Session 711 Building Construction PPT Instructor Notes

The Connecticut Fire Academy Unit 7
Recruit Firefighter Program Chapter 7 Building Construction

Presentation Instructor Notes
Slide 1
Building Construction
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program 1
Slide 2
INTRODUCTION TO
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program
Slide 3 Start a discussion on why Brannigan’s statement is

Why Study Building Construction?
so important to us as firefighters.
“The building is your enemy. Know your enemy”
From the second a building is built, it wants to do
nothing but fall down. Fire and heat will only
accelerate how fast it falls.
All of our strategies, tactics, and tasks revolve
•Fire travel
•Building layout
around building construction and fire behavior.
•Collapse
•Specific strategies and tactics
Knowledge of building construction will show us-
how and where fire will travel, how and where
buildings will collapse, and how buildings are
laid out.
Slide 4 Homeowners and “fly-by-night” contractors often

Rules for Building Construction
do things during remodeling or construction that are
There is no such thing as “always” or
“never” in building construction
generally unacceptable by building codes.
This program focuses on the

“usually” found aspects of
building construction
Pre-incident surveys, pre-plans,

good size up, and common sense
should never be overlooked
Revision: 122315
Slide 5 As stated in NFPA 220.

Construction Type
Relates to one of the five NFPA

classifications of building construction
Slide 6
Construction Style
Cape, Ranch, Colonial, Taxpayer, Strip Mall, etc.
Slide 7 Students don’t need to memorize these, just

Occupancy
understand that different occupancies present
What the building is used for different hazards
• Assembly • Residential
• Assembly- gathering for 50 or more persons
• Education
• Business
• Residential
Board & Care
• Education- used for educational purposes.
• Daycare • Mercantile
• Healthcare • Industrial
Occupies 4 or more hours per day
• Ambulatory
Healthcare
• Storage
• Multiple
• Daycare- where 4 or more clients receive care
• Detention &
Correctional
Occupancy
by other than family members
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program • Healthcare- where 4 or more persons receive
medical treatment
• Ambulatory healthcare- 4 or more patients on an
out-patient basis
• Detention or correctional- 4 or more persons
housed under varying degrees of restraint
• Residential- provide sleeping accommodations
for other than detention or health care
• Residential board and care- boarding of 4 or
more persons for personal care services
• Mercantile- used for the display and sale of
merchandise
• Business- used for account and record keeping
or the transaction of business other than
mercantile
• Industrial- where products are manufactured,
processed, mixed, assembled
• Storage- used for the sheltering of goods
• Multiple occupancy- where 2 or more classes of
occupancy exist
Revision: 122315
Slide 8
COMMON BUILDING
MATERIALS
Slide 9
Wood
• Contributes to the fuel load.
• With larger trees becoming unavailable,
manufacturers have come up with ways to use
Most common
building material
smaller pieces of wood to make structural
components.
• OSB, plywood, & Glu-Lam discussed on the
following slides. Their increased use & dangers
Greatest strength in the
direction of the grain posed to firefighters warrant a more in depth
discussion.
Slide 10
Oriented Strand Board (OSB)
• Allows manufacturers to use every bit of each tree
that they cut.
Up to 1” wide strips of wood • Used in beams, floors, and walls. Used as a part
glued in random directions
of some lightweight construction.
• Glues contribute to the fuel load. Ignition
temperature of the glue is the same as the wood
(around 450°)
Strength comes from
varying the grain direction
Slide 11
Plywood
• Wood veneers are “peeled” off of the logs.
• Used as parts of beams, floors, and walls. Used as
Wood veneers glued in
opposite directions
a part of some lightweight construction.
• Glues contribute to the fuel load. Ignition
temperature of the glue is the same as the wood
(around 450°)
Revision: 122315
Slide 12
Glu-Lam Beams
• Allows large spans with few supporting columns.
• The individual pieces of wood can easily be seen
Dimensional lumber finger jointed
and glued to make larger beams in this example.
• The beam on the right is basically a large
dimension piece of OSB
Allows large spans

with few columns
Slide 13 Expansion can cause exterior walls to fail.

Steel
• If the steel can not expand, it will twist and fail.
High compressive and
tensile strength
Expands 1” for every 10’ at

1000°
• At 300° it gets 15% stronger
• At 1000°it loses 50% of it strength
• At 1500°it can’t support its own
weight
Slide 14 Concrete alone can only be used support loads in

Concrete
compression
Little or no tensile strength
• In order to support loads in any other
configuration, rebar must be added
• Post- and Pre- tensioning also adds support
High compressive strength
Found in floors, foundations,

footings, beams, columns
Slide 15 Spalling is caused by the expansion of the moisture

Concrete
in concrete when heated above 212°
Subject to spalling • Minor surface spalling has little or no effect on the
when heated
concrete
• Once the rebar inside is exposed to enough heat
that is loses its strength, the concrete may fail
Revision: 122315
Slide 16 When the heat levels are enough to fail the

Gypsum
wallboard, the fire is well advanced and will
High heat resistance makes
rapidly begin deteriorating the structural members
it a great insulator behind it.
• Its high water content makes it a great insulator.
• Gypsum is also being used as a panelized roofing
material
• The panels are typically 2” thick and 2’x8’. Each
weighs approximately 135lbs.
Slide 17
Glass
• May be wire reinforced, tempered, or laminated.
No structural
• Wire reinforced glass may be found in limited
strength amounts in fire doors. Prevents products of
combustion from travelling to uninvolved areas.
Can only support
• A 90 minute fire door can have up to 100 square
its own weight
inches of wired glass.
Not an effective barrier

to radiant heat
Slide 18
NFPA CONSTRUCTION
CLASSIFICATIONS
Slide 19 An initial radio report from a first arriving company

Importance to Firefighters
should include, among other things, the type of
Triggers key concerns to arriving
building construction.
and responding firefighters
• If unable to determine for sure, assume the worst
case scenario. (i.e. non- combustible vs. fire
resistive. Without pre-plans or previous
Each construction type
knowledge of a building, it may be difficult to
has specific strengths
and weaknesses
determine.)
Revision: 122315
Slide 20
Building Codes
• Builders are going to use the cheapest method
possible to build a building
Why would a builder use one type of
construction vs. another?
• Trade offs can often be made during the plans
review process
• Trade sprinklers for adding a fireproof coating or
more exit doors
• Whichever protection is cheapest, is the one the
builder will use
Slide 21
NFPA TYPE 1
Slide 22 Some combustible finishes are for interior finishes,

Type 1 Fire Resistive
roof coverings and structures, trim, nailers,
Structural members made of non-
or limited combustible materials windows, & doors.
• Only buildings that are required by law to be fire
resistive will be made so.
• Examples of requirements- some hotels, some
schools, some hospitals.
• Height, occupancy, fire protection, and size are all
determining factors in whether or not a building
needs to be fire resistive.
Slide 23 This fireproofing provides up to 4 hours of fire

protection depending on application (in laboratory
conditions)
The fireproofing can be a spray on lightweight
concrete coating, a gypsum based coating, or
multiple layers of sheetrock.
Steel structural
members protected
by a fireproof coating
Revision: 122315
Slide 24
Damaged fireproofing drastically
reduces fire protection
Damaged by:
•Remodeling
•Impacts
•Heat and fire
•Fire streams
Slide 25 HVAC systems in fire resistive buildings are

required to have duct smoke detection. Activation
of one of these detectors will shut down the
Emphasis on compartmentalization
HVAC system and close dampers prohibiting
smoke travel.
• Must have self closing fire doors
Done by:
•Fire doors •Fire caulking
•Fire walls •HVAC
Slide 26 No building is fireproof.

• If fire doors are blocked open or if HVAC systems
malfunction, fire can travel from the area of
Primary fire concern is
the contents
origin.
• Buildings of this construction often have a high
life hazard (high rise, large assembly, non-
Products of combustion
present great hazards to ambulatory people).
the occupants
• Failure of the fire protection systems or poor
construction in these buildings can have
devastating outcomes and high loss of life.
Slide 27 Picture is from a hotel fire in Las Vegas in 2008

• Fire started outside around the 30th floor due to
Exterior coatings and welders and burned up and across the building due
interior finishes may be
combustible to the foam like finish coating
Revision: 122315
Slide 28
NFPA TYPE 2
Slide 29
Type 2 Non-Combustible
Structural members made

of non- or limited
combustible materials
Slide 30 Steel columns and beams as well as metal studs are

used in construction.
Lacks the fire resistance
rating of Type 1
Slide 31 Understand that just because a building is a type 2,

does not necessarily mean that it is made with
lightweight construction.
Often made using lightweight

construction
Revision: 122315
Slide 32 Uncontrolled fire in any Type 2 building can and

will lead to collapse of the roof.
• Don’t be confused- just because a building is type
2 construction does not mean that we don’t fight
Early collapse potential
fire in these buildings. We must simply weigh all
of the factors when deciding whether or not to
Primary fire concern
is the contents
make an interior attack.
Slide 33 Often times, loads are added to roofs after

remodeling without engineering studies to
Rooftop loads create additional hazards determine if the roof can withstand the load.
when fighting fires in these buildings
• The increased weight combined with heat & fire
will cause these roofs to fail even faster.
• Command / interior companies must be notified if
rooftop loads are discovered by roof firefighters.
• These HVAC units are common among type 1
through 4 buildings
Slide 34 Roof purlins twist and fail rapidly due to heat and
fire.
Butler style buildings have
unique hazards
• Large open spans inside the building.
• May have panelized or masonry walls.
Slide 35
NFPA TYPE 3
Revision: 122315
Slide 36 Generally early to mid- 1900’s construction.

Type 3 Ordinary Construction
• Generally the type of construction used in
Masonry exterior walls “taxpayer” style buildings.
• In “modern” construction this type of construction
has given way to non-combustible construction
due to costs.
• Generally not taller than 6 stories because the
Interior walls, floors, and roof exterior walls would have to be extremely thick to
made of wood framing
be able to support the load above. The tallest is 16
stories tall and has walls at the base that are 6’
thick to support the weight above. (Chicago)
Slide 37
Floor and roof joists sit in

pockets in the masonry
Slide 38 Due to the age of these buildings, most have been

remodeled numerous times, creating void spaces
for hidden fire to travel.
• Fires beyond the room / area of origin can be
significant in these buildings.
Primary concern is fire

travel in void spaces
Slide 39 This is a tin ceiling found under a suspended ceiling.

These buildings generally had tall ceilings. To
Void spaces can be created
reduce the amount of living space that needed to
by installing false ceilings be heated or cooled, the ceiling height was
lowered.
Tin ceilings were common in this era of
construction. They would help limit fire spread,
but once compromised, they were very difficult to
overhaul.
Revision: 122315
Slide 40
Typically flat, built up roofs
over larger size joists
Remodels may use

lightweight materials
Revision: 122315
Slide 41
NFPA TYPE 4
Slide 42 Often referred to as “old mill” construction.

Type 4 Heavy Timber
These buildings get frequently remodeled and re-
Interior structural members made zoned.
of large diameter timbers
What once was one large factory, may now be
divided up into several small occupancies.
Many developers are creating apartments and condos
out of old mills.
Exterior load bearing
walls are masonry
Slide 43 Columns can be no less than 8”x8” for supporting

Type 4 Heavy Timber
floors, and 6”x8” for supporting roofs.
Timbers can be no less than 6” in Floor beams can be no less than 6”x10”.
their smallest dimension
Roof framing can be no less than 6”x8”.
Floor decking not less than 3” thick for tongue &
groove and 4” thick for planks.
Roof decking can be no less than 2” thick for tongue
and groove and 3” for planking.
Slide 44 These buildings tend to hold up well to even large

Type 4 Heavy Timber
fires, but the sheer amount and size of combustibles
Their age can cause them in these buildings create huge fire loads.
to be in disrepair
Revision: 122315
Slide 45 Manufacturing processes may have left behind oils

Type 4 Heavy Timber
which increase the combustibility of the flooring.
The oils used to waterproof the floors are also
Many have oil soaked floors
flammable
Slide 46 As occupancies change, windows may be boarded up

Type 4 Heavy Timber
and walled over on the inside. This is a serious
Original windows were large to let in maximum light
safety concern for interior firefighters.
The size of the windows may also be reduced to save
on energy. Now the large amount of heat generated
by a fire only has smaller exit opening to vent from.
Slide 47 A heat activated fusible link is supposed to actuate

Type 4 Heavy Timber
these doors.
Fire doors may be present,
but may not be operational
Many have been blocked or wired permanently open.
Slide 48
Type 4 Heavy Timber
•These buildings were built before modern
building codes. Stairways were often unenclosed and
would allow fire to travel vertically with ease.
Elevators, interior shafts, and unenclosed stairs create

hazards for firefighters and paths for fire spread
Revision: 122315
Slide 49
Type 4 Heavy Timber
•Rubber membrane roofs have frequently been
added over existing tar and asphalt roofs.
Roofs are often flat, •Vertical ventilation is time and manpower
built up type
intensive.
Wood planking underneath

can be 2”-3” thick
Slide 50
Type 4 Heavy Timber
Primary hazard is the high heat output
by the large structural members
Slide 51
NFPA TYPE 5
Slide 52 The majority of our fires are fought in wood frame,

Type 5 Wood Frame
residential occupancies.
Walls, floors, and roof made completely or partially of wood
Revision: 122315
Slide 53 These dimension size changes seem to have occurred

Type 5 Wood Frame
in the 1960’s.
This loss of mass is part of the reason why older
Modern 2”x4”s are
frame homes stand up better and longer under fire
actually 1 ½”x 3 ½” conditions.
That is a loss of 1/3 of its mass!
Slide 54 Some manuals (IFSTA) state that these buildings

Type 5 Wood Frame
may be up to 7 stories tall.
Commonly found no taller
than 3 or 4 stories
While it is possible, it is extremely rare to build a
wood frame building that tall.
Slide 55 Click on the picture on the right and it will link to a

Type 5 Wood Frame
larger picture
Balloon Framing
Exterior framing studs extend from the top of the
foundation all the way to the roofline.
This creates large void spaces for fire to travel
Lumber used was actually 2”x4”.
Exterior framing extends
Balloon framing was phased out in the mid- 1950’s
uninterrupted from the
foundation to the roof
due to the lack of the long framing members needed
to make them.
Slide 56
Revision: 122315
Slide 57
Type 5 Wood Frame
Indicators of balloon framing
• Tall, narrow windows
• Windows line up vertically
• Age of the house / neighborhood
Slide 58 Video clip showing inside balloon framing

Type 5 Wood Frame
Slide 59 One floor is completed before beginning the next

Type 5 Wood Frame
floor.
Platform Framing
This prevents the large open void spaces running
floor to roof.
There may still be void spaces, just not as many
Pipe chases, duct work chases, etc
One floor is completed before

the next floor is added
Slide 60
Type 5 Wood Frame
•Lightweight construction will be discussed in
depth later in the class
Lightweight materials are more
and more common
•Lightweight construction is nothing new! It has
been around since the 1980’s.
•Most condo developments are sure to have
lightweight wood trusses in the roof.
•Fires in newer or recently remodeled homes are
almost certain to have some elements of lightweight
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program construction.
Revision: 122315
Slide 61
Type 5 Wood Frame
•The presence of a steel beam does not change the
classification of construction. This is still considered
May incorporate a wood frame building.
•The steel may elongate and cause failures
some structural steel
elsewhere in the structure.
Slide 62
LIGHTWEIGHT
CONSTRUCTION
Slide 63
Lightweight Construction
•Video shows the difference between a fire in a
conventionally framed house and a lightweight
constructed house.
Slide 64 A.K.A. parallel chord truss.

Lightweight Steel Bar Joist
Because of the small dimensions of the materials
Prone to early collapse
used, these joists can fail within 10 minutes of
exposure to fire
Used to support floors or roofs.
Engineered to only support a specific load. If one
fails, then the next joists must share the increased
Allows for large spans
with minimal material load.
Uses triangle shapes for strength.
Commonly used in type 1 and 2 construction.
Revision: 122315
Slide 65 From Sacramento, California. Firefighters had only

Steel Truss Collapse Video
a second to recognize that the roof was collapsing.
Slide 66
Aluminum Truss
•Although rare, some architects are using them in
construction
At flashover temperatures, aluminum will melt
Slide 67
Lightweight Wood Joist
•Gusset Plates have ¼” to 3/8” prongs that
penetrate into the wood.
May use gusset plates or
•They are prone to early failure.
finger jointed lumber
•Finger joints are milled into the lumber than
attached with glue.
Slide 68
Lightweight Wood Truss
•No ridge pole. The ridge pole in rafter
construction re distributes the load of a failed
Roof trusses made of small member to all of the other rafters.
dimension lumber
•If one truss fails, the neighboring trusses must
now share the increased load (an increase of 50% of
its engineered load).
•Improper storage and handling can cause the
weakening of the fasteners.
Revision: 122315
Slide 69
Gusset Plate Failure
•The separation of this one member renders the
entire joist useless.
•Notice the sagging that occurred after the
separation of one gusset plate.
Slide 70
Wood Truss Failure Video
•Video shows a time lapse difference between a
lightweight truss roof and a conventionally framed
roof under fire conditions.
Slide 71 The steel web members have a gusset plate style

Combination Wood / Steel Joist
fastener to attach them to the top and bottom chords.
Top and bottom chords made
of dimensional lumber Joists like this create a “cockloft” under the floor.
Once fire penetrates it, it can run freely throughout.
Web members made

of lightweight steel
Slide 72
Wood “I” Beam
•They provide excellent strength in non fire
conditions.
Top and bottom chords
made of dimensional •Able to bridge long spans.
•Cheap and efficient use of natural resources.
lumber, plywood or OSB
•The OSB is oriented vertically, which allows it

to burn faster.
Web section made of OSB
Revision: 122315
Slide 73 Wood I beams can completely burn away in as little

Failure of Wood “I” Beams
as 5 minutes.
Burn away in as little
They are often at the point of failure just as we are
as 5 minutes
entering to make a search or attack.
The glues in the plywood and OSB contribute to the
fire load of the material.
Slide 74 Firefighter fatalities have been attributed to

Bowstring Trusses
bowstring truss failure.
Bridge large spans Hackensack, NJ 1988 (5 LODD)
Waldbaums fire, FDNY 1978 (6 LODD)
Contributing factor in
several LODD’s
Slide 75 The state of New Jersey requires these on new

Truss ID Placards
construction.
Required by law in
Many other counties / cities / towns throughout the
some states / counties
country require them on a local level.
Revision: 122315
Slide 76
CONSTRUCTION
TERMINOLOGY
Slide 77
THE MOST OBVIOUS-

HOW MANY STORIES
Slide 78 The colonial on the bottom left is obviously 2

Determining Stories
stories
It seems easy enough… • Confusion comes when we look at homes like
split levels, raised ranches, apartments where you
enter at a stair return (halfway between floors)
• The raised ranch and split level are actually 2
story homes
Using correct terminology paints a • The true term half story is discussed on the next
clearer picture for other responders
slide
Slide 79 The term half story has nothing to do with how

Half Stories
much of the house is sticking out of the ground
• It has everything to do with the amount of usable
Found on homes with
steeply pitched roofs
Creates usable living
space underneath
living space within
• The top floor has approximately half of the
usable living space as the other floors
• Capes, 2 ½, 3 ½ frames are examples of half
The term half story is
often used incorrectly story homes
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program • The picture on the bottom left is a 2 ½ frame, the
right is a 1 ½ frame
Revision: 122315
Slide 80
Column
Vertical support member that transfers a
load to the foundation / footings
Slide 81 May support floors, ceilings, or roofs.

Beam
Loads are transferred to columns or load bearing
Used to transfer vertical loads horizontally
to other structural elements
walls.
Supported at 2
or more points
Slide 82 Girders support beams.

Girders
• Usually larger in dimension than the beams that it
A main horizontal support beam
used to support other beams carries.
• Runs perpendicular to the beams in the building.
• May be steel or wood.
Slide 83
Joist
• Made of wood, steel, or concrete.
A horizontal member that supports
• May run wall to wall or wall to beam.
a floor, ceiling, or roof • Usually laid in the narrow dimension of the
building.
• The larger the span, the larger the joist.
• Note the metal bracing that prevents twisting of
the joists.
• May be weakened by plumbing or electrical work
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program passed through the joist.
Revision: 122315
Slide 84
Ridge Pole & Rafter
• Typically made of wood.
A sloped structural member that
• Note the ridge pole.
extends from the ridge to the eave • These roofs are the strongest we can work from
Rafter Ridge Pole • In the event of a joist failure, the ridge pole
transfers the load to the other rafters
Slide 85 Commonly found in buildings with steep roofs

Knee Walls
(capes, 2 ½ frames, contemporary, etc.).
Short walls found
where a steep roof
• Fire that may have extended on the outside can
meets upper floors
easily enter the soffit under the eaves and run
through these spaces.
• Many have small access doors in the attic /
apartment space for access. There may also be a
fire load present because they are often used for
storage.
• Contributing factor in a LODD in Bridgeport in
2010
Slide 86 The shaded areas indicate the areas behind knee

Locating Knee Walls
walls
• Any fire extending out windows on the left or
right side will quickly travel into the knee walls
Slide 87 Gable ends often have vents for the attic space.
Gable or Gable End
• These are a good indicator of fire in the attic
The tapered wall between the
and/or knee walls.
edges of a sloping roof
Revision: 122315
Slide 88 Firefighters do not need to know the difference

Dormers
between the many types of dormers, but simply
A vertical wall or window projecting through a roof realize what they are and how they can be useful
Shed Dormers Full Dormer for us
• Dormers can be a give away to the presence of
knee walls, and typically enter into bedroom or
living areas.
• Full dormers offer a low pitch roof which is
much easier to operate on, but may require a
longer ladder to reach.
• Shed type dormers can provide a good foothold
when operating on a roof.
Slide 89 Older soffits were made of solid wood and provided

Soffit
some fire stopping.
The exposed underside
of a roof eave • Newer homes and remodels are being sealed with
vinyl soffit which melt away in seconds.
• Smoke issuing from these soffits are an indicator
of the need to vent a roof.
Provides an easy
path for fire travel
Slide 90 Generally exterior walls and interior walls that are

Load Bearing Wall
directly above and parallel with the main
A wall that supports the entire carrying beam(s) in the building.
load above and attached to it
The building on the right is the Monadnock building
in Chicago. It is the tallest ordinary constructed
building in the US. The base walls are 6’ thick.
The heavier the load,

the thicker the wall
Slide 91 Non-Bearing walls are intended to support only

Non-Bearing Walls
their own weight.
Acts as a partition in
a building
• Used to hide plumbing, wires, etc.
• In the event of a roof collapse, they will support
the falling roof members, preventing them from
falling all the way to the floor onto firefighters.
• In a roof collapse (i.e. a wood truss roof), the
safest place to be is in the hallway because the
close proximity of the walls prevents truss
members from falling to the floor
Revision: 122315
Slide 92 Used in buildings that are supported by a separate

Curtain Wall
framework underneath (not just high rises).
An exterior wall that is supported by
the superstructure behind it
• Home Depot, Walmart, etc
• It provides little or no support to the building.
• It’s purpose is to keep the outside out – and keep
the inside in.
Slide 93 Common in ordinary construction buildings

Party Wall
• The joist pockets extend into the adjacent
A load bearing wall shared by two structures
structure allowing a path for fire travel
• Collapse in one building can offset this wall
Old Roof Line causing additional collapse
Old Joist Pockets
Slide 94
Firewall
• These walls can be compromised by contractors
A wall that extends to, or
that may run plumbing or wires through the wall
above the roof line and not seal the holes they make.
• Codes vary depending on occupancy on the
spacing and height of these walls.
• Apartments may require one every 4 units, where
condos and townhouses may be every unit
Prevents horizontal
fire spread • Often can be used to assist confinement of the
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program fire at the strategic level
Slide 95
Braced Wall
• These cables or rods are unprotected and can
elongate and weaken when exposed to fire
A wall tied to another wall via
cables or steel rods
• These reinforcing stars or plates are an indication
that the building is possibly already weakened.
• If they line up symmetrically, they were probably
added during initial construction to strengthen the
building
• If they seem placed sporadically, they were
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program added to prevent the building from falling down
• This does not necessarily mean that the building
is unstable, but merely something for an officer
or IC to consider when choosing strategies
Revision: 122315
Slide 96 May be wood, stone, steel, cast iron, granite,

Lintel
marble, or reinforced concrete.
A horizontal beam used to support the masonry above it • Failure of a several lintels can cause the collapse
of the masonry above it.
Slide 97 Generally uses lightweight brick or stone.

Veneer Wall
• Veneers may cover wood frame or concrete
A non-load bearing wall covering intended to
enhance a building’s appearance (cinder) block walls.
• A vapor space is left between the brick and the
wood behind it
• Tied back to the underlying wall using metal
straps
Slide 98 There are several cues to help determine if a wall is

Identifying a Veneer Wall
veneered or not.
Header
Course Arch
• Veneer walls have weep holes on the lowest
course to allow the vapor space to breathe.
• Veneered walls do not have header courses every
6 or 7 rows.
Weep Holes
• Veneered walls do not have arched lintels above
the windows.
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program • These rules of thumb apply 99% of the time, but
some exceptions occur.
• Identifying a veneer wall can help determine
what type of building we are dealing with
• A load bearing brick wall is an ordinary or heavy
timber building
• A veneer wall will be on wood frame, non-
combustible, or fire resistive buildings
Revision: 122315
Slide 99 This picture shows a weep hole in a brick veneer on

Veneer Wall Weep Holes
a wood framed apartment building.
• Brick veneers placed over concrete block may
Allows air to flow between the
veneer and the wall beneath
not require weep holes.

• Veneer walls pose collapse hazards if fire travels
in the void space behind the wall.
Not all veneer walls

have weep holes
Slide Although veneer brick is lighter than structural

Veneer Wall Collapse
100 brick, a collapse of one of these walls will
certainly hurt firefighters.
Veneer walls can shift
and collapse under
fire conditions
Slide Commonly used in balconies and overhangs.

Cantilever
101 • If the supporting wall is compromised by fire or
A beam or structure collapse, these can be prone to early failure.
• Cantilevers can be present as interior balconies
supported on only one end
inside homes.
Slide Provides an easy way for fire to extend to upper

Light Well / Light Shaft
102 floors.
An opening in the center of, or in
between two buildings to provide light
• Trash can collect in the bottom creating a fire
and ventilation to interior apartments hazard.
• Smoke from fires on lower floors can show from
the roof, giving a perception that the fire may be
on an upper floor.
• Firefighters operating on the roof can fall into a
shaft if visibility is obscured by smoke.
• Interior firefighters may become disoriented by
thinking a window they found leads outside the
building
Revision: 122315
Slide Numerous firefighters have been injured or killed by

Mansard
103 falling mansards.
A steep sloping roof section which extends
to the roof line, creating an overhang • Interior companies egress can be blocked by the
collapse of these on the outside.
• Video of a collapse on the next slide
Slide Video shows a mansard collapse on 2 firefighters in

Mansard Collapse Video
104 Phoenix.
• Both survived but sustained burns
Slide May be only on the front, or may extend along the

Parapet
105 sides of a building.
An unsupported wall that • May extend up to several feet above a roof line.
• Scuppers visible from the exterior are a good
extends above the roof line
indication of the height of a parapet.

• Collapse video on the next slide
Slide Parapet collapse in NYC

Parapet Collapse Video
106
Revision: 122315
Slide An overhang that extends from the roofline

Cornice
107 • The picture on the left shows one made of wood
A decorative structure that projects
from the top of an exterior wall that is original construction
• The roof joist tails were left long in order to
make the decorative cornice
• Typically strong in this type of building
• The picture on the right shows a wood cornice
which was added after construction
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program • A firefighter stepping onto this may dislodge it,
especially id it has been exposed to fire
• Some of these are made of Styrofoam and glued
to the building
Slide Cocklofts typically have no fire stops
Cockloft
108 • Fire can travel through pipe chases from the
basement or lower floors into the cockloft
The “attic” of a flat
roof building
Slide When used in a flooring application, concrete will

“Q” Decking
109 be poured directly on to the decking.
Corrugated metal decking
used for roofs and floors • When used in roofing applications, this is the
base layer of a built up roof. It will be covered
with insulation, tar paper, rubber membrane,
and/or roofing tar.
• The ribs should run perpendicular to the joists.
• The seams do not need to meet over a joist. This
is hazardous for vent teams operating on the roof.
When cutting, the decking can give way when
cut across a seam. We can still ventilate, but
integrity should be checked after each cut.
• To prevent from cutting with seams surrounding
you, cut a diamond shape in the roof instead of a
square.
Slide A built up roof is made with a base of either
Built Up Roof
110 plywood or metal decking covered by a layer of
insulation, then several layers of tarpaper covered
by asphalt or a rubberized membrane.
• Fires in membrane and built up roofs can cause
fires in the spaces below by dropping molten tar
Over wood decking- Over metal decking-
and rubber onto the contents below.
commonly rigid insulation and
layers of tarpaper and asphalt
commonly rigid insulation
and a rubber membrane
• These roof coverings are not limited to type 2
buildings, they are common among types 1
through 4
Revision: 122315
Slide 111
OTHER CONSTRUCTION
CONCERNS
Slide 112
Flitch Plate Beams
• This is done to reinforce the beam and add
strength, allowing larger spans with fewer
A steel plate sandwiched columns.
between wood beams
• The sandwich is held together with carriage bolts.
• If these bolts fail because of heat and fire, the
beam will twist and fall catastrophically, taking all
of the floor joists with it.
Slide 113
Gasoline Shingles
• Called gasoline shingles, not because they contain
gasoline, but because their vertical arrangement on
Asphalt shingle siding the side of a building causes them to ignite and
spread rapidly.
May be concealed under

other layers of siding
Slide 114
Gasoline Shingle Video
• Video shows fire encompassing the gasoline
shingles on the “B” side of a 2 ½ story wood
frame.
• Original fire was self vented out 1 window but
quickly took over the siding.
Revision: 122315
Slide 115
Tilt Slab Concrete Walls
• Small metal brackets hold one panel to the next.
These can easily fail in fire conditions.
Pre-cast panels used in • The orange brackets are only temporary until all
walls and foundations
walls and roof members are in place.
• These panels rely on each other for support.
• If one fails, the others can be expected to fail.
• Serious collapse potential in buildings under
construction.
Slide 116
“Out-sulation”
• The foam has a low flame spread rating, but it
produces large amounts of dense black smoke.
Foam finishing and insulating
panels attached to the exterior • When arranged vertically, the flame spread
of a building
obviously increases.
Slide 117
False Roof / Rain Roof
• A roof added over an existing flat roof for the
purposes of shedding water & snow.
Peaked roof built over
an existing flat roof • The roof on the left has a few cues to the presence
of a rain roof 1- the chimney has been extended 2-
the metal fascia is still present from the built up
roof.
• Can often be a cheaper alternative than replacing a
complete flat roof.
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program • This creates a huge void space for fire to travel.
• Vertical ventilation to the occupied areas is
impossible.
Slide 118
Metal Roofing
• Metal roofs are becoming more popular,
especially in northern areas.
Presence may not
• Installed over wood sheathing.
be obvious • May be steel, copper, or aluminum.
• Found in thicknesses of up to .03 (three
hundredths of an inch).
• These can still be cut using an aggressive toothed
blade on a rotary type saw.
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program • Very slippery when wet.
Revision: 122315
Slide 119
Slate Roofing
• Adds increased load to the roof (between 1000
and 2000lbs. Per square (10’x10’area)). As fire
Typically 6” to 16” wide progresses in the attic space, the roof structure will
and ¼” to ½” thick
not be able to support the weight.
• Use a sledgehammer, flat head axe, or TNT tool to
smash the tiles. A wood saw will then be needed
to cut the decking underneath.
• The fork of a Halligan bar can be slid upward
under the tiles to break them free
• Very slippery when wet.
Slide 120
Ridge Vents
• Smoke issuing from ridge vents is a good
indicator that fire has traveled into the attic space.
2” to 4” wide vent traveling the
length of a peaked roof
• In the event of a saw failure, the attic space can be
vented by pulling off the ridge vent.
• A 4” gap over the length of a 40 foot roof has
roughly the same area as cutting a 4ft x 4ft hole.
• Lifting the ridge vent will reveal to the roof
firefighter if it is conventionally framed or of
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program lightweight construction.
• More on next slide
Slide 121
Ridge Vents
• Looking down from the removed ridge vent, it you
can see a piece of lumber spanning the entire peak
of the roof, it is ridge and rafter construction
• If you only see the tops of framing members ever
16”, then its truss
Slide 122
Drop / Suspended Ceilings
• Lowering ceiling height creates less space that
needs to be heated or cooled.
• These systems are often held up by light metal
tracks supported by aluminum or thin steel wires.
• Fire in these spaces can cause the ceiling to drop,
trapping firefighters (Charleston, SC.).
Panelized ceiling used to
• The wire and track material creates a large
lower ceiling height and
hide mechanicals
entanglement hazard.
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program • Rarely sprinklered above the ceiling.
• May hide other hazards above
• Some may provide a limited fire resistance rating
to the structural members above (provided they
are intact and in good shape).
Revision: 122315
Slide 123
Skylights
• A skylight on a steeply pitched roof will only
ventilate the upper living space
Returns and draft stops
must be removed
• On lower pitched and flat roofs, the sheetrock in
the return portion of the skylight must be removed
Provide quick ventilation
in order to ventilate the attic / cockloft space
to living space
May not adequately

ventilate attic spaces
Slide 124
Roof Pitch
12”
12
12” 12”
5 5”
The higher the number,

the steeper the roof
Slide 125
SPECIAL STAIR CONCERNS
Slide 126
Straight Stairs
• The simplest to advance hose lines up
No changes in direction
Revision: 122315
Slide 127
Return Stairs
• Spaces in between the staircases may provide
room for a “well hole stretch”
Landing half way between floors
Often confused
with scissor stairs
Adds a challenge
when stretching
hoselines
Slide 128
Scissor Stairs
• Scissor stairs enter each floor on opposite ends
• Recon can help determine the best staircase to use
2 Staircases in the same
staircase enclosure
for hose stretching
Slide 129
Wrap Around Stairs
• The rule of 50’ of hose per floor will not work
• Usually 60’-75’
Return style stairs that wrap
around an elevator shaft
Slide 130
Fire Escapes
• The presence of fire escapes is generally an
May have a drop
indicator that there is only 1 interior staircase
ladder or staircase
Generally service more

than 1 apartment
Revision: 122315
Slide 131
SPECIAL DOOR AND WINDOW

CONCERNS
Slide 132
Bilco Doors
• Forcible entry requires a saw
• Cut 3’ up from the bottom on the handle side of
the seam to cut the latch
Slide 133
Hurricane Glass
• Laminated type glass
• Often times it may be easier to attack the window
Should be expected frame than the glass
in shoreline homes
Found in windows and doors
Slide 134
ENERGY EFFICIENT
CONSTRUCTION
Revision: 122315
Slide 135
Structural Insulated Panels
• SIP’s are made by sandwiching a thick layer of
foam (5 ½” to 7 ½”) between two layers of OSB.
• There are no structural elements built into the
panel except at the seams. 2-by will be placed as
a splice at the seams.
• These panels will be on all exterior walls and
roofs.
• Excellent insulating properties.
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program • These homes are build air tight. Potential for back
draft is enormous.
• You may arrive at a fire in one of these and find
nothing showing.
• The OSB and the foam contribute significantly to
the fire load.
Slide 136
Concrete Insulated Panels
• Similar to SIP’s, but instead of OSB, sheets of
lightweight concrete surround the insulation.
• Usually use a denser type of insulation which
allows thinner panels.
• These homes will hold their heat and allow
superheating inside.
Slide 137
Double and Triple Pane Windows
• Inner panes may fail due to heat, but outer panes
hold.
• These windows can be extremely difficult to vent.
• If venting with a ground ladder, you can lay the
ladder in on it’s beam with some force and break
the glass.
Slide 138
Solar Panels
• At 30 to 50 pounds per panel, they can add an
unintended load to the roof.
• Use caution when working around them. Don’t
ever smash these panels. They produce up to 600
volts DC when strung together in series (24-48
volts each panel).
• They are always energized during daylight hours,
even on overcast days.
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program • Scene lights will NOT energize these panels.
• If you need to vent vertically, you may have to put
the hole in an area that is not optimum.
Revision: 122315
Slide 139
Insulated Flex Duct
• Fire will burn away the insulation, leaving a
“slinky” hanging from the ceiling
• This creates a huge entanglement hazard
Revision: 122315
Slide 140
BUILDINGS UNDER
CONSTRUCTION
Slide 141
Deutsche Bank Fire
• Two firefighters killed at this fire.
• Plastic sheeting and plywood for asbestos
Buildings under construction or demolition
present specific hazards
abatement created a heavy fire load and maze
like conditions.
• Standpipes were disabled, fire walls were non
existent, no compartmentalization, no working
elevators.
Deutsche Bank (NYC) 2 LODD 8/2007
Slide 142
Restricted Access
• Fences, construction equipment, and other
barriers can limit our access.
Slide 143
Deactivated Fire Protection
• Workers can intentionally disable alarm systems,
leaving occupants with no alarm systems
• Occupants may not be alerted to the presence of
fire
Revision: 122315
Slide 144
Blocked Access
• Exits may be blocked by equipment or materials
left on site.
Slide 145
Breached Walls
• Openings in wall can be made from adding or
removing plumbing, HVAC, or electrical work.
• Looters can breach the walls to remove copper
pipe for scrap
Slide 146
Arson
• Arson is a common occurrence, especially when
funding for the remodeling runs out.
Slide 147
Collapse
• Removed or temporary structural members can
fail causing early collapse.
• Snow loading can cause structural failure without
fire ever being present
Revision: 122315
Slide 148
BUILDING COLLAPSE
Slide 149
Age and Condition of the Building
• Old buildings have the potential to be remodeled
numerous times creating void spaces and
weaknesses throughout.
• Deteriorated structural members can fail earlier.
• Just because a building is old, does not mean its
weak
• If its old and unoccupied for a long period, then
its safe to assume that its integrity is
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program compromised
Slide 150
Previous Fire Damage
• Both fire damage and previous firefighting
efforts can decrease the structural integrity of a
building.
• Risk vs. benefit on whether to initiate another
interior attack on a building.
Slide 151
Cracks or Deteriorated Walls
• Over time, mortar can be worn out of walls from
weather. ¼” to 3/8” gaps are now formed
between each brick.
• The settling that occurs can seriously throw the
wall off balance.
Revision: 122315
Slide 152
Reinforced or Braced Walls
• As stated earlier, the presence of reinforcements
in walls does not necessarily equal instability,
however heat generated from a fire can cause
these wall ties to expand, allowing the walls to
lean outward.
• Remember steel expands 1” every 10’.
Slide 153
Indicators of Collapse
• The fact that smoke is coming through cracks in
Smoke issuing
masonry tells you that 1- the mortar is cracked /
from cracks
Cracked or
missing / damaged and that 2- something inside /
leaning walls
below/ above shifted causing the cracks.
Heavy volume of fire
for a prolonged period
Slide 154
Indicators of Collapse
• Doors that opened at the beginning of the
Prolonged application incident, but no longer move indicate a shift in
Twisted door frames of fire streams
the structure.
• Master streams put 8,000lbs of water per minute
Cracked glass into a building.
Sounds • Listen for any sounds that may indicate the
structure is shifting.
• Glass that has cracked can indicate that the
Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program structure has shifted.
Slide 155
Overloaded Structures
Avoid overloading roofs
with firefighters
Revision: 122315
Slide 156
BUILDING STYLES AND

LAYOUTS
Slide 157
Common Layouts
• The following slides go through common layouts
Certain styles of construction

have common layouts
Knowledge of these
layouts can help
speed searches
Slides
Ranch
• Click on the picture to link to a larger view
158-159
Slides
Cape
160-161
Revision: 122315
Slides
Raised Ranch
162-163
Slides
Split Level Ranch
164-165
Slides
Bungalow
166-167
Slides
Colonial
168-169
Revision: 122315
Slides
2 ½ vs. 3 Decker
170-172 3 Deckers typically
2 ½ story frame homes have have flat or low
steep roofs (10-12 pitch) pitch roofs
Slides
2 ½ Frame
173-175
Slides
3 Frame (3 Decker)
176-177
Slide
3 ½ Frame
178-179
Revision: 122315
Slides
Brownstone
180-181
Slides
Duplex
182-183
Slides
Triplex
184-185
Slides
Garden Apartment
186-187
Revision: 122315
Slides
Condos
188-192
Slides
Apartments
193-197
Slides
Converted Homes
198-199 • This 2 ½ wood frame actually has 12 apartments
in it!
• 2 basement, 4 on the 1st floor, 4 on the 2nd floor,
and 2 on the 3rd floor
Slides
Taxpayers
200-204
Revision: 122315
Slides
Strip Malls
205-207
Revision: 122315

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The Connecticut Fire Academy Unit 7

Recruit Firefighter Program Chapter 7 Building Construction

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program 1

Slide 3 Start a discussion on why Brannigan’s statement is

Slide 4 Homeowners and “fly-by-night” contractors often

This program focuses on the

Pre-incident surveys, pre-plans,

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Slide 5 As stated in NFPA 220.

Relates to one of the five NFPA

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Slide 7 Students don’t need to memorize these, just

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Allows large spans

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Slide 13 Expansion can cause exterior walls to fail.

Expands 1” for every 10’ at

Slide 14 Concrete alone can only be used support loads in

Found in floors, foundations,

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Slide 15 Spalling is caused by the expansion of the moisture

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Slide 16 When the heat levels are enough to fail the

Not an effective barrier

Slide 19 An initial radio report from a first arriving company

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Slide 22 Some combustible finishes are for interior finishes,

Slide 23 This fireproofing provides up to 4 hours of fire

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Slide 25 HVAC systems in fire resistive buildings are

Slide 26 No building is fireproof.

Slide 27 Picture is from a hotel fire in Las Vegas in 2008

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Structural members made

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Slide 30 Steel columns and beams as well as metal studs are

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Slide 31 Understand that just because a building is a type 2,

Often made using lightweight

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Slide 32 Uncontrolled fire in any Type 2 building can and

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Slide 33 Often times, loads are added to roofs after

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Slide 36 Generally early to mid- 1900’s construction.

Floor and roof joists sit in

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Slide 38 Due to the age of these buildings, most have been

Primary concern is fire

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Slide 39 This is a tin ceiling found under a suspended ceiling.

Remodels may use

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program

Connecticut Fire Academy – Recruit Program