting are grown.
It is capital intensive- for purchasing irrigation equipment, hybrid seedlings, fertilizers
agrochemicals, paying of workers, and construction of green houses, artificial incubators
and automatic milkers.
It is labour intensive- picking of flowers and sorting them, nursing seedlings
It employs qualified personnel who in turn ensure proper management and expertise so as
to survive the market completion.
Advantages
a) It produces products in demand on the local market and abroad.
b) It brings in a lot of foreign currency.
c) Provides employment to university graduates.
d) Encourages the growth of fertilizer and pesticides industries.
Disadvantages
a) Can incur huge losses in the event of a natural or human triggered hazard. Crops can be
destroyed by frost, floods, hailstorms and strong winds.
b) Fluctuations of the market can reduce the farmer’s income.
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Case study- Honeydew farm: Market Gardening
Infrastructure
7 boreholes.
5 green houses.
Three main irrigation systems- overhead, micro jet and T-tap drip system.
The boreholes pump large quantities of water needed at the farm e. g. Over 21000 litres
per hour.
The micro jet system is used in green houses.
- It is an intensive type of livestock farming for the purpose of producing milk and related
products.
The system is capital intensive.
It requires animal sheds and storage facilities for winter fodder.
Common breeds are jersey brown to yellowish suited to hot humid conditions (produces
milk with a high butter fat content).
Friesland – large animal with a large udder back and white in colour, can tolerate hot dry
regions, it is economical (preferred by most farmers as it has a high milk production) and also
supplies meat
Guernsey- golden yellow to red with white marks second to jersey in milk fat.
Requires temperate climates.
Milk is processed into cream, butter, cheese, condensed milk and powdered milk.
Can be practiced on small areas.
Requires veterinary services, automatic milkers, vaccination, feeding towers, milking.
High output per unit area.
In less economically developed countries transport plays a major role in the distribution of
dairy farms.
Dairy farms decrease with distance from the urban where there are good road networks
the farms can be some distance from the market.
Question 1. Describe and explain the distribution of dairy farms in Zimbabwe and Africa.
[16], Dynamics of O`Level Geography page 135.
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Location of Dairy Farms.
Dairy farming is practiced near urban areas or around cities or towns so that milk is
transported while fresh. (Why)
Dairy farms are found along/near roads so that transportation of milk will not be a
problem and also inputs and other requirements from urban areas will be easy and cheap
to obtain.
Dairy farms are located where there is reliable water supply since dairy farming needs a
lot of water i.e. near urban areas.
Dairy farms are located near urban centres because there is high demand for dairy products
i.e. the Kintyre farm near Harare.
In Zimbabwe dairying occurs around Mutare, Chipinge and Chimanimani and around
Harare, Marondera and Kadoma
Case Study
Dairy Farming: The Kintrye Estate.
This is farming system whereby cows are kept for milk production as at Kintyre dairy farm
near both Harare and Norton along the Harare- Bulawayo road. Or Gushungo Dairy Farm in
Mazowe area.
Agriculture in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in the Southern Africa region with an area of over
390 000 km2. It is situated between 15 and 22° south latitude and 26 and 34° east
longitude.
Climatic conditions are largely sub-tropical with one rainy season, between November
and March.
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Rainfall reliability decreases from north to south and also from east to west. Only 37% of
the country receives rainfall considered adequate for agriculture.
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Zimbabwe was once the bread basket of southern Africa producing most of the food crops
but it has since changed due to a number of factors.
Zimbabwe can be divided into 6 agro ecological regions looking at annual rainfall and
annual temperature variations.
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Two sub-regions have been defined. Sub-region IIA receives an average of at least 18
rainy pentads per season and normally enjoys reliable conditions, rarely experiencing
severe dry spells in summer.
The region is suitable for intensive systems of farming based on crops (tobacco, maize,
cotton, sugar beans, sorghum, barley, various horticultural crops and coffee) and /or
livestock production including beef, dairy, pig and poultry.
Supplementary irrigation is done for winter wheat (May-September).
A large proportion of the farms were subdivided into smaller units and allocated to new
farmers under the A1 and A2 small-scale farming system.
This region experiences fairly low total rainfall (450-650mm) and is subject to periodic
seasonal droughts and severe dry spells during the rainy season.
The rainfall is too low and uncertain for cash cropping except in certain very favourable
localities. Smallholder farmers grow drought-tolerant varieties of maize, sorghum, pearl
millet (mhunga) and finger millet (rapoko).
NR IV is ideally suitable for cattle production under extensive production systems and for
wildlife production, but it can be intensified to some extent by the growing of drought-
tolerant fodder crops.
Communal farmers occupy 50% of the area of Natural Region
The rainfall in this region is too low and erratic for the reliable production of even
drought- resistant fodder and grain crops like millet and rapoko and farming has to be
based on the utilisation of veld alone.
The extensive form of cattle ranching or game ranching is the only sound farming system
for this region.
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Included in this region are areas of below 900m altitude, where the mean rainfall is below
450mm in the Zambezi valley and below 600mm in the Save-Limpopo valleys. 46% of
the area of Natural Region V.
Region V1
This is a more recent demarcation which does not appear on the map. The area around the
Tuli circle.
Consists of barren soils unsuitable for arable farming. Used mainly for wild life.
NOTE:
A rainy pentad is defined as the centre one of three five-day periods (pentads) which together
receive more than 40 mm and two of which receive at least 8 mm of rainfall.
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Ways of increasing out put
Computers – these can be used in irrigation to detect when plants need water
and the water is supplied automatically.
Use of computerised machines in the milking of dairy cows.
Use of computers for the incubation of eggs, this serves time and labour.
Storage of agricultural data base on computers which can quickly be
retrieved and used when needed.
Office automation improves communication with farmers in the same line of production.
E. g telephone, fax.
Easy and fast transactions with consumers and suppliers.
Status of orders and consumers kept on real time.
Management information systems, help generate information to assist farmers
in decision making.
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