Campbell Biology 12e (1) - 921-946
Campbell Biology 12e (1) - 921-946
Campbell Biology 12e (1) - 921-946
FUNCTION
Meet the “phage wrangler,” Steffanie Mexican border. In 2017, extreme personal circum-
Strathdee, Professor of Medicine in the Division stances prompted a radical shift in her research, as
of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health detailed in The Perfect Predator: A Scientist’s Race
at the University of California, San Diego. Born in to Save Her Husband from a Deadly Superbug, a
Canada, she completed her M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees book co-authored by Dr. Strathdee and her hus-
in epidemiology at the University of Toronto. Since band. In 2018, Dr. Strathdee became co-director of
joining the faculty at UC San Diego in 2004, she the newly established Center for Innovative Phage
has focused on HIV research and prevention in the Applications and Therapeutics at UC San Diego.
underserved populations of Tijuana, just across the
AN INTERVIEW WITH of which epidemiology is one part. the bacteria in the process. I emailed Tom’s
Epidemiology involves studying risk fac- doctor, who is a colleague of Tom’s and
Steffanie Strathdee tors and patterns, not just at an individual mine, and he thought the idea was worth a
level, like what people eat and how they shot. So, I had to go out and find people who
Tell us about your start in science. behave, but also the social, political, had phages that were active against Tom’s
I always had a natural curiosity as a young and economic forces that drive those bacterium, and that felt harder than looking
girl. I did not have an innate ability at science behaviors. for a needle in a haystack. Luckily, labs at the
or math, even though I was interested in Naval Medical Research Center in Maryland
them. I struggled in math. Even in university, What changed your research focus? and at Texas A&M University dedicated
I got D’s in calculus. I still don’t like math, but My husband became ill with a superbug themselves to the search and found phages
I’ve learned to surround myself with people infection—an infection caused by a bacte- that matched. The phages were grown, puri-
that do really well in math. I think it’s impor- rium that is resistant to many antibiotics. fied, and injected into Tom’s body, a billion
tant for students to realize that just because As an infectious disease epidemiologist, phages per dose. Three days later, Tom woke
they’re not good at everything doesn’t you would think that I would have un- up from his coma.
mean that they can’t pursue their dreams. derstood the global crisis we are facing in
multidrug-resistant organisms. But it wasn’t Tell us a bit more about your
How did you become interested in until it hit me on a personal level that I fully collaborators.
epidemiology? understood the threat. A Ph.D. student at Texas A&M worked
After both my course instructor and my around the clock and found the phages
How did the story of your husband’s that made up the first infusion. This
Masters and Ph.D. advisor passed away
from AIDS, I decided I wanted to focus on illness unfold? student was at a really low point in her
ending the HIV epidemic. I had started My husband and I were in Egypt, and he studies, thinking, “I don’t know what I’m
out in the laboratory and realized I was became very ill. The doctor gave him IV going to do with my career, I don’t know
really lousy at tissue culture experiments. antibiotics and said, “He’ll be fine,” but he if what I do really matters.” And then she
So I turned my attention to public health, wasn’t. It turned out that a gallstone had ended up helping save the life of a total
blocked his bile duct, stranger, and it’s jump-
causing an abscess started a whole new
. Dr. Steffanie Strathdee’s husband,
(cavity) to form, and
“This student . . . ended field—phage therapy.
Dr. Tom Patterson, holding an electron
micrograph of his superbug (left), and
a superbug moved up helping save the
into that abscess and What advice do you
Dr. Strathdee, with an artist’s rendition of
multiplied. Tom’s par- life of a total stranger, have for students
the bacteriophage that defeated it (right).
ticular bacterium had
51 different antibiotic-
and it’s jump-started starting to study
resistance genes. It was a whole new field.” biology?
winning its battle against Students should look for
the immune system, none mentors with whom they
of the standard antibiotic treatments were share the same values. For me, that was
working, and my husband was dying. I did what really turned my D in calculus and
a literature search and found a hundred- some of the troubles that I had in science
year-old, forgotten cure based on bacte- into success. I found mentors who were
riophages. These viruses, called phages for encouraging and helped me identify my
short, attack bacteria, but not human cells. strengths. Knowing what your weak-
Each phage is specific for a particular bacte- nesses and your strengths are is, I think,
rium. Phages inject their DNA into bacteria, one of the big components to making a
turning them into phage factories and killing successful career.
40
KEY CONCEPTS
Basic Principles of Animal
Form and Function
Study Tip Figure 40.1 Emperor penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri) live in Antarctica, Earth’s
coldest and windiest continent. In summer, these birds catch fish by diving down
Draw a diagram: When you encounter 500 meters in water only 2°C above freezing. In winter, the females forage and the
an example in the chapter of how an males incubate eggs while temperatures drop to –40°C and winds gust to 200 km/hr.
animal maintains a steady internal
state, draw a simple circuit diagram
(see example—illustrations are How do animals regulate their internal state even in
optional!). Label the variable being
controlled, a perturbation that affects
changing or harsh environments?
the variable, the response, and its effect Adaptations in form, function, and behavior help maintain an animal’s internal
in restoring the normal state. environment. Adaptations that limit variation in temperature and other internal
variables are widespread and diverse. Consider, for example, three adaptations
Variable: BODY TEMPERATURE that help an Emperor penguin stay warm:
(example: penguins)
Normal body Form (anatomy): An insulating
temperature
layer of fat (blubber) reduces heat loss
Perturbation: from most of the penguin’s body
Effect: body cold weather (blue body areas in this thermal Function (physiology): Rapid
temperature causes drop image). cycles of muscle contraction and
warms toward in body relaxation during
normal temperature shivering produce
heat at a cellular
level.
Response:
penguins huddle
together, reducing
exposed surface area
Go to Mastering Biology
For Students (in eText and Study Area)
• Get Ready for Chapter 40
• Figure 40.17 Walkthrough: Behavior: By packing together in
Thermoregulation in Humans groups of up to several thousand,
Emperor penguins greatly reduce
For Instructors to Assign (in Item Library) their exposure to wind and cold.
• Everyday Biology: How to Keep
Your Cool
• Tutorial: Thermoregulation
873
CONCEPT 40.1 example of convergent evolution (see Concept 22.3).
Natural selection often results in similar adaptations when
Animal form and function diverse organisms face the same environmental challenge,
such as overcoming drag during swimming.
are correlated at all levels Physical laws also influence animal body plans with regard
of organization to maximum size. As body dimensions increase, thicker skel-
etons are required to maintain adequate support. This limita-
Over the course of its life, an Emperor penguin faces the same
tion affects internal skeletons, such as those of vertebrates, as
fundamental challenges as any other animal, whether hydra,
well as external skeletons, such as those of insects and other
hawk, or human. All animals must obtain nutrients and oxygen,
arthropods. In addition, as bodies increase in size, the muscles
fight off infection, and survive to produce offspring. Given that
required for locomotion must represent an ever-larger fraction
all animal species share these and other basic requirements, why
of the total body mass. At some point, mobility becomes lim-
does their form, including anatomy—biological structure—
ited. By considering the fraction of body mass in leg muscles
vary so widely? The answer lies in natural selection and adapta-
and the effective force such muscles generate, scientists can
tion. Natural selection favors those variations in a population
estimate maximum speed for a wide range of body plans. In the
that increase relative fitness (see Concept 23.4). The evolution-
case of the 6-meter-tall dinosaur Tyrannosaurus rex, there is con-
ary adaptations that enable survival vary among environments
troversy, with some scientists calculating a top running speed as
and species but frequently result in a close match of form to
fast as that of an Olympic sprinter—30 km/hr (19 miles/hour),
function, as illustrated for the Emperor penguins in Figure 40.1.
but others inferring that T. rex was at best a fast walker.
Because structure and function are correlated, examining anat-
omy often provides clues to physiology—biological function.
An animal’s size and shape are fundamental aspects of form
Exchange with the Environment
that significantly affect the way the animal interacts with its
Animals must exchange nutrients, waste products, and gases
environment. Although we may refer to size and shape as
with their environment, and this requirement imposes an addi-
elements of a “body plan” or “design,” this does not imply a
tional limitation on body plans. Exchange occurs as substances
process of conscious invention. The body plan of an animal
dissolved in an aqueous solution move across the plasma mem-
is the result of a pattern of development programmed by the
brane of each cell. A single-celled organism, such as the amoeba
genome, itself the product of millions of years of evolution.
in Figure 40.3a, has a sufficient membrane surface area in con-
tact with its environment to carry out all necessary exchange.
Evolution of Animal Size and Shape In contrast, an animal is composed of many cells, each with
EVOLUTION Many different body plans have arisen during its own plasma membrane across which exchange must occur.
the course of evolution, but these variations fall within certain The rate of exchange is proportional to the membrane surface
bounds. Physical laws that govern strength, diffusion, move- area involved in exchange, whereas the amount of material that
ment, and heat exchange limit the range of animal forms. must be exchanged is proportional to the total body volume.
As an example of how physical laws A multicellular organization therefore works only if
constrain evolution, let’s consider every cell has access to a suitable aqueous environ-
. Figure 40.2 Convergent
how some properties of water limit the evolution in fast
ment, either inside or outside the animal’s body.
possible shapes for animals that are swimmers. Many animals with a simple internal organiza-
fast swimmers. Water is about 1,000 tion have body plans that enable direct exchange
times denser than air and also far more between almost all their cells and the external
viscous. Therefore, any bump on an environment. For example, a pond-dwelling
animal’s body surface that causes drag hydra has a saclike body plan and a body wall only
Seal
impedes a swimmer more than it would two cell layers thick (Figure 40.3b). Because its gas-
a runner or flyer. Tuna and other fast trovascular cavity opens to the external environ-
ray-finned fishes can swim at speeds ment, both the outer and inner layers of cells are
up to 80 km/hr (50 miles/hour). Sharks, constantly bathed by pond water. Another com-
penguins, dolphins, and seals are also mon body plan that maximizes exposure to the
relatively fast swimmers. As illustrated Penguin surrounding medium is a flat shape. Consider, for
by the three examples in Figure 40.2, instance, a parasitic tapeworm, which can reach
these animals all have a shape that is several meters in length (see Figure 33.11). A thin,
fusiform, meaning tapered on both flat shape places most cells of the worm in direct
ends. The similar streamlined shape contact with its particular environment—the
found in these speedy vertebrates is an Tuna nutrient-rich intestinal fluid of a vertebrate host.
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are finely branched or folded, giving them a Respiratory
very large area. The digestive, respiratory, and od
system
Blo
Interstitial
fluid
Digestive Excretory
system system
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The lining of the small intestine Anus Within the kidney, blood is filtered
has finger-like projections that across the surface of long, narrow
expand the surface area for Unabsorbed Metabolic waste products blood vessels packed into
nutrient absorption (SEM). matter (feces) (nitrogenous waste) ball-shaped structures (SEM).
Circulatory Heart, blood vessels, blood (See Figure 42.5.) Internal distribution of materials
Respiratory Lungs, trachea, other breathing tubes (See Figure 42.24.) Gas exchange (uptake of oxygen; disposal
of carbon dioxide)
Immune and lymphatic Bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessels Body defense (fighting infections and
(See Figure 43.6.) virally induced cancers)
Excretory Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra (See Figure 44.12.) Disposal of metabolic wastes; regulation of
osmotic balance of blood
Endocrine Pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, and other hormone- Coordination of body activities (such as
secreting glands (See Figure 45.8.) digestion and metabolism)
Reproductive Ovaries or testes and associated organs (See Figures 46.9 Gamete production; promotion of fertiliza-
and 46.10.) tion; support of developing embryo
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs (See Figure 49.6.) Coordination of body activities; detection
of stimuli and formulation of responses
to them
Integumentary Skin and its derivatives (such as hair, claws, sweat glands) Protection against mechanical injury,
(See Figure 50.5.) infection, dehydration; thermoregulation
Skeletal Skeleton (bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage) Body support, protection of internal
(See Figure 50.37.) organs, movement
Muscular Skeletal muscles (See Figure 50.26.) Locomotion and other movement
Epithelial Tissue
Connective Tissue
Connective tissue, consisting of a sparse population of cells scat- reticular fibers join connective tissue to adjacent tissues, and
tered through an extracellular matrix, holds many tissues and elastic fibers make tissues elastic. If you pinch a fold of tissue
organs together and in place. The matrix generally on the back of your hand, the collagenous and reticular
consists of a web of fibers embedded in a liquid, fibers prevent the skin from being pulled far from the bone,
jellylike, or solid foundation. Within the matrix whereas the elastic fibers restore the skin to its original shape
are numerous cells called fibroblasts, which when you release your grip. Different mixtures of fibers
secrete fiber proteins, and macrophages, which and foundation form the major types of connective tissue
engulf foreign particles and any cell debris by shown below.
phagocytosis. Mastering Biology Animation:
Connective tissue fibers are of three kinds: Connective Tissue
Collagenous fibers provide strength and flexibility,
Blood
Blood has a liquid extracellular
matrix called plasma, which con-
Loose connective tissue sists of water, salts, and dissolved
proteins. Suspended in plasma
The most widespread connec- are erythrocytes (red blood cells),
Collagenous fiber
tive tissue in the vertebrate leukocytes (white blood cells),
body is loose connective tissue, and cell fragments called platelets.
which binds epithelia to Red cells carry oxygen, white cells
underlying tissues and holds function in defense, and platelets
organs in place. Loose con- aid in blood clotting.
nective tissue gets its name
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50 om
Fibrous connective tissue
Fibrous connective tissue is
dense with collagenous fibers. Red blood cells
It is found in tendons, which
attach muscles to bones, and Adipose tissue Cartilage
in ligaments, which connect Adipose tissue is a specialized Cartilage contains collagenous
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Osteon
Chondroitin sulfate
The tissue responsible for nearly all types of body movement is muscle
tissue. All muscle cells consist of filaments containing the proteins
actin and myosin, which together enable muscles to contract. There
are three types of muscle tissue in the vertebrate body: skeletal,
smooth, and cardiac.
Skeletal muscle
Attached to bones by tendons, skeletal
muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible
for voluntary movements. Skeletal muscle
consists of bundles of long cells that are
Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle
called muscle fibers. During development,
skeletal muscle fibers form by the fusion of Smooth muscle, which lacks striations, Cardiac muscle forms the contractile
many cells, resulting in multiple nuclei in is found in the walls of the digestive wall of the heart. It is striated like skeletal
each muscle fiber. The arrangement of con- tract, urinary bladder, arteries, and other muscle and has similar contractile proper-
tractile units, or sarcomeres, along the internal organs. The cells are spindle- ties. Unlike skeletal muscle, however, car-
fibers gives the cells a striped (striated) shaped. Smooth muscles are responsible diac muscle has branched fibers that inter-
appearance. In adult mammals, build- for involuntary body activities, such as connect via intercalated disks, which relay
ing muscle increases the size but not the churning of the stomach and constric- signals from cell to cell and help synchronize
number of muscle fibers. tion of arteries. heart contraction.
Nuclei
Muscle
fiber
Sarcomere
Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue functions in the receipt, processing, and transmission of information. Nervous tissue contains
neurons, or nerve cells, which transmit nerve impulses, as well as support cells called glial cells, or simply
glia. In many animals, a concentration of nervous tissue forms a brain, an information-processing center.
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Neurons Glia
Glia
Neurons are the basic Neuron: The various types of glia
units of the nervous sys- Dendrites help nourish, insulate, and
tem. A neuron receives replenish neurons, and
nerve impulses from Cell body in some cases, modulate
other neurons via its neuron function.
cell body and multiple Axon
extensions called den-
drites. Neurons transmit
Axons of
impulses to neurons, neurons
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Melatonin concentration
37.1 60 circulatory and respiratory systems to become more efficient in
capturing and distributing oxygen at a lower concentration.
in blood (pg/mL)
36.9 40
36.7 20
36.5 0
2 6 10 2 6 10
PM PM PM AM AM AM
Time of day
Midnight
Start of Lowest
melatonin secretion heart rate
SLE
Greatest EP
Lowest body
muscle strength
temperature
6 PM 6 AM
Homeostasis is sometimes altered by acclimatization,
Most rapid
rise in blood an animal’s physiological adjustment to changes in its
pressure external environment. For instance, when an elk moves
Fastest
reaction time up into the mountains from sea level, the lower oxygen
Highest risk concentration in the high mountain air stimulates the
Noon of cardiac arrest animal to breathe more rapidly and deeply. As a result,
more CO2 is lost through exhalation, raising blood pH
(b) The human circadian clock. Metabolic activities undergo daily above its normal range. As the animal acclimatizes over
cycles in response to the circadian clock. As illustrated for a typical several days, changes in kidney function cause it to
individual who rises early in the morning, eats lunch around noon,
and sleeps at night, these cyclic changes occur throughout a excrete urine that is more alkaline, returning blood pH
24-hour day. to its normal range. Other mammals, including humans,
are also capable of acclimatizing to dramatic altitude
changes (Figure 40.10), although health risks remain.
Circulatory Adaptations
Circulatory systems provide a major route for heat flow
between the interior and exterior of the body. Adaptations
that regulate the extent of blood flow near the body surface
or that trap heat within the body core play a significant role
in thermoregulation.
In response to changes in the temperature of their sur-
roundings, many animals alter the amount of blood (and
hence heat) flowing between their body core and their
skin. Nerve signals that relax the muscles of the vessel walls
result in vasodilation, a widening of superficial blood ves-
sels (those near the body surface). As a consequence of the
Convection is the transfer of Conduction is the transfer increase in vessel diameter, blood flow in the skin increases.
heat by the movement of air or of heat between molecules
liquid past a surface, as when a of objects in contact with In endotherms, vasodilation usually increases the transfer
breeze contributes to heat loss each other, as when a of body heat to the environment by radiation, conduc-
from a lizard‘s dry skin or when lizard sits on a hot rock. tion, and convection (see Figure 40.12). The reverse process,
blood moves heat from the
body core to the extremities. vasoconstriction, reduces blood flow and heat transfer by
decreasing the diameter of superficial vessels.
VISUAL SKILLS If this figure showed a penguin (an endotherm) on an
ice floe rather than an iguana (an ectotherm) on a rock, would any of the Like endotherms, some ectotherms control heat exchange
arrows point in a different direction? Explain. by regulating blood flow. For example, when the marine
Canada goose 1
2 1
1 3 Vein
Artery Vein
Artery
can still transfer heat to the even colder 3
358C 338
blood in an adjacent vein. The blood in the 3
308 278
Arteries carry
blood into the 208 188 3
2
foot. Veins
108 98
to the heart.
Key
2
Warm blood
arteries and veins.
To From Cool blood Heat transfer
foot foot
iguana of the Galápagos Islands swims in the cold ocean, endothermic insects (bumblebees, honeybees, and some
its superficial blood vessels undergo vasoconstriction. moths) have a countercurrent exchanger that helps
This process routes more blood to the body core, conserving maintain a high temperature in their thorax, where flight
body heat. muscles are located.
In many birds and mammals, reducing heat loss
from the body relies on countercurrent exchange,
the transfer of heat (or solutes) between fluids that are Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss
flowing in opposite directions. In a countercurrent heat Many mammals and birds live in places where regulat-
exchanger, arteries and veins are located adjacent to each ing body temperature requires cooling at some times
other (Figure 40.13). Because blood flows through the and warming at others. If environmental temperature
arteries and veins in opposite directions, this arrangement is above body temperature, only evaporation can keep
allows heat exchange to be remarkably efficient. As warm body temperature from rising. Water absorbs consider-
blood in the arteries moves outward from the body core, able heat when it evaporates (see Concept 3.2); this heat
it transfers heat to the colder blood in the veins returning is carried away from the skin and respiratory surfaces with
from the extremities. Most importantly, heat is transferred water vapor.
along the entire length of the exchanger, maximizing Some animals exhibit adaptations that greatly facilitate
the rate of heat exchange and minimizing heat loss to evaporative cooling. A few mammals, including horses and
the environment. humans, have sweat glands. In many other mammals, as well
Although most sharks and fishes are temperature as in birds, panting is important. Some birds have a pouch
conformers, countercurrent heat exchangers are found richly supplied with blood vessels in the floor of the mouth;
in some large, powerful swimmers, including great fluttering the pouch increases evaporation. Pigeons can
white sharks, bluefin tuna, and swordfish. By keep- use this adaptation to keep their body temperature close to
ing the main swimming muscles warm, this adaptation 40°C (104°F) in air temperatures as high as 60°C (140°F), as
enables vigorous, sustained activity. Similarly, many long as they have sufficient water.
100
In humans and other mammals, the sensors responsible for
80 thermoregulation are concentrated in the hypothalamus,
the brain region that also controls the circadian clock. Within
60 the hypothalamus, a group of nerve cells functions as a ther-
mostat, responding to body temperatures outside the normal
40 range by activating mechanisms that promote heat loss or
gain (Figure 40.17).
20
At body temperatures above the normal range, the hypo-
0 thalamic thermostat promotes cooling of the body
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 by dilation of vessels in the skin, sweating, or panting. When
Contractions per minute body temperatures instead drop below the normal range,
the thermostat inhibits heat loss mechanisms and activates
Conclusion Because oxygen consumption, which gen- mechanisms that either save heat, such as constricting
erates heat through cellular respiration, was correlated vessels in the skin, or generate heat, such as shivering.
with the rate of muscle contraction, the researchers con-
cluded that the muscle contractions, a form of shivering, In the course of certain bacterial and viral infections,
were the source of the Burmese python’s elevated body mammals and birds develop fever, an elevated body tem-
temperature. perature. A variety of experiments have shown that fever
Data from V. H. Hutchison, H. G. Dowling, and A. Vinegar, Thermoregulation reflects an increase in the normal range for the biological
in a brooding female Indian python, Python molurus bivittatus, Science
thermostat. For example, artificially raising the temperature
151:694–696 (1966).
of the hypothalamus in an infected animal reduces fever in
WHAT IF? Suppose you varied air temperature and measured
oxygen consumption for a female Burmese python without a clutch of the rest of the body.
eggs. Since she would not show shivering behavior, how would you Among certain ectotherms, an increase in body tem-
expect the snake’s oxygen consumption to vary with environmental perature upon infection reflects what is called a behavioral
temperature?
fever. For example, the desert iguana (Dipsosaurus dorsalis)
responds to infection with certain bacteria by seeking
a warmer environment and then maintaining a body
temperature through shivering (Figure 40.16). Whether cer- temperature that is elevated by 2–4°C (4–7°F). Similar obser-
tain groups of Mesozoic dinosaurs were similarly endother- vations in fishes, amphibians, and even cockroaches indicate
mic is a matter of active debate. that fever is common to both endotherms and ectotherms.
Now that we have explored thermoregulation, we’ll
Acclimatization in Thermoregulation conclude our introduction to animal form and function by
Acclimatization contributes to thermoregulation in many considering the different ways that animals allocate, use,
animal species. In birds and mammals, acclimatization and conserve energy.
of about 1.5 times BMR—an indication of a relatively seden- A major adaptation that enables animals to save energy in the
tary lifestyle. face of such difficult conditions is torpor, a physiological
The fraction of an animal’s energy “budget” that is state of decreased activity and metabolism.
devoted to activity depends on many factors, including its Many birds and small mammals exhibit a daily torpor that
environment, behavior, size, and thermoregulation. In the is well adapted to feeding patterns. For instance, some bats
Scientific Skills Exercise, you’ll interpret data on the annual feed at night and go into torpor in daylight. Similarly, chicka-
energy budgets of three terrestrial vertebrates. dees and hummingbirds, which feed during the day, often go
into torpor on cold nights.
All endotherms that exhibit daily torpor are relatively
Torpor and Energy Conservation small; when active, they have high metabolic rates and thus
Despite their many adaptations for homeostasis, animals may very high rates of energy consumption. The changes in body
encounter conditions that severely challenge their abilities to temperature, and thus the energy savings, are often consid-
balance their heat, energy, and materials budgets. For exam- erable: the body temperature of chickadees drops as much
ple, at certain times of the day or year, their surroundings as 10°C (18°F) at night, and the core body temperature of a
may be extremely hot or cold, or food may be unavailable. hummingbird can fall 25°C (45°F) or more.
MAKE CONNECTIONS
Life Challenges and Solutions
in Plants and Animals
Multicellular organisms face a common set
of challenges. Comparing the solutions that
have evolved in plants and animals reveals
both unity (shared elements) and diversity
(distinct features) across these two lineages.
Nutritional Mode
All living things must obtain energy and carbon from the
environment to grow, survive, and reproduce. Plants are
autotrophs, obtaining their energy through photosynthesis
and their carbon from inorganic sources, whereas animals are
heterotrophs, obtaining their energy and carbon from food.
Evolutionary adaptations in plants and animals support these
different nutritional modes. The broad surface of many leaves
enhances light capture for photosynthesis. When hunting, a
bobcat relies on stealth, speed, and sharp claws. (See Figure 36.2
and Figure 41.16.)
Environmental Response
All forms of life must detect and respond Mastering Biology BioFlix®
Animation: Homeostasis:
appropriately to conditions in their
Regulating Blood Sugar
environment. Specialized organs sense
environmental signals. For example,
the floral head of a sunflower and an
insect’s eyes both contain photoreceptors
that detect light. Environmental signals
activate specific receptor proteins,
triggering signal transduction pathways
that initiate cellular responses
coordinated by chemical and electrical
communication. (See Figure 39.19 and
Figure 50.15.)
Gas Exchange
The exchange of certain
gases with the environment
is essential for life.
Respiration by plants and
animals requires taking up
oxygen (O2) and releasing carbon dioxide (CO2). In photosynthesis,
net exchange occurs in the opposite direction: CO2 uptake and O2
release. In both plants and animals, highly convoluted surfaces
that increase the area available for gas exchange have evolved,
such as the spongy mesophyll of leaves (left) and the alveoli of
lungs (right). (See Figure 35.18 and Figure 42.24.)