GENERAL EDUCATION COMPONENT

ENGLISH

PARTS OF SPEECH

Parts of speech is used to describe the mechanism of the language, in other words, the
grammar which is defined as the art of speaking and writing the language correctly
according to the rules in general. The parts of speech are noun, pronoun, verb,
adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection.

NOUN

Nouns are names of persons, places, events, things, or ideas. Example: lawyer,
province, table, New Year, freedom.

Kinds of Nouns

1. Proper nouns – are specific and written in capital letter.

 Example: Danica, Atty. Dined, Christmas, Taft Ave.

2. Common nouns – are general.

 Example: house, girl, street, teacher, country

3. Collective nouns – name groups

 Example: team, crowd, organization

4. Mass nouns – cannot be counted.

 Example: hair, sugar, water, sand, stars

5. Concrete nouns exist in the physical world

 Example: flower, moon, chair, bag, bottle

6. Abstract nouns – refer to ideas and feelings.

 Example: love, independence, honesty, faith

Number of Nouns

 Singular – refers to one noun.

 Plural – refers to two or more nouns.

Rules in forming the plural of nouns:

1. Most nouns add s to the singular form.

 Ex.: boy + s = boys, room + s = rooms

2. Nouns ending in a hissing sound (s, chi, she, x or z) add is.

 Ex.: box – boxes, church – churches, match – matches, dish – dishes

3. Most nouns ending in f or fee change f to vet before adding s.

 Ex.: calf – calves, knife – knives, leaf – leaves

4. Most nouns ending y preceded by a consonant sound usually change y to i

and add es.

 Ex.: city – cities, lady – ladies, reply – replies

5. Nouns ending in y after a vowel, add s.

 Ex.: key – keys, alley – alleys, monkey – monkeys

6. Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es.

 Ex. : cargo – cargoes, tomato – tomatoes, hero – heroes

7. A few very common nouns add en or change the vowel or remain unchanged.

 Ex.: ox – oxen, child – children, sheep – sheep

 8. Most compound nouns, add s or es to the principal words of the compound.

 Ex.: bookcase – bookcases, handful – handfuls, runner-up – runners-up

9. Some nouns function collectively.

 Ex.: information, battalion, artillery, furniture, equipment, jewelry

Cases of Nouns

1. Nominative – used as the subject, noun of address, predicate noun or

appositive. Examples:

a. Danica looks pretty in her red dress.

b. Celine, come and get your toys.

c. The winner in the oratorical contest in Czarina.

d. Dr. Dioneda, our new professor discusses the lesson well.

2. Objective – used as direct object, indirect object, or object of the

preposition. Examples:

a. The students are playing basketball.

b. Charles sent Lourdes a love letter

c. The concert was held in the part.

3. Possessive – used to show ownership or possession. Examples:

a. Mother’s bag is colorful

b. The house’ gate is newly painted

PRONOUNS

A pronoun is a substitute for nouns. Examples: he, she, they, ours, those.

Antecedent of the pronoun – the noun to which a pronoun refers. A pronoun must agree
with its antecedent in gender, person, and number.

Kinds of Pronouns

1. Demonstrative pronoun. Examples:

 This (singular) – used to point near object.

 These (plural) – used to point near objects.

 That (singular) – used to point far object.

 Those (plural) – used to point far objects.

2. Indefinite pronoun. Examples:

 singular – any, anybody, anyone, nobody, no one, anyone,

anything, each, everyone, one, someone, somebody, every, either,
neither, everything

 plural – all some, few, both, several, many

3. Interrogative pronoun – who, which, what, whom, whose, whoever, whomever

VERB

A verb expresses action or state of being.

Ex. yell, interpret, feel, are

 Forms of Verb

N s, No d/ed, No ing.

1. The base-form educate, learn, write

2. The S-form for third person singular noun or pronoun; educates, learns, writes

3. The ing-form or present participle; educating, learning, writing

4. The past form; educated, learned, wrote

Kinds of Verb

1. Regular verbs form their past tense by the addition of d, or ed to the base
form. They have the same form both for the past tense and past participle.

Linking verbs in sentences:

1. My favorite color is red.

2. He looks great in black.

3. My friend became famous.

Tense

Tense means time

Present tense. A verb is in the present tense if:

a. The sentence expresses a permanent action.

 Ex.The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

b. It shows habitual action.

 Ex. He goes to church every Sunday.

c. It expresses an on-going action.

 Ex. The students are researching in the library now.

Past tense. A verb is in the past tense if it expresses a completed action.

Ex.: They transferred to a new building yesterday.

She gave alms to the beggar.

Nica recited the poem well.

Future tense. A verb is in the future tense if it expresses an action that is yet to be
done.

It is a verb phrase using the auxiliary verbs will/shall + the simple form of the
verb.

Ex.: Will you visit me tonight?

They will pass their projects next week.

I shall return.

Am / is / are + going to also expresses future tense.

Ex.: I am going to Baguio.

The friends are going to perform on stage.

ADJECTIVES

Adjectives are words that describe, limit or modify nouns and pronouns.

Ex.: warm, quick, tall, blue, interesting

Adjectives answer the questions “Which one?”, “What kind?” and “How many?”

The Uses of Adjectives

1. A noun modifier is usually placed directly before the noun it describes.

Ex.: He is an intelligent man.

2. A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and modifies the subject.

Ex.: He is happy.

The movie seems interesting.

3. An article or noun marker are other names for these adjectives: a, an,

the Ex.: Dorothy was given an apple.

The teacher is awarded for her meritorious performance.

The new born is a baby boy.

Kinds of Adjective

1. Indefinite Adjective: some, many, much, several, few, a few, a great deal of little, a
little.

a. With countable nouns: Ex. I have (many, several, few) books at home.

b. With uncountable nouns: Ex. I have (much, a great deal, little) information
on history.

c. With both plural countable and uncountable nouns. Ex. He has (some, a
lot of, enought) money.

d. The indefinite adjectives much, many, little and few may be modified by
too and very. Ex. You are making too much noise.

2. Numerals: one two, three, etc., are cardinal numbers.

Ex. He gave me three roses.

While numerals like first, second, third, etc., are called ordinal numbers.

Ex. We will discuss the third chapter.

3. Descriptive adjectives: new, tall, blue, charming.

Ex. The charming woman is my aunt.

4. Proper adjective: Filipino flag, English language, Persian carpet, etc.

Ex. Persian carpets are on sale at the mall.

5. Nouns that modify nouns: oak, paper, etc.

Ex. Here is your history book.

6. Phrases and clauses that modify nouns:

Ex. The girl watching television is my sister.

7. A clause modifying a noun is usually introduced by a relative pronoun: that,

which, who, whom, whose and where.

Ex. The man who is driving the car is my father.

ADVERB
An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Ex. fast, slowly, well, very

Adverbs answer the questions, “How?”, “Where?”, “When?”, “How often?” and “To what
degree?”

Adverbs should not be used to modify nouns.

Kinds of Adverb

1. Adverb of Manner (how)

Ex. He spoke (poorly, fluently,slowly).

Written Exercise: Change the following adjectives to adverbs by adding ly.

1. slow 6. careful

2. merry 7. courageous

3. graceful 8. weak

4. quick 9. easy

5. quiet 10. neat

2. Adverb of time (when)

Ex. He is coming (tomorrow, next week, next month, tonight).

Written Exercise: Underline the time expression used in each of the following
sentences.

1. The doctor will check him up very soon.

2. Are you going to Baguio this summer?

3. I could not sleep well lately.

4. The students complained about their grades last week.

5. They will spend their vacation in Baguio in April

6. My sister will see the dentist later on.

7. He hopes to finish college next year.

8. It rained hard last night.

9. Mother is baking a cake right now.

10. Yoly is happy all this morning.

3. Adverb of place (where)

 Ex.: Let us meet in the restaurant.

The concert will be in the park.

4. Adverb of frequency (how often)

Ex. He writes to him (daily, regularly, weekly).

5. Adverb of negation/affirmation

Ex. Yes, no, not, never, always, absolutely definitely

CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions connect words or group of words.

Ex. and, but, or, for, yet, therefore, also, however, because, so that, as long as

Ex. I will love you as long as the grass shall grow.

PREPOSITION

Preposition shows the relation between a word and a noun or pronoun that follows. It
indicates:

a. place and position – at, in, across, above, below, between, behind, beyond

b. direction and motion – in, towards, out, about, around, through, by, down, over

c. time – at, before, after, during, since, until

Ex. I have been waiting for your call since last week.

INTERJECTION

Interjection expresses emotion, acts as a signal, or adds a conversational touch. It

usually ends with an exclamation point.

Ex. ouch! , what! , wow! , hurray!

Ex. Hurray! Ginebra won the game.

VERBALS

Verbals are used as modifiers or nouns in the subject, object, predicate complement or
object of a preposition.

Three Kinds of Verbal

 1. Infinitive – to + the simple form of the verb (no s, no d, or ed, no ing)

Ex. To speak is necessary to improve one’s English.

2. Gerund – verb + ing

Ex. Speaking is necessary to improve one’s English.

3. Participle is a word that is formed from a verb and used as an adjective.

Ex. Speaking English always, she acquired the mastery of the language.

THE USE OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

Since literature makes use of effective and affective language. It is proper for the
literature teacher to master the various types of figurative language.

However, it is not enough that he can identify them, he must be able to explain and
justify their use whether in prose or poetry, even in everyday, casual discourse. In
literature, the suggestive power of words give the writer the opportunity to create the
nuances, the connotations, the texture, emotions, the tone color ang the overtones
imbedded in figurative language.

Types of Figures of Speech

The following are the most commonly accepted and often used figures of speecs
its literature – oral and written.
1. Simile –A stated comparison between two unlike things or persons that
have something in common using “like” or “As”.

Ex.Her smile is as mysterious as Mona Lisa’s.

2. Metaphor – an implied comparisomn between two person or thins that

are unlike in most respects the words like or as are left out.
3. Personification – ging human quality to inanimate objects or abstract things.

Ex. The flowers dance in the garden.

4. Metonymy – consists in the naming of a thing by one of its attributes.

Ex. The crown prefers taxes from the underlings to support his expenses

5. Synecdoche – substituting a part for a whole, an individual for a class or a

 material for the things.

Ex.many squatters dream of roofs over their heads.

6. Hyperbole – An exaggeration used for artistic effect.

Ex. Thanks a million.

7. Litotese – A deliberate understantement used to affirm by negating its

opposite.

Ex. Edgar Allan Poe is no mean writer.

8. Irony – the use of a word to signify the opposite of its literal meaning.

There are three types of irony:

(a) Irony of situation, when the result differs from what is expected; (b)

Verbal irony, which is actually veiled sarcasm; and © dramatic irony, the author’s
intended meaning differs from the characters expectation.

Ex. You’re so beautiful; you look like a Christmas tree!

9. Oxymoron – Putting together in one statement two contradictory terms.

Ex. The sound of silence is indeed, deafening.

10. Periphasis – The substitution of a descriptive phrase for a name or Vice -

versa.

Ex. The sleeping Giant has broken ties with its neighbors.

11. Apostrophe – An address to (a) dead person as though he were alive; (b) an

Absent person as thought he were present, © an inanimate object as though it were

animate.

Ex. Ninoy, you’re not alone!

12. Climax – The arrangement of words or idead according to their degree of

importance; thus, the last set appears most valuable.

Ex.” I came, I saw, I conquered.” (Julius Caesar)

13. Anti-Climax – A real apparent or ludicrous decrease in the importance or

impressiveness of what is said. Opposed to climax.

Ex. He lost his shoelace, his house charred to ashes, his wife even
 Abandoned him.

14. Anti-Thesis – Equating or balancing two opposing ideas.

Ex. There is a time to sow and there is a time to reap.

15. Parallelism or Juxtaposition – Placing two comparable ideas side by side.

Ex. “Yea! Though I walk in the valley of the shadow of death, I shall fear
no evil. Thy rod and thy stuff thy comfort me.”

16. Pun – A play on words with humorous, witty effects.

Ex. House’s everything for all Filipinos

17. Paradox – A seemingly, contradictoty but true example.

Ex. There is a grief in happiness.

PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
Pre-Spanish Period – oral

- Own literature that reflects our own race

- Shows our customs & traditions in evereday life

- Own alphabet known as baybayin

- Records were written on leaves & bamboo cylinder, bark of

trees and caves

- Legend , folk tales, epics, folk songs , riddles, chants, proverbs

& sayings

- Epics –Hudhod & Alim- Ifugao

1. Ybalon – Bikolano

2. Biag ni Lam-Ang – Ilokano

3. Bidasari – Muslim
Spanish Period

- Alibata was replaced by Roman alphabet

- Teachings of the Christian Doctrine became the basis of

 religious practices

- Spanish language gave many of its words to our language

- European legends & traditions were assimilated in our

songs, corridos, Moro-Moro

- Ancient literature was collected & translated to Tagalog &

other dialects

- Grammar books were printed in Filipino

- Periodicals gained a religious tone

First Books

Doctrina Christiana – first book printed in the Phil. In 1593

-written by Fr. Juan de Placencia & Fr. Domingo Nieva

Barlaan at Josephat – first Tagalog novel published in the Philippines.

Pasion – life & sufferings of Jesus Christ

Urbana at Felisa – book by Modesto de Castro (Father of Classic Prose in Tagalog)

- Letters between two sisters dealing with good behavior.

Vocabulario Dela Lengua Tagala – first Tagalog dictionary by Fr. Pedro de San
Buenaventura

Recreational Plays

1. Tibag – search of St. Helena for the cross on which Jesus died.

2. Cenaculo – dramatic performance to commemorate the passion & death

of Jesus Christ

3. Panunuluyan – presentation of the search of Virgin Mary & St. Joseph for
an inn to deliver the baby Jesus

4. Salubong – Easter play that dramatizes the meeting of the Risen Christ &
his mother.

5. Zarzuela – father of drama musical comedy/melodrama dealing with

man’s passions & emotions.
 6. Moro-moro – play about the fighting between Moros & Christians

7. Duplo/Karagatan – played during wakes for the dead

-princess who dropped her ring in the middl of the sea

8. Balagtasan – Debate in poetic verse; created during the

American Colonization of the Philippines.

9. Awit – Metrical romance that is sung or said in fast beat. Subject is

mostly about legends and fantasy.
Corrido or metrical romance that tackles in narrative form the life and adventures of persons.
Period of Enlightenment – nationalism

- Filipinos demanded changes in the government and in the church.

1. Propaganda Movement – leaders

Jose Rizal, Marcelo del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena

A. Jose Rizal – Laong Laan & Dimasalang

-Noli and Fili

B. Marcelo H. del Pilar – Plaridel, pupdoh, Piping Dilat and

Dolores Manapat

- Pag- ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa, Dasalan at Tuksuhan

C. Graciano Lopez Jaena

- first magazine – La Solidaridad

- Ang Fray Botod

D. Other Propagandists

-Antonio Luna, Mariano Ponce, Pedro Paterno (Ninay-first social

novel im Spanish by a Filipino, Jose Panganiban.

Period of Active Revolution

- Reforms demanded by propagandists were not given attention

- No other way except to revolt

Leaders were Andres Bonifacio – father of Filipino Democracy, Father of Katipunan (KKK),
Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa

- Emilio Jacinto- Brains of the Katipunan, Katrilya ng

Katipunan, Liwanag at dilim

- Apolinario Mabini – Sublime Paralytic brains of the Revolution

- Jose Palma – Phil. National Anthem

- Emilio Jacinto- Brains of the Katipunan, Katrilya ng

Katipunan, Liwanag at dilim

- Apolinario Mabini – Sublime Paralytic brains of the Revolution

- Jose Palma – Phil. National Anthem

POLITICAL SCIENCE

The Elements of the State

The following are the elements of the state:

People – It refers simply to the inhabitants of the State.
Territory – It is the fixed portion of the surface of the earth inhabited by the people of
the State. The national territory of the Philippines is comprised of the following;

1. The Philippine archipelago with all the islands and waters embraced therein.
2. All the other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or
jurisdiction, consisting of its terrestrial, fluvial and aerial domains, including its
territorial sea, the seabed, the subsoil and other submarine areas; and
3. The waters around, between, and connecting the islands of the
archipelago, regardless of their breadth and dimensions, form part of the internal
waters of the Philippines.

Government – It is the agency or instrumentality through which the will of the

State is Formulated, exressed and realized. The government of the Republic of the
Philippines is composed of the Following:

1. National Government- refers to the entire machinery of the government.

2. Local Governments – refer to the political subdivisions such as
provinces, ceties, municipalities, and barangays.
3. Autonomous Regions – refers to the autonomous governments or regions
 in the country.
4. Metropolitan Authority – refers to the special political subdivisions
composed of all local fgovernment units comprising Metro Manila.
Sovereignty – is the supreme power of the state to enforce its will upon the people and the
freedom from external or foreign control.
List of Philippine Presidents

1. Emilio Aguinaldo (January 23, 1899 – April 1, 1901)

2. Manuel L. Quezon (November 15, 1935 – August 1, 1944)
3. Jose P. Laurel (October 14, 1943 – August 17, 1945)
4. Sergio Osmeña (August 1, 1944 – May 26, 1946)
5. Manuel A. Roxas (May 26, 1946 – April 15, 1948)
6. Elpidio Quirino (April 17, 1948 – December 30, 1953)

7. Ramon Magsaysay (December 30, 1953 – March 17, 1957)

8. Carlos Garcia (March 18, 1957 – December 30, 1961)
9. Diosdado Macapagal (December 30, 1961 – December 30 1965)
10. Ferdinand Marcos (December 30, 1965 – February 25, 1986)
11. Corazon Aquino (Febuary 25, 1986 – June 30, 1992)
12. Fidel Ramos (June 30, 1992 – June 30, 1998)
13. Jose Ejercito Estrada (June 30, 1998 – January 20, 2001)
14. Gloria Arroyo (January 20, 2001 – June 30, 2010)
15. Benigno Simeon Aquino, III (July 1, 2010 – June 30, 2016)
16. Rodrigo Roa Duterte (July 1, 2016 – June 30, 2022)

List of Philippine Vice Presidents

1. Mariano Trias (January 23, 1899 – April 1, 1901)

2. Sergio Osmeña (November 15, 1935 – August 1, 1944)
3. Benigno Aquino Sr. and Ramon Avancena (October 14, 1943 – August 17, 1945)
4. Elpidio Quirino (May 26, 1946 – April 15, 1948)
5. Fernando Lopez (April 17, 1948 – December 30, 1953)
6. Carlos Gacria (December 30, 1953 – March 17, 1957)
7. Diosdado Macapagal (March 18, 1957 – December 30, 1961)
8. Emmanuel Pelaez (December 30, 1961 – December 30, 1965)
9. Fernando Lopez (1965 – 1969 and 1969 – 1972)
10. Salvador Laurel (Febuary 25, 1986 – June 30, 1992)

11. Jose Ejercito Estrada (June 30, 1992 – June 30, 1998)
12. Gloria Arroyo (June 30, 1998 – January 20, 2001)
13. Teofisto Guingona (January 20, 2001 – June 30, 2004)
14. Manuel De Castro (July 1, 2004 – June 30, 2010)
15. Jejomar Binay (July 1, 2010 – June 30, 2016)
16. Maria Leonor Robredo (July 1, 2016 – June 30, 2022)
LIST OF PROVINCES

As of December 31, 2017 there are 17 regions, 81 provinces, 144 cities, 1490
municipalities and 42029 barangays

Region I (Ilocos Region) Region II (Cagayan Valley)

Ilocos Norte Batanes
Ilocos Sur Cagayan
La Union Isabela
Pangasinan Nueva
Vizcaya
Quirino

REGION III (Central Luzon) REGION VIII (Eastern

Visayas) Aurora Eastern Samar
Bataan Leyte
Bulacan Northern Samar
Nueva Ecija Samar (Western Samar)
Pampanga Southern Leyte
Tarlac Biliran
Zambales

REGION IV (Southern Tagalog) REGION IX (Zamboanga Peninsula)

Region IV A-CALABARZON Zamboanga Del Norte
Cavite Zamboanga Del Sur
Laguna Zamboanga Sibugay
Batangas
Rizal
Quezon REGION X (Northern Mindanao)
Bukidnon
REGION IV B-MIMAROPA Camiguin
Occidental Mindoro Lanao Del Norte
Oriental Mindoro Misamis Occidental
Marinduque Misamis
Oriental Romblon
Palawan REGION XI (Davao Region)
Davao Del Norte
REGION V (Bicol Region) Davao Del Sur
Albay Davao Oriental
Camarines Norte
Camarines Sur Davao Occidental
Catanduanes Compostela Valley
Masbate
Sorsogon REGION XII (SOCCSKSARGEN)
South Cotabato
REGION VI (Western Visayas) Sultan Kudarat
Aklan Cotabato (North Cotabato)
Antique Sarangani
Capiz
Guimaras
 Ilo-Ilo
Negros Occidental
REGION XIII (Caraga)
Agusan Del Norte
REGION VII (Central Visayas) Agusan Del Sur
Bohol Surigao Del Norte
Cebu Surigao Del Sur
Negros Oriental Dinagat
Islands Siquijor

CAR- Cordillera Administrative NCR-NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION

Region City of Manila Municipality City

Abra Quezon City Las Piñas City

Benguet Caloocan City Parañaque City
Pasig City San Juan City
Ifugao Pasay City Taguig City
Kalinga Makati City Pateros
Mountain Province Mandaluyong City Navotas City
Apayao Marikina City Valenzuela City
Malabon City
ARMM – Autonomous Region in
Muslim Mindanao
Basilan
Lanao Del Sur
Maguindanao
Sulu
Tawi-Tawi
 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION COMPONENT
FACILITATING LEARNING, CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
This subject deals with the nature of the learner as the basis of the teaching-
learning process. It tackles the growth and development of the child in a life spam
approach.

COMPONENTS OF THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS

1. Learner

2 Teacher (involved in the learning process)

3. School (the learning situation)

THE BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATION

The Beginning of Life

Life begins at the moment of conception – the time when a reproductive cell of
the female (ovum, plural ova) is fertilized by a male reproductive cell the spermatozoon
(spermatozoa, plural).This is approximately 280 days before birth.

Within each sex cell (sperm/egg) there are 23 chromosomes. They are threadlike
particles which contain between 40,000 and 60,000 genes. The genes contain the DNA
and RNA which are considered as blueprint of life and transmitters of hereditary
characteristics traits from the parents to the offsprings.

Sex Determination
All the female gametes carry X chromosomes, while half of the male gametes
carry the X chromosomes and the other half carry the Y chromosomes.

If the X bearing spermatozoon unites with the ovum, it will result to XX

combination and the sex of the child is female.

And if the Y bearing spermatozoon unites with the ovum, it will result to XY combination
and the sex of the child is male.

Multiple Birth/Twins

The term multiple birth refers to the birth of two or more babies within a few hours
or days. There are two types of twin births – the identical and fraternal twins.

The identical or uniovular twins come from a single ovum fertilized by a single sperm
cell.

Some times, it happens that at the time of the first division of the cell the new cell
separates instead of remaining together. Why the speration occurs, no one knows for
certain, but there are evidence that it is a result of hormonal disturbances.
 Non-identical, biovular or fraternal twins on the other hand, are the products of
two ova fertilized simultaneously by two separate sperm cells.

FACTORS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

The factors affecting the growth and development of the individual are:

Heredity – the process by which the new organism is endowed with certain
potentials (inherited from the parents) for his later development. Maturation on the other
hand is the process by which heredity exerts influence long after birth.

Environmental influence – interaction between an individual’s inherited traits

his surroundings and his nurture.

PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
Phylogenetic principle – states that development follows an orderly sequence
which is predictable and is true to all members of certain race.

Predictable trends of development

Cephalocaudal trend – development proceed from head to foot direction

Proximodistal trend – the parts of the body nearest the center (i.e.) are the
parts which develop earlier.

Ex. The baby can see first before he can walk.

Ontogenetic principle – the rate of development is unique to every individual. It is
brought about by one’s heredity as well as environmental influences.

Ex. Though both children are of the same age, one might talk earlier than the
other.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Hereunder are the stages of development that an individual passes through in his
lifetime:

1. Pre-natal Stage – from conception (when the ovum is fertilized by

the spermatozoon producing a zygote or fertilized egg) to the time of birth.
 2. Infancy/babyhood (birth to two years)
It is the foundation age when basic behavior patterns are organized and
many ontogenetic skills emerge.

3. Earcly Childhood (two to six years)

It is characterized as pre-gang, exploratory and questioning age. Language
and elementary reasoning are acquired and initial socialization is experienced.

4. Late Childhood (six to twelve years)

Gang age, age of creativity, development of social, self help, play and
school skill.
5. Adolescence (thirteen to nineteen years)
Transition age from childhood to adulthood when sex maturation and rapid
physical development occurs resulting to changes in ways of feeling, thinking
and acting.

6. Early adulthood (nineteen to forty years)

Age of adjustment to new patterns of life and new roles such as spouse, parent
and bread winner.

7. Middle age (forty to retirement)

Transition age when adjustments to initial physical and mental decline are
experienced.

8. Old age (retirement to death)

Increasing rapid physical and mental decline. Psychological as well as physical illnesses are
experienced.

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

The following are the major theories of development:

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY (psycho-sexual development)

This was advocated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), an Austrian psychiatrist

who believed that a person’s behavior can be motivated by strong unconscious drive
or urges toward self-satisfaction.

Stages of Development Based on the Psychoanalytic Theory

A. Oral stage (birth to two years)

- Mouth is the center of pleasure

- Failure to satisfy this stage will result later to smoking and other
vices involving the mouth.

B. Anal stage (two to four years old)

 -anal region is the center of pleasure

-gains pleasure in the elimination of bowel

-failure to satisfy this will result to:

1. Frugality (stinginess)

2. Greediness

3. Obstinate/stubborn character

C. Phallic stage (four to six years old)

This is derived from the Greek work “PHALLUS” which means male sex organ (symbol
of strength and power) derives pleasure from the manipulation of sex organs

Oedipus complex – rivalry between the son and the father to get the
mother’s attention

Electra complex – rivalry between the daughter and the mother to get the
father’s attention

D. Latency stage (six to twelve years old)

-Calm stage

- Conflicting feelings are confined in the sub-conscious mind

- Energies are diverted to school and peer activities

E. Genital Stage (twelve years old and above

-Starts with the onset of puberty

- The individual is now attracted to the opposite sex

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

This is based on Lev Vygotsky’s ideas. Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896 and
is responsible for the social development theory of learning.

He proposed that social interaction profoundly influences cognitive development.

He belIeved that this life long process of development was dependent on social interaction and
that social learning actually leads to cognitive development.

- Cognitive development and language are shaped by a person’s interaction with other

- Children’s knowledge, values and attitudes develop through interaction with other

- Social interactions that assist in learning increase a child’s level of thinking.

 - Students will learn best through activity.

- Students should be encouraged to communicate frequently with self and with

teacher.

PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY
This theory was advocated by Erik Erikson, who identified eight basic
developmental stages that the individual has to pass through in his life.

Each of these stage has a specific psychosocial crisis that affects the development of
the child.

A. Stage 1 (0-18 months)

- Trust vs. mistrust

- The child trust those who care for her and mistrust a stranger

B. Stage II (18 months to 3years old)

-Learns to walk and use his hands

- If encouraged, develops autonomy

If discouraged and punished harshly and excessively the child develops dependence and
shame, doubt, self pity
C. Stage III (3 to 6 years old)

- begins to explore his social and physical world, discovering what he

can accomplish aware of various social roles imitates adult’s behavior

- When punished develops sense of guilt

- The family is responsible for the child’s behavior and action

D. Stage IV (6 to 12 years old)

- Child’s world broadens – neighborhood/school

- Technical skills are learned

- Peer group influence

- Identification and/or separation with sexes

- Play age

- When the child cannot accomplish the expectations from him, he develops a
sense of inferiority

E. Stage V (12 to 18 years old)

- Identity crisis –always asking who am I?
 -Struggles with society’s demands and physical changes in his body

-Peer group becomes an essential source of rules of behavior

F. Stage VI (18-24 years old)

- Age of intimacy

- Develops warm intimate relation with anither person and failure to

develop such a relationship results to isolation

G. Stage VII (24 to 54 years old)

- The most productive years of adulthood

- The individual’s worth is dependent on his contribution to family and society

H. Stage VIII (54 to death)

- The individual comes to the temporal limits of his life

- The period of achievement and sense of integrity

-Failure to achieve one’s goals results to regret and despair

- Fear of the end of life

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (intellectual development)

This theory was advocated by Jean Piaget, who believed that a child enters the
world lacking virtually all the basic cognitive competencies of the adult, and gradually
develops these competencies by passing through a series of stages of development
discussed hereunder.

Cognitive Development Process

Assimilation – (Latin “ad” - to + “similes”– like) absorb as part of itself.

The individual acquires information or knowledge by which experiences

are integrated into existing schemes
Accomodation – a process of creating a new scheme by modifying an existing
scheme after an individual’s interaction with the environment.

Stages of Development Based on Piagaet’s Theory

1. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (birh to 2yeas) – learning is based on

sense perception

- The child is unaware of his environment

This stage is also characterized by the following events that happen to the child

A. Primary circular reaction – repeated actions centered on the infant’s body.

Ex. thumb sucking

B. Intentional Behavior – the child repeats actions so as to

prolong interesting/pleasant events

Ex. Crying to attract attention

C. Object Permanence – knowledge of the existence of objects in his

environment, independent of the child’s actions emerges such that the child start
to search for missing objects like toy’s etc.

D. Representation – allows the child to seek necessary solution

through manipulating of internal symbols instead of physical objects.
Ex. trial and error to solve the problem, manipulation of toys

2. PRE-OPERATIONS STAGE (2 to 7 years)

- Emergence of language skills

- Interprets experiences

- Words become symbols for objects

The child thinking is ecgocentric – centered on himself.

Ex. The child is fond of telling tall tales to get the attention of everyone

The child’s thinking is irreversible – inability to rethink

Ex. Coins are preferred than a 100 peso bill. The child is incapable of logical
thinking

3. CONCRETE OPERATIONS (7- 11 years old)

-Elementary school years

-The child begins to learn symbol and concepts, time, space, shape, size etc.

- The child’s thinking becomes more logical and systematic

Major Events

Conservation – is the ability of the child to conceptualize the retention and

preservation of the same quantity under various transformations
 Ex. four .50 coins – Php2.00

1kg. nail = 1kg. Cotton

Reversibility- is the ability of the child to understand the completion of certain

operations in reverse order but ending up the same.

Ex. Ability to understand that ice and water vapor are the diferent states of water

4. FORMAL OPERATION (11 to 16 years old – high school years)

- develops logical reasoning skill

- decreases egocentricity

THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

This theory was advocated by Laurence Kohlberg, who believed that as Children
grow they pass through several levels of moral development consisting of different
stages which setve as the bases of their behavior as adults.

LEVEL ONE (Pre-Conventional Morality)

- Childrens judgements are based on external criteria

- Right and wrong are according to standards set by authorities

Stage one
- Behavior is based on reward and punishment

- Wrong behavior results to punishment

- Right behavior results to reward and praises

LEVEL TWO (Conventional Morality)

- Childrens judgement is based on Groups expectations

Stage two

- Actions are based on self-satistfaction

- Helps those who help him

Stage three

- Desirable behavior pleases others

- Conform to rules of the group to remain accepted

Stage four
- What is right is what is accepted

- Conforms to the rules to avoid disapproval

LEVEL THREE (Post-Conventional Morality)

 - The individual recognizes arbitrariness (absoluteness) of social and
legal conventions

- The individual develops concept of moral values

Stage five
- Laws are obligatory (dura lex sed lex)

- The concept of right and wrong is governed by reasons

Stage six
- Morality is based on mutual respect

The individual conforms to the rules to avoid self condemnation

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Refers to the idea that no two individuals are exactly the same or alike, as such,
the teacher should make it a point tutelage.

Factors Affecting Individual Differences

Although it is said that all men are created equal, yet individuals do vary and
differ from one another in terms of:

1. Age differences and personal adjustments

An infant cannot perform the tasks of elementary school pupils though the child is
intelligent.

2. Sex differences

- Boys are given roles in the society defferent from the girls

- Boys are characterized by fearlessness, aggreesiveness and are expected

to perform burdensome activities

- Girls on the other hand are characterized by neatness, simplicity and for
being affectionate

3. Family and community back groud

4. Physical condtions Physical ailment/defects affect the learning process

5. Emotional response and attitudes (E.Q.)

6. Mental abilities and specific aptitudes (I.Q.)

Mental Age (determined by a test)

IQ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - X 10

Chronological age (actual age)

Lewis Terman of England is considered as the father of Modern IQ Test.

I.Q. Descriptions Persons

140+ Genius .25% more males than females

130-139 Very Superior .75%

120-129 Superior 6.00%

110 – 119 A bove Average 13.00%

90-109 Average (Normal) 60.00%

80-89 Below Average 13.00%

70-79 Dull (borderline) 6.00%

50-69 Moron .75%

49 below Imbecile/Idiot .25% more males than females (

(Feebleminded)

Moron – capable of caring for his own needs

- has mentality of a 12 year old child

Idiot – has a mental capacity of a 4 years old child

- has a short life span

Imbecile – can be taught concerning his personal needs

- has a mental capacity of an eight year old child

THE LEARNING PROCESS

 Learning is a mental activity wherein knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes and
ideals are acquired, retained and utilized, resulting in the progressive adaptation and
modification of conduct and behavior (Bugelskie, 1956).

In so far as the behaviorists are concerned, learning is any change in the behavior of
the organism.

TYPES OF LEARNING

Learning is classified into:

Sensory-motor – understanding of the external world through sense perception.

Development of movements as a reaction to stimuli.

1. Cognitive – rational/mental/intellectual development

Association learning – acquisition and retention of facts and information

Establishing relationships among ideas and experiences

Problem-solving – overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere with the

attainment of a goal.

2. Affective (Appreciative) involves acquisition of attitudes and interest as

well as experiences that will lift the individual above the tangible values associated
with everyday life.

Aesthetic appreciative experiences – obtained in the field of music, art and

literature

Intellectual appreciative experiences – based on the premise that all learning

has emotional correlates

THEORIES OF LEARNING

The following are the major theories of learning (Morris L. Bigge, 1964):

1. STIMULUS-RESPONSE (S-R) OR ASSOCIATION THEORY – states that for every

stimulus there is a corresponding response.

Connectionism is the theory under S-R, formulated by Edward Lee Thorndike

in 1900.

It assumes that human activities are based on the association or connection between
stimulus and response.

It is the belief that all mental processes consist of the functioning of native and acquired
connections between the situations and response.

It includes the three fundamental laws of learning:

a. Law of Readiness – when an individual is prepared to respond or

act, allowing him to do so is satisfying, whereas preventing him would be
 annoying.

b. Law Exercise – constant repetition of a response strengthens its

connection with the stimulus, while disuse of a response weakens it.

Law of Effect – learning is strengthened if it results in satisfaction, but it iis weakened if it

leads to vexation or annoyance
1. THEORY OF CONDITIONING states that the process of learning consists of the
acquisition of new ways of reacting to stimuli developed through attaching new
stimuli to established modes of behavior.

There are two types of conditioning theory:

Classical Conditioning is based on the experiment on the reaction of the dog

conducted by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist, who postulated that conditioning
consist of eliciting a response by means of a previously neutral or inadequate stimulus.

Principles under Classical Conditioning

a. Adhesive principle – a response is attached to every stimulus. For

every stimulus, there is always a corresponding response.
b. Excitation – also known as the law of acquisition. It occurs when a
preciously neutral stimulus gain the ability of eliciting the response.

c. Extinction – also known as unlearning and occurs when the conditioned

response is no longer elicited by the conditioned stimulus because the
conditioned stimulus is frequently presented without the paired stimulus.

d. Stimulus generalization – happens when the conditional response is

also elicited by other stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

e. Spontaneous recovery – happens when a conditioned response which

does not appear for sometime but re-occurs without need of further conditioning.

Operant Conditioning is a theory based on the experiment conducted by Burrhus

Frederick Skinner on a hungry rat.

He believed that since an organism tends in the future to do what it was doing at the
time of reinforcement, one can train that organism either by presenting him a reward or
punishment as a consequence of his action.

Feedback Principle – states that an organism’s responses maybe reinforced by

presentation or removal. In other words, rewards and punishments.

2. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY is based on the studies of Richard Wallace and

Albert Bandura concerning a group of children who were exposed to three models
in films.

The first model was rewarded, the second was punished while nothing was done to the
 third model.

Children were then asked to choose among these models.

The children chose the first model, then the no consequence/model and the last choice
was the model who was punished.

Based on this experiment, it was viewed that children’s learning process involves observation
and imitation.

COGNITIVE FIELD THEORY – otherwise known as Field Theory describes how a person gain
understanding of himself and his world in a situation where his self and his environment
compose a totality of mutually interdependent, coexisting events. This

theory defines learning as a relativistic process by which a learner develops new insights
and changes the old ones.

Types of Cognitive Field Theory

a. Insight Leaning – a basic sense of, or feeling for relationships. It is used

to denote the meaning of a matter, idea or point.

The Insights of a person are not equated with his consciousness or awareness of his
ability to describe them verbally; their essence is a sense of, or feeling for pattern in a
life situation.

This theory is based on the experiment conducted by Wolfgang Kohler on the

chimpanzee.
Kohler postulated that the more intelligent the organism and the more experiences he
has the more capable he is of gaining higher insight.

B .Vector and Topological Theory. Basically, this is derived from the terms vector
which means a quantity that has magnitude and direction and topology which is
concerned with properties of geometric configuration which are unaltered by elastic
deformation.

As a learning theory, it was advance by Kurt Lewin and states that individuals exist on a
field of forces within his environment that move, change and give him a degree of
stability and substance or define his behavior.

The behavior of an individual is a result of forces operating simultaneously within his

environment and life space.

C .Gestalt Learning. The word gestalt is a German term which means a structure,
configuration or pattern of physical, biological, or psychological phenomena so
integrated as to constitute a functional unit with properties not derivable by summation
of its parts.

It claims that the whole is more that the sum of its parts and the whole gets its meaning
from its parts. Gestalt view learning as a change in knowledge, skills, attitudes, values
or beliefs and may or may not have anything to do with the change in overt behavior.

It further claims that one does not learn by doing; for learning to occur, doing must be
accompanied by realization of consequences. Thus, learning occurs as a result of or
through experiences.
Learning, therefore, involves the catching, and generalization of insights which often
are acquired first on a nonverbal level or the level of feeling and may be verbalized
later or may not be verbalized at all.

D .Instrumental Conceptualism is the term applied to the theory of learning as

advocated by Jerome Bruner, who believed that the acquisition of whatever form of
knowledge is always a dynamic and interactive process because the learner purposively
participates in the process of knowledge acquisition who selects, structures, retains and
transform information.

Bruner argued that learning is thinking and thinking is the process whereby one makes
sense out of the various and somehow unrelated facts through a process called
conceptualization or categorization. (Bigge, 1980)

Subsumption Theory
This theory is based on the works of David Paul Ausubel (1918- 2008), an
American psychologist born in New York and an ardent follower of Jean Piaget
Ausubel’s theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of
meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting.

According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate,

representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of
information.

He considered that a primary process in learning is subsumption in which new

material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a
substantive non-verbatim basis.

Cognitive structure represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs
because certain details get integrated and lose their individuality identity.

A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance

organizers; “These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also
presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the
substantive content of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis
of its suitability for explaining, integrating and interrelating the material they precede,
this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming
criteria for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure.

Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and
summaries which simply emphasizer key ideas and are presented at the same level of
abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming
bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.
Ausubel emphasizes that subsumption involves reorganization of existing
cognitive structure not the development of new structures as constructivist theories
suggest. Ausubel was apparently influenced by the work of Piaget on cognitive
development. (www.wikipedia.org)
Conditions of Leaning

This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning.

The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different
types of instruction.
This theory of learnings is based on the work of Robert Mills Gagñe (1916 – 2002),
an American educational psychologist best known for his “Condition of Learning
“Gagñe pioneered the science of instruction during WWII for the air force with pilot
training.
Later he went on to develop a series of studies and works that helped codify what is
now considered to be good instruction. He also was involved in applying concepts of
instructional theory to the design of computer based training and multimedia based
learning.

Gagñe work is sometimes summarized as the Gagñe Assumption. The

assumption is that different types of learning exist, and that different instructional
conditions are most likely to bring about these different types of learning

Gagñe identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information,

intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal
and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning.

For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice
developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to
a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Gagñe suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a
hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure
following, use of terminology, descriminations, concept formation, rule application, and
problem solving.

The primay significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisities that should be

completed to facilitate learning at each level.

Prerequisities are indetified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning

hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.

In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding

cognitive processes:

1. Gaining attention (reception) – Example – show variety of geometric

shapes generated triangles

2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy) – Example – pose

question: “What is a rectangle?”

3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) - Example – review definitions

of rectangle

4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception) – Example – give definition

of rectangle

5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) – example – show

example of how to create a rectangle

6. Eliciting performance (responding) – Example – ask students to create

5 different examples
 7. Providing feedback (reinforcement) - check all examples as correct/incorrect

8. Assessing performance (retrieval) – Example – check all examples

as correct/incorrect

9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization) – show pictures of

objects and ask students to identify equilaterals.
http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html)

TRANSFER OF LEARNING

Transfer of learning occurs when a person’s learning in one situation influences

his learning and performance in other situations

THEORIES ABOUT TRANSFER OF LEARNING

The following are the major theories concerning transfer of learning:

Mental discip discipline. This theory asserts that education is largely a matter
of training or discipling the mind with vigorous mental exercises in the classics,
grammar, logic mathematics, and science on the assumption that such training makes
a person equally effective in all areas where a given faculty is employed.

Apperception is a process of relating new ideas or mental states to a store of

old ones. Memories stored in the subconscious and brought into the conscious enable
one to interpret a given experience.

New ideas are learned through their being related to what is already in the apperceptive
mass. Apperception, therefore, consists of becoming consciously aware of an idea and
assimilating it with other ideas which are already acquired.

In so far as this theory is concerned, transfer of learning is completely a matter of

mechanistic storage of ideas in aninert mind.
Identical elements is the theory of transfer of learning that is advocated by
connectionism. It states that transfer of learning is facilitated in a second situation to the
extent that it contains identical elements or factors which occurred in an earlier learning
situation.

Among these identical elements of practical importance are associations including ideas
about aims and methods of general principles and associations involving basic factual
experiences which involve length, color and number which are repeated in different
combination (Thorndike, 1913.)

Identical elements may take the form of content, procedures, facts, actions, attitudes,
techniques or principles. This theory implies that a school should list the aspects of situations
that are important to the child even out of the school or in later courses and teach the pupils to
cope ith different indetical experiences or situations in real life.
Generalization. This theory was advocated by Charles Judd who said that there
are two levels or kinds of knowledge – wrote learning or memorization without any
 meaning and generalized knowledge with many intellectual associations.

He believed that it should always be in the form which makes generalizations possible.
Basically, generalization is a statement or understanding of relationshipps, a principle, a
rule or a law.

Generalization is another name for relating experiences in such a manner that what is
gained at one point will redound to the advantage of the individual in many spheres of
thoughts and actions (Judd, 1939).

Furthermore, for this theory, transfer of learning is the sensed relationship between
the elements of the situations and it is automatic. Generalization is expected to spring
into action whenever the environment sets the stage for its occurrence.

Gestalt theory of transfer. The Gestaltist advanced the idea of transposition or

the belief that when transfer of learning occurs it is in the form of generalizations,
concepts, or insights which are developed in one learning situation and employed in
other situations.

For them, transfer of learning is best achieved when a person is in the best frame of
mind and he is aware of the meaning of the situations and experiences as well as their
practical application to his daily life activities.

MOTIVATION
Motivation is derived from the Latin word “movere” which means to move. It is the stimulation
of action toward a particular objective where previously there was little or no attraction toward
that goal. It is the process of arousing, maintaining and controlling interest. This could eplain
why the individual always takes what he perceives to be the shortest route to his goals.

TYPES OF MOTIVATION

Motivation is either intrinsic or extrinsic.

Intrinsic motivation refers to the inherent or internal stimulus of the individual to

learn. It is based on the natural desire of the individual to satisfy his drives and motives
without the need for reward and punishment.

Extrinsic motivation is based on incentives which are artificial devices which

are employed to evoke attitude conductive to learning. Rewards and praises like
medals, good grades, prizes, scholarships and the like as well as punishments are
good examples of this form of motivation

SOCIOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATION

SOCIOLOGY is the systematic study of the development, structure, interaction and

collective behavior of organized groups of human beings.

SOCIETY is derived from the latin word“socios” or “socials”– meaning fellow,

companion or associate.

It is a group of individuals with well defined limits which persists in time, thus enabling
them to develop a set of common ideas, attitudes, interact and of techniques for
living and fitting together.

The members think of themselves as a social unit. The society is formed based on
man’s gregariousness or the tendency or desire of people to be with other people.

CONCEPT OF GROUPS

GROUP is a unit of interacting personalities with independence of roles and

status existing between them.

KINDS OF GROUPS

1. Primary group is characterized by intimate, face to face, informal, personal

relationship among members. It is also characterized by the so called “we
feeling.”

EX. family

2. Secondary group is characterized by impersonal, formal, contractual business-like,

and casul relationship. Large in size, of short duration, the members are physically
and spatially distant from one another.

Ex. Religion, school

3. In group is the group where the individual identifies himself and is given a sense
of belongingness. It can be as small as the family or as big as a nation.

This group is further characterized by ethnocentrism or the belief that one’s group is
superior over the other chauvinism – excessive ethnocentrism.
4. Out-Group is a group in which one has a feeling of indifference,
avoidance, stangeness, dislike, antagonism and even hatred.
Ex. Religious groups

5. Peer group is the group where the members are of the same age and
socioeconomic status.

Types of Peer Groups

Play-group is characterized by spontaneity, and informality and with

minimum or no adult supervision at all. It is common among children.
 Gang has a recognized leader, pass word, rules of behavior, definite place and
time of meeting and planeed activities. It is also characterized by deviant, anti-social
behavior.

Clique is composed of persons with the same interest or line of thinking.

6. Reference group – a group to which the individual refers and with whom he
identifies himself either consciously or unconsciously. It is more of identification
rather than actual membership.

7. Voluntary associations – members joined together due to their common

decisions or needs.

Personal interest group – caters to people with the same interest

Ex. Ball clubs

Social service groups – for community services

Ex. NGO’s, Rotary, Lions, etc.

Political action group – for the promotion of a political agenda or candidacy of a

political leader

Ex. Aksyon Demokratiko

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION is the system or process of assigning men their respective
ranks in a society based on income or wealth, education, occupation and lifestyle.

SOCIAL MOBILITY is the process of moving from one social stratum to another, may
either be horizontal, vertical or lateral.

SOCIALIZATION is the prcess by which the individual acquires the social and cultural
heritage of his society. Through this, the individual learns his social position in the
society.

TEACHING PROFESSION

EDUCATION
Education is derived from the Latin word “educare” or “educere” which means to lead forth. It is
defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, habits, attitudes, interest, skills and abilities and other
intangible human qualities through training instructions and self-activity, and transmitting these vital
elements of human civilization to posterity.

TYPES OF EDUCATION
1. Formal Education – refers to the hierarchically structured chronological
graded learning organized and provided by the formal school system and for which
certification is required in order for the learner to progress through the grades or
move to higher levels.

This corresponds to the following levels:

 A. elementary education

B. secondary education
C. tertiary education

2. Non-formal education – refers to any school based educational activities

undertaken by the DECS and other agencies aimed at attaining specific learning
objectives for a particular clientele, specially the illiterates and the out- of -school
youths and adults, distinct from the outside the regular offerings of the formal school
system.
(B. P 232 Art. III Chapter 1 and 2 Sections 19 and 24)
 3. Informal Education- a type of education which can be acquired anytime
and anywhere. It is otherwise known as the education for all seasons.

ORIGIN OF EDUCATION

There are two theories concerning the exact origin of Education:

1. The Theory of Divine Creation advocates that when God, in the beginning
of time, created man according to His image and likeness and commissioned him to
multiply and replenish the earth and subdue it and have dominion over all other
creations

(Genesis Chapter 1). He equipped man with intellect and free will. But because man
chose to ignore God and disobey his will, the firs couple was banished from the “Garden
of Eden” and severed the former relation between the Creator and man.

Henceforth, the first couple multiplied, passing the knowledge acquired from God
to their offspring, until the time when their children inhabited the earth possessing the
intelligence they inherited from their parents.

These include the ability to communicate, read and write, knowledge in science and
arts, as well as other skills like hunting, farming, fishing, etc.

Finally, due to man’s superior intelligence and God given talents, scientific
advancements became part of man’s existence.

The Theory of Evolution, on the other hand, believes that education started when the very
primitive man, basically savage, brutish and animalistic, for he had just evolved from the lower
primates, began his quest to find ways and means to feed clothe, shelter and protect himself
and compete with other animals for survival (i.e. survival of the fittest).

Education at this point, says this theory was on its simplest form characterized by
the absence of reading, writing or comprehensive language.

The education was informal and learning was through observation and imitation or
apprenticeship for there were existing schools yet.

EARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATION

 Upon the resurrection of Jesus Christ, He commissioned His disciples to “go into
the world and preach the Gospel (Mathew 28:19), but they received a lot of
persecutions from the unbelieving world. However, when Emperor Constantine of the
Roman Empire proclaimed Christianity as the official religion of the Roman world the
Christians and their teachings became part of the mainstream society, and the
Emperor himself supported the church and established schools.

By virtue of this support, the following Christians schools were established:

1. Catechumenal – school for new converts

2. Catechetical – school for leadership training

3. Cathedral/episcopalian- school for the clergy

THE DIFFERENT MEDIEVAL MOVEMENTS IN EDUCATION

The medieval period is also known as the middle age or the dark age which
refers to the span of time from the downfall of the Roman empire in the year A.D 476
to the beginning of the Renaissance period about 1333.

The different educational movements during this epoch in history are discussed
hereunder:
Monasticism – education was a religious discipline. Education was strict, rigid
and punishment was severe.

Education was based on Monastic vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. During
reign of Charlemagne (722-804), he supported the Monastic schools and even
established court schools to educate his constituents.

Scholaticism – education was an intellectual discipline. The purpose of this

movement was to bring reason to faith and support theology by using logic.

Saint Thomas of Aquinas (1225-1274) was one of foremost proponents of

Scholastic movement. He wrote the Summa Theologiae which became the basis of
the majority of the doctrines of the Catholic Church.

The Medieval University – the Medieval Universities started as “universitas

magistrorum et scholarium” or corporation of teachers and students chartered by the
pope or the kings.

The first organized university was the University of Bologna chartered by the Emperor
Frederick I in 1158.
Composition of the medieval university:
 Studium generale – the student body

Nation – a group of students who had the same place of origin

Councilors – leaders of a nation

Facultas – teachers of the same subject

Dead – head of the facultas

Rector – head of the medieval university

Chivalry – education as a social discipline. This kind of movement flourished in the

Christian countries in Europe as a response to the increasing educational needs of the
sons of the nobility. Under this system, a boy of noble birth has to pass through the
following stages before he is fully accepted as a member of his social class:
Page – an attendant to the noble courts at the age of 7 years

Squire – an attendant to a knight at the age of 14 years

Knight – a full-pledged warrior who has vowed to:

-protect the women and the poor

- defend the church and the state

-
- attack the wicked and

- shed blood for the sake of his contry and his compatriots

The Guild System- education for the middle class. Towards the end of the
medieval period, a new class of people arose between the nobles and the peasants- the
bourgeoisie (burgher) or the middle class.

These people were not really rich like the landed gentry, nor poor like vassals, but
rather, they acquired their fortune from the profits in commercial and industrial
endeavors brought about by the “Crusaders”. In order to protect their interests, they set
up organizations known as guild.

There were two types of guilds:

Crafts guild- organization of skilled craftsmen

Mechant guild – organization of business

Before a person is accepted as a member of any of the guild, he must pass

through the following stages:
 Apprentice – a trainee assigned to a master

Journeyman – a trainee who travels from place to place under different

masters and is paid for his labor

Master craftsman – a full pledged member of a guild

As the number of the middle class increased the need for more schools to meet
the education needs of their children also increased which paved the way for the
establishment of the new type of schools, viz:

Chantry schools – schools established through the foundations under the clergy

Guild Schools – served as vocational schools who catered to the children of the
members of the craft guild

Burgher schools – established to educate the children of the members of the

merchant guild

PHILOSOPHICAL MOVEMENTS IN EDUCATION

Renaissance. It is derived from the Latin word “renaistre” meaning to be born

again. It is considered as the revival of ancient learning brought about by the discovery
of the “New World” of Christopher Columbus the fascinating stories of Marco Polo about
the wealth and technology of the East, (i.e China under Kublai Khan), the invention of
the printing press and other events during the latter part of the medieval period.

Humanism. It was one of the various philosophies that flourished during the
renaissance period. It is a philosophy which holds the idea that education aims to
liberate man from the oppressive and demanding medieval institutions like the church
and the state so as to enable him fully develop his potentials.

Italian or Individual Humanism

It stressed that individual freedom is a prerequisite to the achievement of a rich

and fullfiled life.
Vittorino Da Feltre (1397-1446) – a school teacher who administered the Casa Giacosa
(Happy House) whose purpose was to educate young boys by the use of games and other
physical and educational activities
 Northern or Social Humanism

The humanistic movement in Northern European countries like Holland, France

Germany and England. This movement advocated that education is an avenue for
societal regeneration.

Desiderius Erasmus (1467-1536) an educator from Rotterdam who wrote book

called Liberal Education of Children where he advanced the idea of using games and
play and individualized instruction to educate children and prohitibted the use of harsh
and physical punishment.

Reformtion. It was acaused by the massive corruption in the Roman Catholic

Church and the sale of indulgences. This movement highlighted the protests of the
people who were dissatisfied by the policies of the Roman Catholic Church.

Martin Luther (1483-1546) – Father of Reformation who wrote the 95 theses,

denouncing the Catholic Church and posted it in the doorpost of his Cathedral on
(Wittenburg) on Octover 31, 1517.

Philip MElanchton – education reformer. He published the “Report of Book of

Visitation” which is considered as the first educational survey in history.

Saxony Plan- first public school system based on the “Report”

John Milton (1608-1674) – he believed that boys should study formal

grammar and formal education must be emphasized he advocated the use of
resource persons.

Francois Rabelais (1483-1553) – he suggested that education should be

made attractive rather than compulsive all elarning should be made pleasant he
believed that education should be gained through books

Michael de Montaigne (1533-1592) – he emphasized the use of field

trips/education tours in the teaching – learning process and introduced the concept of
finishing schools

John Amos Comenius (1592-1670) - he wrote “Orbis Pictus Sensualism” or the

World of Sensible Things Pictured which is considered as the first textbook on the use
of visual aids in classroom teaching

- He organized a school system from pre-school to the university

 - He also advocated the following:

- Older children should stay longer in school, and younger ones should stay
in school only for a short period a day.

- Morning hours should be devoted for intellectual subjects while subjects for

- Physical and aesthetic development should be given in the afternoon.

-The level of teachin should be suited to the understanding of children.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

- He suggested the use of inductive method of teaching

- He believed that all scientific progress must be based on nature

Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611)

- He argued that education should be in accordance with the nature of the

child and its aim is
- To secure the expression and development of childish tendencies and not
to suppress them.

-He suggested that teachers should be required to obtain university training like

- Lawyers, ministers etc.

- He developed teacher training colleges (Normal Schools)

Wolfgang Ratke (1571-1635)

- He advocated that everything should constantly be repeated to ensure mastery

- He argued that everything should be without compulsion and rote

learning should by all means be avoided.

- Disciplinism. A philosophy which believes that education is based on discipline. It

advanced the idea based on Aristotle’s faculty psychology that the human mind is
composed of several faculties such as memory, reason, will, judgement ,etc.
- And the power in any faculty can be developed through training and proper
discipline. It advocated that mastery of mathematics and linguistic ensures mastery of
other subjects.
-
- The foremost exponent philosophy was John Locke (1632-1704) who believed that
when the child is born his mind cacn be compared to a “tabula rasa” or a ban or a
blank tablet and experiences will be the ones to write on that tablet.
-
-
- Naturalism is an educational philosophy which adhers to the belief that education
should be in accordance with the nature of the child. All educational practices should
be focused towards the natural development of all the innate talents and abilities of the
child.
-
- The outstanding personality involved in naturalism in education was Jean Jacques
Rousseau (1712-1778) who wrote several books on politics and education like the
Social Contract, Emile, etc. Emile is considered as the “gospel of the child’s
educational freedom.”
-
-
- Rousseau believed that man at birth is naturally good, societal influences make
man evil and that the stronger the body, the more it obeys; the weaker the body, the
more it commands.

PSYCHOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS IN EDUCATION

This movement calls for the application of basic psychological principles like
individual differences, motivation, transfer of learning and others to the educative
process.

Among the educators who belong to this movement were:

Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827)

He advocated the following:

-Education has the power for societal regeneration

-Learning should be through observation and experience

-Bookish learning should be avoided

- Discipline must be based on love (thinking love)

- A teacher must have a special training that is not simply intellectual but
one which also touches the heart

- Education is basically a “contact of souls” and thetacher must feel Respect and

sympathy for the children he teaches

Johan Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841)

He was known for the Herbatian Method of Teaching which has the following steps:

a. Preparation
 b. Presentation

c. Association

d. Generalization

e. Application

Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel (1782-1852)

- He established a child centered school in 1840 which came to be known as

Kinder garten” which literally means “Garden of Children”

- He included games and sport in the curricula of formal schools

Maria Montessori (1870-1952) - the first female doctor in Italy. She based her work on
the direct observation of children.

 Educators called her a miracle worker

 Developed a child centered curriculum

 Education is life that evolves from a child’s use of all his or

her senses
 In the learning process

 Emphasized manipulation and experimentation to

promote independence and creativity

 Specialized tool were used to allow the child to proceed at his

or her own pace

SOCIOLOGICAL MOVEMENT IN EDUCATION

This is based on the tenets of this movement, education is looked upon as the
process geared the propagation, perpetuation and amelioration of the society and
the total development of an individual.

John Dewey (1856-1952)

He believed that:

 Education must be democratic

 The aim of education is social afficiency

 Utilization rather than subordination for the capacity of the individual

  Public school system is the chief means to achieve the above
mentioned purpose

 Education is life and not just a preparation for life.

He postulated the famous “Learning by Doing Dictum” which states that the learner
best if he is an active participant in the teaching learning process.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Curriculum has veen defined in different ways by different authors. Traditional schools
defined it as a group of subject arranged in a certain sequence peculiar to a specific
field for the purpose of instruction.

SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

1. Essentialist – considers the curriculum as something rigid composed of

various subject areas

-wants to maintain the status quo

- Book- centered

-memorization method is used to master facts and skills

2. Progressivist – includes the pragmatists, experimentalist, Reconstructionists,

and existentialists

-conceives the curriculum as something flexible based on areas of

interest

-Learner-centered

-considers the principle of individual differences

-aims towards the holistic development of the learner

DIMENSIONS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

1. Philosophic – Theological Dimensions

 Essentialism – value centered

Ideals that are essential to one’s culture should never be forgotten

 Idealism – preservation of one’s freedom

-concentration should be on moral, intellectual and aesthetic development of the learner

 Pragmatism - The meaning of ideas lies in its

 consequences Education must be useful to
the society

 Progressivism – Education must be flexible

-Emphasizes self-activity
-Chid centered curriculum

 Existentialism – Education should enable man to make choices

in life .The teachers have the right to teach students how to think
but not what to think.

 Reconstructionism – Aims to develop the inherent powers of the

learner. Espoused a critical re-examination and reconstruction
of the current problems and situations to modify them.

 Aims to transform the society through technological and

scientific revolution.

 Realism – Education based on natural phenomena and social

institutions.Education should be based on the actualities of
life. Aims to prepare the child to face the real world.

2. Psychological Dimensions

- Consideration of the Principles and Laws of Learning such as Association, Field

Theories, etc.

3. Social Dimensions

- Curriculum for individual development (Individual or Italian Humanism)

- Curriculum for social development (Social or Northern Humanism)

- Curriculum for individual and social development (Democratic Education

John Dewey)

GUIDELINES FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

A Good Curriculum Must:

1. Encourage inquiry and creativity

2. Be democratic with regards to procedure

3. Accept individual differences

4. Take into consideration scientific and scholarly findings and methods

5. Minimize memorization and maximize discovery

 6. Take into consideration the potential for achievement through either
the individual learner or the group

7. Must employ teacher resources in a multi-dimensions role

APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DESIGN

1. Subject-Centered Curriculum – organized on the basis of separate and

distinct subjects, each of which embodies a body of knowledge and skills. The learner
is expected to acquire these knowledge and skills.

2. Child-Centered Curriculum – the child is considered the center of

the educative process.

3. Problem-Centered Curriculum – the child is guided toward maturity

within the context of the social group. It helps the child to solve his problems.

CURRICULUM PATTERNS

1. Traditional Curriculum Pattern

Conventional and orthodox views about the school curriculum

 Subject Curriculum

 The school subjects constitute the bases for organizing the

school experiences of the learners.

 Various subjects are offered based on their logical relationship

so as to meet the multifarious needs of the child.

 Correlated Curriculum

 Articulates and establishes relationships between two or

more subjects on the basis of a topic or a theme
 Teaching similar topics in two or more subject simultaneously in
an effort to help students gain a better understanding of the topic.

o Ex. Organic & Inorganic Chemistry are used to reinforce each other.
o C. Broad-Fields Curriculum

 Combines several specific areas into larger fields

o Ex. Political Science, History, Geography, Sociology are combined

to become Social Science

- Subject-centered in nature
 2. Integrative Curriculum Pattern

- Eliminates school subject division

- Aims to foster integration of the learner to his socio-cultural milieu

-Use of the actual learning experiences, social needs, interest, abilities and
interests of the learner as learning tools

- Learner-centered and socially oriented

A. Learner-Centered
- Organizes the learning experiences and content around the life of child
B. Experience Curriculum
- places emphasis on the immediate interest and needs of the child and not
on the anticipated needs

- The learners are given the opportunity to choose an activity based on their
area of interest

C.Core Curriculum
-Also called social function or Area –of- Living Curriculum

-Learning experiences are organized on the basis of major functions of social life
or aspects of living.

-Intended to enable the learner to study the problems that demand personal and social action.
3. Unified Program

- Common sense point of view in the curriculum organization

- A balance between the direct teaching of the subject skills and unified
learning experiences based on problems which are life centered
- A logical and psychological organization of learning experiences

- Learning should be organized based on persistent life situations as well as

on the basis of organized body of knowledge when needed

THE CURRICULA OF PHILIPPINE SCHOOLS

THE PRIMARY CURRICULA

1. Circular No. 2 s. 1901 of the Bureau of Education – outlined a 3 year

tentative Curriculum for the primary schools and emphasized the teaching of the
Englsih language.

The subjects were:

1. Reading 6. Music
2. Writing 7. Drawing
3. Arithmetic 8. Physical Education
4. Geography 9. Manual training
5. Physiology 10. Nature study

2. Primary Grade Curriculum of 1904 – prescribed 3 grades for the primary

course. Mental, physical and moral training were provided (1904-1905 to 1906-1907)
3. Revised Primary Curriculum of June 1907 – the primary course was lengthened
to 4 yearss (1907-1908 to 1909-1910)

4. Primary Curriculum of 1910 (SY 1912-1913) – emphasized industrial work to

increase industrial efficiency and create an educated class in sympathetic touch
with labor and the development of the community.

5. Primary Curriculum of 1913 – lengthened recitation periods and gave more time
to industrial work. It also added Good Manners and Right Conduct as a subject.

6. Primary Curriculum of 1915 – the course of study was published for the first
time. This curriculum was effective until 1924.

7. The Primary Curriculum of June 1924 – Alotted specific number of minutes

per week for every subject area.
8. The Primary Curriculum for SY 1934-1935 – introduced 2 new subjects in all
grades viz.: health education and eplementary, science, industrial work was
eliminated from grades 2 and 3.

9. Primary Curriculum for SY 1936-1937 – introduction of preparatory military

training for boys pursuant to Commonwealth Act No. 1

- Social Science was renamed Social Studies

- increased time allotment for arithmetic (200 minutes)

- decreased time allotment for language and spelling (425 minutes)

THE INTERMEDIATE CURRICULA

The intermediate course was originally designed as a separate and district level
from that of the primary. It was designed to provide boys and girls with preparatory
training for useful occupations and not as stepping stone to the secondary course.
There were five types of curricula offered in public schools.

1. Intermediate Curriculum of 1904

- patterned after the existing grammar curriculum in the United States.

 - started in 1909-1910, and Grade IV became a part of the primary work

2. Revised Curriculum of 1909

– In order to address for adequate vocational training, four other curricula

were offered in addition to the existing General Curriculum, thereby increasing the
curricula into five, viz:

a. General Curriculum d. Trade Curriculum e. Business Curriculum

b. Teaching Curriculum c.Farming Curriculum

3. The Revised Intermediate Curriculum of 1913

4. The Revised Intermediate Curriculum of 1917

-business curriculum was eliminated

- 2 years later the teaching curriculum were eliminated

5. The Revised Intermediate Curriculum of 1922

- Housekeeping and household arts was eliminated

- GMRC, civics and hygiene were introduced

6. The Revised Intermediate Curriculum of 1934

- Farming curriculum was renamed agricultural curriculum

- Introduction of Character and Health education

-Introduction of Preparatory Military Training pursuant to Commonwealth

Act No. 1 in 1936.
THE ELEMENTARY CURRICULUM

1. Based on the provision of Commonwealth Act No. 586, known as

the Education Act of 1940, the following curricula were implemented:
Double-single session- standard curriculum where a class of 80
pupils was divided ito two, the first half held sessions in the morning while the
second half in the afternoon.

The Emergency plan – a primary or intermediate class under one teacher

held sessions in the morning. The room is used by another class under another
teacher in the afternoon. This was only allowed in places where there were
shortage of classrooms.
2. Revised Elementary School Curriculum of the General Course in the
SY 1957-1958 offered the following subjects:

a. Social Studies d. Language and Arts

b. Work Education e. Arithmetic
c. Health and Science f. Arts and Physical Education

Revised Elementary Education Curriculum (REEC) in 1969, President Marcos

formed the Presidential Commission to Survey Philippine Education (PCSPE)
and proposed a new curriculum that was envisioned to address the various
problems in the Philippine Educational System. The Commission advocated the
so-called “return to basics policy” and paved the way for the implementation of
the REEC.

However, in 1974 the Project Survey of the Outcomes of Elementary Education

(SOUTELE) found out that the Elementary Education in the country is in a very
turbulent dilemma and reforms are needed as soon as possible to remedy the
situation and called for the implementation of a new elementary curriculum.

THE PROGRAM FOR DECENTRALIZED EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

(PRODED)

The New Elementary School Curriculum is interpreted as an effort to

return to basic education, as a response to the finding of the Presidential
Commission to Survey Philippine Education (PCSPE) in 1969 which
recommended that the educational system undergo a change in structure and
methodology to be relevant to the needs of the changing society.

The MECS (DECS at present) launched a long-range, diversified and

comprehensive program, into the national development goals set by the state.
This effort was best exemplified by the Survey of the Outcomes of the
Elementary Education (SOUTELE), an educational survey which made a
comprehensive analysis of the elementary course and the preparation of a
realistic and viable learning continuum which would indicate the development of
knowledge, skills and attitude that the child is expected to learn at a certain level
of schooling.

Pursuant to this, the Ministry of Education issued MEC Order No. 6 in the
year 1982 that mandated the implementation of the NESC in accordance with
the Program for the Decentralized Educational Development (PRODED), starting
in the school year 1982-83 in Grade I in all public and private schools in the
country.
THE NEW ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM (NESC)

The mission of elementary education is to enable every citizen to acquire

basic preparation that will make hin an enlightened, disciplined, nationalistic, self
reliant, God Loving, creative, versatile and productive citizen in a national community.

The following objective of elementary education, adopted from the 1970

Revised Elementary Education Program, are still relevant today.

Elementary education shall aim to develop the spiritual, moral, mental and
physical capabilities of the child, provide him with experiences in the democratic
way of life, and inculcate ideas and attitude necessary for enlightened, patriotic,
upright and useful citizenship.

To achieve these objectives, elementary education shall provide for:

The inculcation of spiritual and civic values and the development of a good
Filipino based on an abiding faith in God and genuine love of country;

1. The training of the young citizen in his rights, duties, and

responsibilities in a democratic society for active participation, in a progressive
and productive home and community life;

2. The development of basic understanding about Philippine culture,

the desirable tradition and virtues of our people as essential requisites in
attaining national consciousness and solidarity;

3. The teaching of basic health knowledge and the formation of

desirable health habits and practices; the development of functional literacy in
the vernacular, in Pilipino and English as basic tools for further learning; and

4. the acquisition of fundamental knowledge, attitudes, habits and skills in

science, civics, culture, history, geography, mathematics arts and home
economics and livelihood education and their intelligent application in
appropriate life situations.
The K – 12 PROGRAM
On January 20, 2012, President Aquino signed into law Republic Act No. 10157
mandating among others the institutionalization of Kindergarten Education as part of
basic education and for school year 2011-2012 shall be implemented partially, and
thereafter it shall be made mandatory and compulsory for entrance to Grade 1.

Thereafter, on May 15, 2013, President Noynoy Aquino signed into law Republic
Act No. 10533 also known as the “Enhance Basic Education Act of 2013” atleast one
(1) year of kindergarten education,six (6) years of elementary education, and six
(6) year of secondary education, in that sequence. Secondary education includes
four (4) years of junior high school and two (2) years of senior highschool
education.

Kindergarten education shall mean one (1) year of preparatory education for
children at least five (5) years old as a prerequisite for Grade 1. Elementary education
refers to the second stage of compulsory basic education which is composed of six (6)
years.

The entrant age to this level is typically six (6) years old. Secondary education refers to
the third stage of compulsory basic education. It consists of four (4) years of junior high
school education and two (2) years of senior high school education. The entrant age to
the junior and senior high school levels are typically twelve (12) and sixteen (16) years
old, respectively.

Basic Education shall be delivered in languages understood by the learners as

the language plays a strategic role in shaping the formative years of learners. For
Kindergarten and the first three (3) years of elementary education, instruction, teaching

THE K – 12 CURRICULUM

The passage Republic Act No. 10533, brought about a restructuring of the
curricula of Philippine schools particularly in the secondary levels. Under the
Implementing Rules and Regulation of R.A 10533, particularly Section 10, Article II it
was provided that:

The DepEd shall adhere to the following standards and principles, when
appropriate in developing the enhanced basic education curriculum:

 The curriculum shall be learner-centered, inclusive

and developmentally appropriate;

 The curriculum shall be relevant, responsive and

research-based;

o The curriculum shall be gender-and culture sensitive

 Th Curriculum shall be contextualized and global;

  The Curriculum shall use pedagogical approaches that
are constructivist, inquiry-based, reflective, collaborative
and integrative;

 The curriculum shall adhere to the principles and framework

of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE)
which starts from where the learners are and from what
they already know proceeding from the known to the
unknown; instructional materials and capable teachers to
implement the MTB-MLE curriculum shall be available. For
this

purpose, MTB-MLE refers to formal or non-formal education

in which the learners mother tongue and additional
languages are used in the classroom;

o The curriculum shall use spiral progression

approach to
o Ensure mastery of knowledge and skills after
each level and;

o The curriculum shall be flexible enough to enable

and allow

o Shools to localize, indigenize and enhance the

same based

On their respective educational and social contexts.

 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING, EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY, FIELD STUDY AND
PRACTICE TEACHING

The word principles is derived from the Latin word “princeps” meaning the beginning or
end of all things. It is a comprehensive law or doctrine from which others are derived
or on which other are founded.

According to L.T Hopkins, a principle is a rules for guiding the ship of education so that
it will reach the point designated by the philosophy of education, it is a compass byy
which the path of education is directed.

TYPES OF PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING

1. Starting Principles – refer to the nature of the child, his psychological

and physiological endowments.

2. Guiding Princples – the methods of instruction, or the conglomeration

of techniques in carrying out the educative process.

3. Ending Principles – educational aims and objectives.

 Psychological – growth and development of the child.

 Philosophical – based on the culture of the people.

THE INBORN TENDENCIES OF THE CHILD

1. Intelligence is defined by W.Stern as a general capacity of an individual to

adjust his thinking to new requirements; it is a general mental adaptability to new
problems and conditions of life. Lewis Terman defines it as the ability to learn in
terms of abstract ideas, while Colvin viewed intelligence as the ability to adjust to new
environment.

Thurstone’s Classification of Intellegence

 Ability to deal with space
 Ability to solve problems
 Ability to understand ideas in terms of words
 Ability to write and talk easily
 Ability to perform numerical calculation
 Ability to recognize likeness and difference
 Ability to recall past experiences

Edward Lee Thorndike’s Classification of Intelligence

1. Abstract – capacity to respond to symbols, letters, etc.

2. Concrete/mechanical – capacity to manipulate and to deal with things such as

art and music.

3. Social – capacity to deal with other people.

 2. Emotion – is the blending of sensations caused by the profound and widespread
changes in the body. Crow & Crow defined emotion as an effective experience
that accompanies generalized inner adjustment, and mental and physiological
stirred up states in the individual and that shows itself in his overt behavior.

3. Imitation is the tendency of the child to do according to what he sees or observes.

4. Curiosity is the elementary form of interest. It is the starting point of interest and
the desire to discover

5. Gregariousness refers to the desire of the individual to be with other

people because man is a social being.

Play is the natural impulse possessed by men and animals. It is an activity which the individual
engages in for the satisfaction of his desires

1. Collecting and hoarding means the interest in keeping the objects which a child is
interested to possess.

2. Competition implies struggle between two or more persons for the same object
or purpose to equal or surpass others. On the other hand, rivalry suggests a
personal contest for selfish ends, resulting in envy and jealousy.

3. Manipulation is the natural impulse of the child which involves a skilful or

dexterous management or control of actions by means of intellect.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
The theory of multiple intellegences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard
Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. It suggest that the traditional
notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner
proposes eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential
in children and adults.

These intelligences are:

 Linguistic intelligence (word smart)
 Logical mathematical intelligence. (number/reasoning smart)
 Spatial intelligence (picture smart)
 Bodily Kinesthetic intelligence (body smart)
 Musical Intelligence ( Music smart)
 Interpersonal Intelligence ( people smart)
 Intrapersonal intellingence (self smart)
 Naturalistic intelligence (nature smart)
 Existential Intelligence
 Linguistic Intelligence

Linguistic intelligence is the use of spoken or written language. Giving regular

opportunities for achievement in both is important because some auditory learners need
to hear information, which helps the learners who need to speak the information in
order to learn it.

Because reading and writing is the key to success in most lives, the lingjistic must not
be neglected, and A Core tools make a linguistic link, visual link, and help student get
the learning through the fingers. These tools take the student through the entire
cycle:

They show how to Log assignments, analyze information individually and in groups, and
how to synthesize information into personal and group projects, and finally how to
evaluate the process of learning. The tools guide the learner in reflection and goal
setting.

Logical/Mathematical Intelligence
The logical intelligence is naturally used in conjunction with all types of
intelligence. The organization of thought and movements play a large part In all human
activity. Categorizing, sequencing, comparing and reaching conclusion are functions of
logical intelligence. Even the new idea or invention that is a result of creativity (lateral
thinking) can be viewed as a logical end product to the creative person. Most students
find the exclusion of their particular multiple intelligence quotient (MIQ) illogical, so to
gain credibility teachers must honor all intelligence by developing them. The activities
and assignment used to develop skills in all types of intelligence must seem logically
connected.

Spatial Intelligence

We use spatial intelligence whenever we move through space: sports, dancing or

just walking around. An expert, however, can create with space. A gifted student can
create astounding feats with the body, perhaps judging direction, proximity, and
movement, and create alternative plans and make midair adjustments.

Others can manipulate an imaginary object in space. Spatial creativity may also enable
student to draw, make up dances, stories, and invent new things. Weekly assignment of
visualizations stories and other projects develop spatial intelligence.

Lateral creative thinking is used in creating, inventing and in understanding the big
pictre. Those who possess genius in spatila intelligence may develop wisdom or the
ability to learn from experience and have a strong sense of “where they are.”

Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence

Kinesthetic intelligence is the kinetic movement of the body in space and the
inner space movement of the emotions. A wide range of abilities, from the broad motor
skills of sport to the fine motor skills needed for writing, awaits development.
Communication of emotions through the body or, just as important, the control of the
emotions can be developed.

Acting, and other forms of presenting ideas or emotions through movement of the body
areas important to kinesthetic development as are getting ideas and emotions through
the fingers in writing or the manipulation of other tools or machines. A student might
need to use movement in order to understand, while others might benefit from seeing
movement to understand. Diverse kinesthetic approaches create learning opportunities.

Musical Intelligence

All people possess musical intelligence if only to navigate their environment. We

detect many kinds of environmental sounds. Some people hum or drum to the rhytm of
sounds they hear. Most are able to detect patterns in the music they enjoy. Some can
develop their musical intelligence to recognize the patterns individual performers and
composers use.
The expert can create patterns, recognizable by others. Some musical experts
createnotes, some create words, some create rhythms with movement such as dance
and drumming. Student possess differing degrees of expertise, but all are affected,
usually positively, by the addition of music to the environment, activities, assignments,
projects, and evaluations in a Core Classroom. When all assignments and activites are
cored, music gets connected.

Interpersonal Intelligence

How well we connect to our communities and keep a sense of where are in
relation to others reflect how much our interpersonal intelligence is developed. This skill
is prized above all others in the business of the world; many classify it as the key to
success in the future.

This skill enables us to form meaning ful personal relationships. Working toward
common goal and learning to share tasks develops interpersonal skill. A Core
classroom provides training in interpersonal skills as students work towards common
goals and share task equitably.

Regular team building activities and meaningful group projects allow leaders to emerge.
Those gifted should be given the chance to help create a sense of community in the
classroom; they will practice for their future personal, work, and global communities.

Intrapersonal Intelligence

A sense of self is the basic aspect of intrapersonal intelligence. Those with

intrapersonal skill learn to cope with the world around them. Knowledge of self through
reflection is especially important to help student mature in social context. Therefore intra
personal skill helps develop inter-personal skill.

Knowing and accepting self is the first step in understanding and accepting others,
which is essential in learning to cope. Time to reflect on the process of interacting is
important in gaining self knowledge. Students need ample refelective time to develop
 intrapersonal skills.

They need time to reflect on the usefulness of what they have learned and to set
meaningful long and short term goals to use their new learning. Those who understand
their own motivations and needs excel in intrapersonal skills.

Naturalistic Intelligence

The naturalist intelligence involves the full range of knowing that occurs in
and through our encounters with the natural world including our recognition,
appreciation, and understanding of the natural environment. It involves such
capacities as species discernment, communion with the natural world and its
phenomena, and the ability to recognize and classify various flora and fauna.

If the naturalist intelligence is one of your strengths you have profound love for
the outdoors, animals, plants and almost any natural object. You are probably
fascinated by and noticeably affected by such things as weather, changing leaves in
the fall, the sound of the wind, the ward sun or lack thereof, or an insect in the room.

At a young age you were likely nature collectors, adding such things as bugs, rocks,
leaves, seashells, stick and so on to your collections. You probably brought home all
manner and kinds of stray animals and today you may have several pets and want
more. You tend to have an affinity with and respect for all living beings.

Existential intelligence

Existential intelligence is concerned with ultimate issues, and is next to be

possibility considered by Gardner as he argues that it scores reasonably well on the
criteria. However empirical evidence is sparse – and although a ninth intelligence might
be attractive, Gardner is not disposed to add it to the list.

He said that he finds the phenomenon perplexing enough and the distance from the other
intelligences vast enough to dictate prudence – at least for now

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FILIPINO LEARNERS (Gregorio)

 Shyness is an attitude characterized by partial inhibition of social

responses especially in the presence of strangers.

 Sensitiveness is the tendency of the child to be easily impressed, affected

or hurt.

 Lack of Perseverance means lack of persistence in an activity for a long

time due to difficulty, opposition, disappointment, or interference.

 Lack of Resourcefulness means the inability to meet new situations.

  Lack of Industry refers to the lack of steady attention or diligence in any pursuit.

LEARNING
Learning is a mental wherein knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes and ideals are
acquired, retained and utilized resulting in the progressive adaptation and modification
of conduct and behavior (Bugelski, 1965). As far as the behaviorists are concerned,
learning is any change in the behavior of an organism.

THEORIES OF LEARNING

1. Mind Theory (Christian Wolf) states that the mind has mental powers or faculties,
such as memory reason, judgement, etc. which function as a separate entity that can
be improved through exercise or use.

2. Connectionist’s Theory (Edward lee Thorndike) believes that learning is the

product of connection between the stimulus and response (Association
Learning).

3. Behaviorism (J.B Watson) viewed learning as any change in the behavior of

an organism. Such change may range from the acquisition of knowledge, simple
skill, specific attitude and opinions or it may also refer to innovation, elimination or
modification of responses.

4. Gestalt’s View of Learning. Gestalt is a German term which means pattern,

shape, form or configuration. It advocates that the whole is more than the sum of its
parts and the whole gets its meaning from its parts.

It also suggests that the conception of experience at any given moment is determined
by the totality of its related phases which constitute an integral pattern or configuration.

5. Progressivism sees learning as an active and dynamic process in which the

learner is definitely involved. Learning is a process that is active, purposeful and
creative.

WAYS HOW ORGANISMS LEARN

1. Trial and Error means attempts to meet a situation in various ways until the
correct responses are found more or less accidentally. It involves random reaction
and accidental success.

2. Learning byConditioning – changing the meaning of a situation by associating it

with some past experience of new stimuli that brought satisfaction or dissatisfaction
to the learner through repetition.

 Classical Conditioning – Ivan Pavlov

  Operant Conditioning – Burrhus Frederick Skinner

3. Learning by Observation and Imitation – learning is done through directing the

attention to a specific element considered worthy of mental record and rreproducing
the recorded element as the need arises.

4. Insight is the higher level of trial and error. It refers to the ability to foresee things
and is based on the react in advance. It suggests that the degree of insight increases
with age. It experiment of Wolfgang Kohler.

5. Learning by Motivation. Motivation is the process of arousing the

individual attention and interest directed towards a definite goal.

Types of Motivation

1. Intrinsic - natural desire of the individual to learn

2. Extrinsic – motivation based on rewards or punishment

Incentives to Motivate Learners

 School Marks
 Exhibiting Good Works
 Game or Play
 Examination
 Honor Roll
 Emulation – process of equaling or excelling other’s work or behavior
 Material Rewards
 Punishment
 Vocational Goal

LAWS OF LEARNING

1. Law of Readiness – is associated with mind set. It states that when an organism
is prepared to respond to a stimulus, allowing him to do so would be satisfying while
preventing im would be annoying.

2. Law of Exercise – constant repetition of a response strengthens its connection

with the stimulus, while disuse of a response weakens it.

Law of use – the more frequent a modifiable connection between the situation
and the response is utilized, the stronger is the connection.

Law if disuse – When a modifiable connection between a stimulus and response

is not used over a period of time that connection is weakened.

3. Law of Effect – when a modifiable connection between a stimulus and a

response has been made, it is a strengthened if it results satisfaction and weakens if
it leads to annoyance.
4. Law of Belongingness – means that the strength of connection is increased if
the paired stimuli possess similarities.

5. Law of Association – a new connection is formed through the association of the

past and the new situation. It is the process of relating two or more experiences to
each other.

6. Law of Multiple Response – different reactions/responses are elicited by the

same stimulus.

7. Law of Frequency – the often the response is repeated the greater is its
tendency for its use when the right situation occurs.

8. Law of Recency – the response which has been exercised and rewarded
most recently is the one which is most likely to occur when the organism is in a
given situation.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

 Intelelctual – individual’s mental ability level

 Learning factors – study habits
 Physical factors – disabilities, nutrition, etc.
 Mental factors – attitude and one’s beliefs and ideas
 Emotional/Social factors
 Teachers personality
 Environemntal factors

THE LEARNER

The 20th century has been considered by various experts as the century of the
child because so much has been learned of their nature and development that a lot of
children have been greatly improved. Before the establishment of child-centered
schools of Pestalozzi. Herbart and Froebel the child had the right to listen but not to be
heard. However, due to the result of the varios studies made regarding the nature of
the child, children now are given the rights and privileges that they should enjoy as
legitimate members of the society. Children are known to be marvelous tough, pliable
and teachable.

Psychological Characteristics of the Child

 Children are interested to learn

 Children need immediate goals (short term goals)
 Children need routine
 Play plays a vital role in child development
Needs of a Child

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of basic human needs

 Physiological needs- hunger, thirst, breathing

 Safety and security needs – protection from injury, pain, extremes of heat
and cold

 Belonging and affection needs – giving and receiving love, warmth

and affection

Esteem and self -respect needs – feeling adequate, competent, worthy, being
appreciated and respected by others.

 Self-Actualization needs – self fulfillment by using one’s talent and potentials

Understanding children’s behavior

Development of positive behavior. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
believed that by nature men are basically good that what makes man evil are the
influences of his society.

To develop positive behavior in children, the following must be emphasized:

1. Contribution – children should be encouraged to contribute because this

is one way of showing to them that they are an important part of the group.

2. Responsibility – children should not be encouraged to involve themselves in

decision making, and be made responsible for their own behavior and actions within
the limits of the group.

3. Cooperation – children should be encouraged to resolve problems

and difficult situations through a concerted effort of all the members of the group.

Causes of children’s misbehaviors

The American Physchological Association (1993) concluded that a breakdown of

family processes and relationships contributes to children’s antisocial behavior. On the
other hand, Thuroton and Benning (1993) suggested that the following family variables
affect the behavior of the child:

1. Parental supervision and discipline – inadequate, too lax, too strict

or inconsistent and erratic.

2. Parents are indifferent or hostile to the child .They disapprove many

things about the child and handed out angry physical punishment.

3. The family operated only partially as a unit, if at all, and the marital
relationship lacked closeness and equality of partnership.

4. Parents found it difficult to discuss concerns regarding the child and believed
that they had little influence on the child. They believed that other children exerted
bad influence on their child.

The parents have too much expectation about their child

THE TEACHER AND THE LEARNING PROCESS

The teacher is someone who causes others to learn. He is a person who exerts a
considerable influence in the life of other people specifically the children under his care.

The Roles of a Teacher

1. Model 5. Evaluator of student’s performance

2. Classroom Manager 6. Parent surrogate
3. Facilitator of learning 7. Counselor
4. Motivator 8. Friend

Qualities of an Effective Teacher

K – Knowledge
A – Attitude (Zia Zigalar – your attitude not your aptitude will determine your altitude)
S – Skills
H – Habits
E – Experience

Intelligence

Good health (mens sana encorpore sano)

Self Confident (cogito ergo sum)

Affability (Friendliness)

Consideration for others

Educationally qualified (R.A.7836)

Morally strong

The needs of Teachers

 Fair treatment
 Firmness and understanding from their superiors
 Positive atmosphere
 Recognition for their contributions
  Chance for professional growth

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Classroom management as defined by Good (1959) is the administration or

direction of activities with special reference to problems involving discipline, democratic

techniques, use of supplies and other materials, the physical features of the
classroom, general housekeeping and the social relationships of the pupils and
teachers. It can be summarized as the operation and control of classroom activities.

Principles behind Classroom Management

 Teachers should plan activities that are suited to the classroom conditions.
 The teacher’s disciplinary policies must be in accordance with the
school policies.
 The teachers must observe some routinary procedures to save time and
energy (i.e entering and leaving the room, passing papers, etc.)
 The teachers must take into consideration the needs and conditions of
their students.
 The teachers must utilize positive rather than engative approach in dealing
with children.

Causes of Disciplinary Problems in the Classroom

1. Teacher’s personality – lack of knowledge of the subject matter,

poor decision making, etc.

2. Physical factors – health conditions of the child

3. Individual factors – individual differences due to family and

community background, etc.

4. Social factors – adjustment to the group

5. Emotional factors

6. School environment

Ways to Improve Classroom Discipline

 Know you subject matter and be prepared at all times.

 Come to class ahead of you students.
 Call the class to order as soon as the bell rings.
 Follow some established daily routine.
 Check the condition of the class as well as the condition of every pupil.
  Check pupil’s assignemnts regularly and return their work promptly
 Explain to your pupils your expectations of every acitivity that they
will accomplish.
 Provide adequate time for every acitivity.
 Do not threaten your pupils. If threatened, the pupils often feel challenged to see
how serious Are you and how far they could go before you carry out your
threats.
 Have a good sense of humor.

 Compliment your students on worthy contributions

 Try to involve all pupils to class activities.
 Handle calmly all attempts to distract your attention.
 Always have a contingency plan in case of emergency.
 Never be sarcastic.

 Always consider individual difference indealing with your pupils

 Never make a martyr out of a trouble maker.
 Never punish all your pupils for the fault of one.

THE ART OF QUESTIONING

Questioning is the starting point of learning. People learn because they ask
questions. In the teaching-learning process the kind of questions that a teacher asks
and the way he asks them to some extent determines his affectivity as well as the
outcome of his teaching methods and techniques.

PURPOSE

 To discover the impact of the lesson to the students

 To evaluate the student’s performance
 To direct the minds of the students to the important aspects of the lesson
 To give the students a chance to express themselves
 To develop the thinking and reasoning ability of the students and help
them analyze ideas

 To acquire information
 To draw out interpretation
 To manifest retention of knowledge
 To develop the skills to answer effectively and eleciting comprehension
 To energize the mind or the imagination resulting to internalization of concepts

 To check whether these concepts are internalized for use in the

Students academic and functional life.
 To develop the students problem solving skills and decision-making faculties
LEVELS OF QUESTIONING

1. Literal

 “right there” questions

 note or recall clearly stated facts and details
 follow directions
 associate quotation with speaker

2. Interpretative

 think and search question

 indetify character traits, emotional reactions
 interpret figurative language
 anticipate events
 recognize sensory images
 sense implied meaning of words, phrases and sentences

3. Critical

 give oponions, reactions to the selection

 discriminate between fancy and reality, fact or opinion
 identify assumptions, points of view, author’s purpose
and style
 determine relevance
 weigh values presented

4. Integrative/Application

 “typing up” questions

 comparing and contrasting old and new ideas gained from reading
 synthesizing ideas learned
 making a different ending

HIERARCHY OF QUESTIONS

Discussed herein is the hierarchy of questions that the tachers usually ask
regardless of the subjects being taught.This hierarchy is based on Benjamin Bloom’s
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

1. Knowledge (Memory) Questions

Trains the ability to recall, bring to mind appropriate materials learned previously
such as specific names, facts, places, figures, events, concepts, principles and others.
The correct answer is usually a verbatim repetition of knowledge acquired from a
specific source.

Typical Knowledge questions:

  When was the Katipunan founded?
 Who founded the Katipunan?
 Identify the people involved in the Philippine Revolution.
 Enumerate the demands of the La Liga Filipina.
o Key words: name, tell, list, describe, recall, state, define, identify

2. Comprehension Questions

Train a student to understand oral and written communications and make use of
them.

Comprehension questions may be manifested by the students in the following ways:

 The student can express ideas in his own words.

 The student can separate the essential from the non-essential.
 The student can establish relationships among things
 The student can extrapolate or predict an event from a trend or pattern
 The student can make inferences or give the probable consequences of events.

Typical comprehension questions:

1. Explain in your own words the El Niño ang La Niña Phenomena.

2. Compare and contrast the atmosphere of the Earth and Saturn.
3. Predict what will happen to the Philippines under the Estrada presidency.
Key words: extrapolate, explain, compare, predict, illustrate, infer, b
estimate.

3. Application Questions

Require the students to transfer what they have learned to new situations
with little or no supervision. The student is expected to put some skills into practice,
solve problems and construct something.

Typical application questions:

1. Which of the following best exemplifies asexual reproduction?

2. How do you express in algebraic equation – the age of the Earth is twice
the age of the Moon?

Key words: demonstrate, plan, solve, apply, build, develop, construct

4. Analysis Questions

Require a student to breakdown an idea into its parts, to distinguish these parts
and know their relationships to one another. The student is able to distinguish relevant
from irrelevant data, a fact from a generalization, an assumption from a conclusion
and select facts which are essential to support hypothesis.
 Typical analysis questions:
 What part of the essay is the conclusion?
 What part or parts support the stated conclusion?
 What part of the essay is factual and what part is hypothetical?
 What are the fallacies in the arguments presented?
Keywords: classify, distinguish, discriminate, categorize, analyze, detect
5. Synthesis Questions

The student puts together or integrates a number of ideas or facts into new
arrangement. Some common focus of synthesis is the summary of the lesson either
written or oral, a proposal, a plan of action, a short story play, a bulletin board display,
a literary-musical program and the like.

Typical symthesis questions:

 How can you help improve our economy?

 What are the alternative crops in order to cushion the effects of the El
Niño phenomenon in our agriculture?
 What plans can you propose to make the centennial celebration
more meaningful?

Key words: propose a plan, formulate a solution, develop, create, make up,
summarize

5. Evaluation Questions
The students appraise, criticize or judge the worth of an idea, a statement or a
plan on the basis of a set of criteria provided to them or which they themselves have
developed.

Typical evaluation questions:

1, Is it good for the Filipinos to ratify the VFA?
2. Are you in favor of amending the present constitution?
3. Evaluate the achievements of the Ramos administration.

Key words: select, judge, evaluate, decide, which do you prefer

LESSON PLANNING

Effective classroom management deends on a large measure on the teacher’s

ability to plan interesting, student-centered, multi-activity lessons to promote a high
degree of student involvement and maximum participation.

Lesson planning is a vital part of teaching for all the various elements involved in
instruction, such as objectives content or subject matter, instructional procedures,
evaluation and related matters are given due attention.

LESSON PLAN
 Lesson Plan is the term applied to the statement of objectives to be realized and
the methods to be used in the attainment of such objectives within the specified time.

Importance of Lesson Planning

 Helps the teachers to be systematic and orderly.

 Delimits the field to be taught for a certain class period.
 Prevents waste and unnecessary repetitions of lessons already taken up.
 Forces consideration of objcetives, selection of subject matter, selection of
procedures, planning of activities and preparation of tests serve as an
inventory of what the children have already learned.

Component of a Lesson Plan

1. Objective – States the aims which the lesson seeks to achieve. It must be Specific.
Measurable, Attainable, Results-Oriented or Realistic and Time-Bounded (SMART).

2. Subjec Matter – States the topics or the titles of selectin, books used and the
page numbers concerned. We also indicate the materials and value to be infused.

3. Learning Activities – These are the different activities to be undertaken to

realize the objectives.

Evaluation – The test we usually give to determine whether the students have
mastered the lessons. The part of the lesson plan that gives us feedback
4. Assignment – The teacher provides the topics for discussion in their next meeting
or the additional activities to reinforce student learning.

SAMPLE LESSON PLAN IN GRAMMAR

1. OBJECTIVE – must be specific, measurable, and attainable, and within the

allotted time.

2. SUBJECT MATTER – states the titles of selection, books used and the
page numbers concerned, states also the value stressed.

3. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
 Review – Recall of the past lesson.

 Identification exercises – Unlock the new

structure/vocabulary which will be used in the
presentation material through the usual procedure,
like showing pictures, giving situations, doing
certain actions, etc.
 Presentation – Present the new structure/vocabulary
through any of the following presentation materials –a
dialog, a story, a paragraph, a comic strip, a song, a
poem, a letter, an advertisement, etc.
D. Comprehensive Check-up – Ask a number of comprehension questions which
aims at the following:

1. To check the student’s understanding of the presentation material.

2. To give the students experience in using the new
language structure/vocabulary

E. Practice – Give at least 3 communication situations/experiences which maximize

students participation and their meaningful use of the new language
structure/vocabulary. Some ways to maximize student participation are the use of
the following:

 small group technizque

 dyadic exchange
 milling around
 picture charts/chart exercises
 real objects/cutouts/pictures
 dialogs/stories
 games /riddles / contests,etc.
F. Generalization – Have some sentences containing the new structure written on
the board or on a chart. Help the student analyze the sentences through questions,
the answer to which will lead to the generalization(s). Make generalizations as simple
as possible.

G. Application

1. Oral – Conduct exercises similar to those under practice

2. Written – Give situation similar to those given during the oral application,
have all the students write a sentence at their seats in answer to your question. Ask
two students to write their sentences on the board.

After everyone has finished writing, have all the students check the boardwork with your
guidance. Have them also check their own sentences. If time permits, give additional
situations to elicit written answers from the students.

4. FORMATIVE TEST – Give at least 5 items which are congruent with the objective.
To make the students familiar with the kind of response expected of them, make at least
one of the practice exercises in the lesson proper of the same type as the formative
test. As much as possible, items should be related to each other, that is, they treat of
the same experience or situation.

5. ASSIGNMENT – This should be an outgrowth of the lesson, not some writing

task which is new or strange to the pupils.
SAMPLE LESSON PLAN IN LITERATURE

I. OBJECTIVE – Make this specific, measurable and attainable within the allotted
time. Choose a comprehension or a study skill.

II. SUBJECT MATTER – Write the title of selections and books to be used,
indicating the page numbers. State also the value stressed.

III. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

A. Unlocking of difficulties – Unlock unfamiliar vocabulary/concepts in the

selection through:

1. Rea objects/pictures/cut-outs
2. Gestures/facial expressions/demonstrations
3. Situations/short paragraphs
4. Context clues
5. The dictionary, etc.

B. Motivation –The motivation question should be:

1. A “big question” – “big” in the sense that it illicits many different answers from
the students based on their experience.

2. Related to the story to be read and can be answered without the students reading
the story.

Motive question – It should have characteristics:

1. It is parallel to the motivation question, if possible, so that there is a smooth flow

from motivation question to motive question.

Example of parallel question:

Motivation question – what game do you and your brothers/sisters play?
Motive question – what games did the speaker and his brother play in a poem?
2. It is simple and easy to answer – just means to give the student a motive for reading.

3. The students can answer it only after reading the selection

C. Silent reading of the selection/oral reading of the story

D. Discussion

1. Answering the motive question

2. Answering the 4-D question which gives students a whole grasp of what the
selection is about.
E. Specific skills development (The skills in the objectives)

1. The selection just read can serve as springboard for the development of the skill
and be the material for the first exercise.

2. Additional exercises can be taken from other materials.

IV. FORMATIVE TEST

Same as in the lesson plan in grammar

V. ASSIGNMENT
Same as in the lesson plan in grammar

CHILDREN WHO ARE VICTIMS OF UNEQUAL TEACHING

1. Children who are undertaught

 Fail to learn what they could learn
 Fall behind others and become discouraged
 Develop dislike for school
 May escape from schooling at earliest oppoturnity
 Find themselves boxed in by lack of education

2. Children who are overtaught

 Waste time in overlearning
 Become board with school
 May develop distaste for learning
 May fail to find themselves

3. Children who are mistaught

 Limit interest to subjects taught to them
 May learn to dislike or fear some subjects
 Fail to develop broad base for further learning
 Grow up half educated

4. Children who are not taught

Respond less to their environment
May develop prejudices against the arts
Function in a limited way in some aspects of human relationships

May remain ignorant of important realms of human experience

THE TWELVE THINGS TO DO TO IMPROVE THE GRADE OF OUR PUPILS

 Let him or her know you are interested.

 An important key, surround him with books.
 Happiness is a vital ingredient of success.
 An adequate place for study.
  Help your child acquire sound study habits.
 Help your child believe in himself.
 Increase your child’s interest in learning
 Teach your child to use reference books.
 Help your child read better.
 Help your child learn to write legibly and fast.
 Help your child learn to listen.
 Help your child learn to take tests.

TEN COMMANDMENTS OF TEACHING

 THOU SHALT KNOW THYSELF

 THOU SHALT KNOW THY STUDENTS
 THOU SHALT KNOW THY SUBJECT MATTER WELL
 THOU SHALT RESPECT THY STUDENTS AS PERSONS
 THOU SHALT MOTIVATE THY STUDENTS TO LEARN
 THOU SHALT COMMUNICATE EFFECTIVELY
 THOU SHALT CIRCULATE
 THOU SHALT AVOID TALKING TOO MUCH IN CLASS
 THOU SHALT EVALUATE LEARNING OUTCOMES REGULARLY
 THOU SHALT DO WHAT THOU SAYEST

THE 8 be ATTITUDES OF A TEACHER

1. BE COMPETENT 5. BE OPEN
2. BE CONCERNED 6. BE PATIENT
3. BE CREATIVE 7. BE POSITIVE
4. BE CONSISTENT 8. BE YOURSELF

LIST OF BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES

(TALAAN NG MGA LAYUNING PANGKAUGALIAN)

I. COGNITIVE (PANGKABATIRAN)

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

(Sa katapusan ng aralin, ang mga mag-aaral ay inaasahang):

A. Knowledge objectives (Mga layuning pangkabatiran)

1. Recall, recognize data, concepts and generalization related to…..

(Nagkagugunita, nakakikilala ng mga datos, mga kaisipan at paglalahat na nauugnay
sa…..)

2. Deduce that… (Nakahihinuha…..)

3. Identify or recognize….. (Nakakikilala…..)
4. Tell the difference between…… (Nasasabi ang pagkakaiba ng…..)
B. Inquiry and skills objectives (Mga layunin ukol sa pagsisiyasay at kasanayan)

1. Explain how…. (Nakapagpapaliwanag kung paano…..)

2. Describe and compare….. (Nakapaglalarawan at nakapaghahambing…)

3. Demonstrate how…… (Nakapagpapakita ng paraan kung paano…..)

4. Distinguish…..from…. (Nakakikilala ng pagkakaiba…..sa….)

5. Consider and use …… (Naisasaalang-alang at nagagamit…)

6. Plan carefully and….. (Maingat na nakapagbabalak at ….)

7. Conceive varied ways of …. (Nakapag-iisip ng ibat-ibang paraan…)

8. Formulate effectively….. (Nakapagbubuo nang mabisa ng….)

9. Give evidences or proofs of… (Nakapagbibigay ng mga katibayan o mga

patunay ng….)

10. Weigh the validity of….. (Napagtitimbang-timbang ang katumpakan ng…..)

11. Use a variety of …… (Nakagagamit ng ibat-ibang……)

12. Locate, gather, appraise, summarize and report… (Nakahahanap,

nakatitipon, Nakapagbibigay -halaga, nakapaglalago at nakapag-uulat….)

13. Read …. Material critically (Nababasa nang masusi ang kagamitang…..)

14. Compare, interpret and abstract… (Nakapaghahambing, nakapagbibigay

kahulugan at nakapagbubuod…..)

15. Conclude from available supporting evidences that…. (Nakapaghihinuha buhat

sa mga nakukuhang katibayan pantulong na……)

16. Express ideas effectively in…… (Nakapagpapahayag ng mga kaisipan ng

mabisa sa…..)

17. Organize materials from several sources as…. (Nakabubuo ng mga

kagamitan buhat sa ilang mapagkukunan gaya ng…..)

18. Note sequences of events….. (Nabibigyang-pansin ang pagkakasund-sunod ng

mga pangyayari….)

19. Examine critically…… (Nakapagsisiyasat nang masusi….)

20. Recall experiences pertinent to….. (Nakagugunita ng mga karanasang

may kinalaman sa….)
21. State… clearly (Nakapagpapahayag ng…. nang maliwanag…..)

22. Consider every aspecs of ……. (Naisasaalang-alang ang lahat ng

panig/bahagi ng….)

23. Select materials relevant to… (Nakapipili ng mga kagamitang may kaugnayan sa..)

24. Classify….. (Nakapagsusuri…..)

25. Analyze….. (Nakapag-uuri ng…….)

26. Differentiate …….from…. (Nakikita ang pagkakaiba

27. Define…..clearly…. (Nabibigyang kahulugan ang…..nang naliliwanagan…)

28. Infer or deduce….. (Nahihinuha or napaghuhulo .. )

29. Correlate……. (Nakapag-uugnay…..)

30. Arrange……. (Nakapagsasaayos or naisasaayos….)

31. Discuss…… (Intelligently…. (Natatalakay ng boung talino……)

32. Establish…… (Nakakapagpapatunay/Napananatili…..)

33. Emphasize that…. (Nabibigyang-diin na….)

34. Predict that…… (Nahuhulaan na…….)

35. Specify…… (Natutukoy/Natitiyak…….)

36. Observe carefully….. (Nakapagmamasid nang masusi….)

37. Record accurately……Nakapagtatalang tumpak….)

38. Attain……. (Naaabot/Natatamo…..)

39. Examine carefully….. (Nasisiyasat na mabuti….)

40. Disseminate….. (Nakapagpapalaganap/Napalalaganap…..)

II. AFFECTIVE (ATTITUDES, APPRECIATIONS, IDEALS AND INTERESTS)

PANDAMDAMIN (MGA SALOOBIN, PAGPAPAHALAGA, MITHIIN AT
KAWILIHAN)

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

(Sa katapusam ng aralin, ang mga mag-aaral ay inaasahang):

1. Assume responsibility for ….. (Naisasabalikat ang pananagutan para sa ….)

2. Utilize….wisely and effectively (Nakagagamit ng…….nang matino at mabisa)

3. Observe….strictly (Mahigpit na nakapagmamasid…..)

4. Listen critically and purposively….. (Nakalalahok nang masigla sa …..)

5. Participate actively in….. (Nakalalahok nang masigla sa …..)

6. Sustain interest in…… (Naipagpapatuloy ang kawilihan sa….)

7. Share…..with… (Nakibabahagi…..sa….)

8. Tolerate….. (Nagpapaubaya/nagpaparaya……)

9. Comply with….. (Nakasusunod sa……)

10. Find pleasure in…….. (Nakatatamo ng kasiyahan sa…..)

11. Form sound judgement …..(Nakapagpasiya ng tumpak …)

12. Venerate …..(Nagbibigay- pitagan…..)

13. Control….. (Napipigil…..)

14. Equalize…. (Napagtitimbang….)

15. Appreciate… (Napapahalagahan /Nakapagpapahalaga…)

16. Appreciate… (Humahanga….)

17. Follow…. (Nasusunod/Nakasusunod….)

18. Adjust to…. (Naibabagay…../ Naiaangkop….)

19. Value…… (Pahalagahan…../Napahalagahan….)

20. Satisfy…. (Nasisiyahan…./Nabibigyang kasiyahan….)

21. Maintain…. (Napananatili….)

22. Visit…… (Nadadalaw ……)

23. Conserve….. (Nakapangangalaga…../Napangangalagaan….)

24. Show respect for…. (Nakapagpapamalas ng paggalang sa…)

25. Initiate worthwhile projects…. (Nakapagsisimula ng mga proyektong kapaki-

Pakinabang ….)

26. Commemorate….. (Alalahanin…../Gunitain…..)

27. Strengthen …..(Napalalakas …./Napatitibay….)

28. Intensify …. (Napasisidhi…. /Napatitindi…)

29. Sharpen (Napapatalas …../ (Napatatalim…)

30. Exert more effort in….. (Nakapagsisikap nang higit sa….)

31. Generate…. (Nakalilikha…/Nakapagbibigay……)

III. PSYCHOMOTOR/MANIPULATIVE (PANGKASANAYAN/SAYOKOMOTOR

O PAGKAKAUGNAY NG KAISIPAN AT KILOS)

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

(Sa katapusam mg aralin, ang mga mag-aaral ay inaasahang :)

 Construct…… (Nakayayari…./Nakabubuo…..)

 Build…. (Nakagagawa…../ Nakapagtatayo….)

 Manipulate…… (Nakakahawak……/ Nakagagawa….)

 Make use of…. (Nakagagamit nang…..)

 Perform….. (Nakagagawa…../ Nakagaganap…..)

 Measure…..(Nakasusukat….)

 Handle……(Nakakahahawak…..)

 Execute…..(Naisasakatuparan…/Naisasagawa…)

 Install…..(Nakapagkakabit…/Nakapaglalagay….)
 Copy…..(Nakasisipi…./Nakakukopya….)

 Operate…….(Nakapagpapaandar…./Nakapagpapalakad…..)

 Connect…….(Nakapagdudugtong……/Nakapag-uugnay-ugnay…)

 Experiment on...(Nakagagawa ng pagsubok sa../Nakapag-

eeksperimento sa…)

“Teaching is the noblest of all

professions. Teachers should be proud of

their calling, Knowing that not all people

are capable Of being teachers, for many

are called,

But few are chosen.”

C.D. DUKA

TEACHING STRATEGIES

Teaching has been defined in so many ways by different authors, educators and
experts in the field of education, however for the purpose of this material, we will
define teaching as:

A FULL TIME TASK. It demands all the time, patience, strength, tolerance,
understanding, endurance and sense of humor from the person who desires to be a
teacher.

AN ARTISTIC ACHIEVEMENT. This is reflected in the teacher’s daily projection,

animation, creative planning, sincerity and enduring patience.

A PROCESS OF PRAISE AND ENCOURAGEMENT. This involves loving,

disciplining, helping, guiding, criticizing and accepting the child.

A PROCESS OF TRANSFORMATION. This involves guiding the learner from

the legend to the truth, from the unknown to the known, from the pretentious to
reality and from the unworthy to the meritorious.

SELF SATISFACTION AND FULFILLMENT.

This is obtained from the swee smile of the child who was helped by the teacher, from
his daily contributions to the classroom, and from the achievement of an expectation.

This segment of the reviewer discusses some of the most common teaching
strategies and techniques that the teachers usually employ to deliver the goods to their
clientele – the students, in an efficacious manner. However, it is an accepted tenet and
a known fact that there is no single best teaching methodology that a teacher can
utilize so as to make his students learn, that is why teacher must use his prudence in
the choice of appropriate and effective teaching strategy to attain his ultimate end –
helping his students learn the lessons.
 TEACHING METHODS/STRATEGIES
TEACHING DEFINITION
STRATEGY
Teaching method Ways of presenting instructional materials or conducting
instructional activities
Activity A generic term that refers to any learning acitivity learners might
engage in.
Assessment A learning event specifically designed to asses the learners
understanding of content or his/her ability ability to perform a skill
or set of skills.
Brainstorming A learning event in which a group of learners spontaneously
contribute ideas
Computer Assisted Interactive instructional technique in which a computer is used to
Instruction present instructional material, monitor learning, and select
additional instructional material in accordance with individual
learner needs.
Computer Simulation Computer based representation of real situations or systems

Cooperative A learning technique in which the learners are members of an

Learning interdependent problem solving group in which they collaborate,
share and delegate responsibilities, practice with others of varying
abilities, and practice communicating with others.
Creative Response A learning event in which the learner provides a written response

Demonstration A learning event in which an individual demonstrates how to do

something
Dialog Journals Log or notebooks used by more than one person for exchanging
experiences, ideas, reflection-used most often in education as a
means of sustained writing interaction between students and
teachers at all educational levels and in second language and
othe types of instruction.
Discovery Learning An inquiry-oriented learning event in which the learner discovers

Discussion/Debate Oral, and sometimes written, exchange of opinions usually to

analyze,clarify, or reach conclusions about issues, questions or
problems
Drill & Practice A learning event in which a learner repeats a particular skill in
order to fix in his or her mind.
Experiential Learning Learning by doing – includes knowledge and skills acquired
outside of book/lecture learning situations through work, play and
other life experiences. Experiential education includes adventure
education, environmental education, and service learning
Field Trip A learning event that typically takes place outside of school
grounds.
Game Typically a competition or contest that involves a demonstration of
understanding of content or skill.
Guided Design Reasoning-centered instructional method developed by Charles
E. Wales and Robert A. Stager that uses small-group techniques
and prepared outline of decision making steps to guide students
 through the process of resolving open-ended problems
Hands-On A learning event that engages learners in a practical application of
content and skills
Inquiry Also referred to as scientific Inquiry; refers to activities in which
learners develop knowledge and understanding of how scientists
study the natural world.
Interdisciplinary Participation or cooperation of two or more disciplines.

Interview/Survey A learning event in which learners interview or survey others

about a particular topic.
Introduction A learning event in which a topic is presented for the firs time

Kinesthetic A learning event that involves bodily movement

Laboratory A learning event in that involves practicing science skills and

using scientific equipment.
Lecture A learning event in which one person explains a topic to the rest
of the group or class, and this audience takes notes and listens.
Model & Simulation A learning event in which an educator or learner models or
simulates a natural or physical phenomenon
Montessori Method Child centered approach to teaching, developed by Maria
Montessori and most often used in the early childhood years,that
features a wide range of graded, self –motivational techniques
and materials specially designed to provide sensorimotor
pathways to
higher learning.
Multimedia The integration of more than one medium in a presentation or
Instruction module of instruction.
Museum Education (1)Those changes brought about in the individual through ideas
suggested or communicated by museum materials and their
arrangement. (2)The formal or informal educational program
carried on by museums.
Peer Coaching A learning event in which one learner helps another learner.

Peer Response A learning event in which one learning gives written or verbal
feedback to another learner
Peer Tutoring Instruction provided by a learner , or small group of learners, by
direct interaction with a peer with appropriate training or
experience
Play Typically refers to the manner in which a lot of early learning
occurs
Presentation Typically refers to when a student explains or shows some
content to a learning audience; similar to a lecture
Problem Solving Occurs when learners work to determine the solution to a question
raised for inquiry
Programmed Instruction in which learners progress at their own rate using
Instruction workbooks, textbooks, or electromechanical devices that provide
information in discrete steps, test learning at each step, and
provide immediate feedback about achievement.
Project-Based A task or problem engaged in by a learner or group of learners to
Learning supplement and apply classroom studies
Reading Occurs when a learner reads something

Reinforcement Refers to learning that is practices in order to remember or

otherwise embed the content or skill in the mind
Research An activity in which learners investigate or collect information
about a particular subject.
Review To study material again: to reexamine the learning that occurred
during a unit of study
Role Playing The deliberate acting out of a role, (possibly a role that one woud
notr normally occupy),as part of group therapy or of a learning
session directed towards understanding that role or the situations
with which this occupants have to cope.
Self Paced Referring to materials, learning, courses, etc where the student is
Learning free to learn at his own pace. That is, the speed of presentation of
learning materials is not decided by a teacher, a machine, or other
students in a group, e.g as in independent learning.
Simulation and The use of role playing by actors during the operation of a
games comparatively complex symbolic model of an actual of hypothetical
social process; usually includes gaming and may be all man, man
computer, or all computer operations
Thematic Approach Teaching approach that organizes subject matter around unifying
themes
Visual Instruction Instruction with a great variety of illustrative materials such as
visual slides, films, models, and specimens may be utilized as aids
in pupil understanding or appreciation; not to be confused by sight
saving.
Whole Language Method of integrating language arts’ across the curriculum’ that
Approach uses the real literature of various age groups and subject fields to
promote literacy (i.e., reading, writing, speaking, listening, as well
as thinking, skills.)
Writing A learning event in which the learner writes something.
 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Education

Education is derived from the Latin word “educare” or “educere” which means to
lead forh. It is defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, habits, attitudes, interest,
skills and abilities and other intangible human qualities through training instructions
and self-activity, and transmitting these vital elements of human civilization to posterity

TECHNOLOGY

Technology can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines

or hardware, but it can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods
of organization, and techniques. Some modern tools include but are not limited to
overhead projectors, laptop computers, and calculators. Newer tools such as
“smartphones” and games (both online and offline) are beginning to draw serious
attention for their learning potential.

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Educational Technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning

and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological
processes and resources. The term educational technology is often associated with,
and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory.

While instructional technology covers the processes and systems used in the process
of developing human capability. Educational Technology includes, but is nto limited to,
software, hardware, as well as Internet applications and activities. Educational
technology is simply defined as an array of tools that might prove helpful in advancing
student learning. Educational Technology reliefs on a broad definition of the word
“technology”. (www.wikipedia.org.)

Educational Technology is designed to introduce both traditional and innovative

technologies to facilitate and foster meaningful and effective learning. Students are
expected to demonstrate a sound understanding of the nature, application and
production of the various types of educational technologies. The course will likewise
focus both on developing teacher support materials and the production of technology-
based student outputs.
THEORIES
 There are three main schools of thought or philosophical frameworks behind
educational technology. These are Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism.

Behaviorism

This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century with the
animal learning experiences of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C.Tolamn,
Clark L. Hull, B.F Skinner and others.

Many psychologists used these theories to describe and experiment with human
learning. While still very useful this philosophy of learning has lost favor with many
educators.

Skinner’s Contributions

B.F Skinner wrote extensively on improvements of teaching based on his

functional analysis of Verbal Behavior, and wrote “The technology of Teaching”, an
attempt to dispel the myths underlying contemporary education, as well as promote his
system he called programmed instruction. Ogden Lindsley also developed the
Celeration learning system similarly based on behavior analysis but quite different from
Keller’s and Skinner’s models.

Cognitivism

Cognitive has changed how educators view learning. Since the very early
beginning of the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960’s and 1970’s, learning theory has
undergone a great deal of change. Much of the empirical framework of behaviorism was
retained even though a new paradigm had begun. Cognitive theories look beyond
behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivist consider to how human memory
works to promote learning.

After memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley’s
Working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in Cognitive
Psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970’s
80’s and 90’s.

It is important to note that Computer Science and Information Technology have had a major
influence on Cognitive Science Theory. The Cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly
known as short term memory) and long tern memory have major influence on the field of
Cognitive Science is Noam Chomsky. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like
Cognitive load and Information Processing Theory

Constructivism

Constructivism is a learning theory or educational philosophy that many

educators began to consider in the 1990’s. One of the primary tenets of this philosophy
is that learners construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with
reality or others with different perspectives.

Constructivist learning environment require students to utilize their prior

knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related and/or adaptive concepts in
learning. Under this framework the role of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator,
providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge.

Constructivist educators must make sure that the prior learning experiences are
appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassesn (1997) suggests “well-
structured” learning environment are useful for novice learners and that “ill-structured”
environments are only useful for more advance learners. Educators utilizing technology
when teaching with a constructivist perspective should choose technologies that
reinforce prior learning perhaps in a problem-solving environment.

Connectivism

Connectivism is “a learning theory for the digital age.” And has been developed
by George Siemens and Stephen Downes based in their analysis of the limitations of
how we live, how we communicate, and how we learn. Donal G. Perrin, Executive
Editor of the International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning
says the theory “combines relevant elements of many learning theories, social
structures, and technology to create a powerful theoretical construct for learning in the
digital age.”(www.wikipedia.org)

USE OF AUDIOVISUAL AIDS

John Amos Comeniums (1592-1670) wrote Orbis Pictus Sensualium or the World
of Sensible Things Pictured, a book which is considered as the first book on the use of
visual aids in classroom teaching.

Audiovisual aids are defined as any device used to aid in the communication of
an idea. As such, virtually anthing can be used as an audio visual aid provided it
successfully communicates the idea or information for which it is designed.
An audiovisual aid includes still photography, motion picture, audio or video tape, slide
or filmstrip, that is prepared individually or in combination to communicate information
or to elicit a desired audience response.
Even though early aids, such as maps and drawing are still in use, advances in
the audiovisual field have opened up new methods of presenting these aids, such as
videotapes and multimedia equipment which allow more professional and entertaining
presentation not only in the classrooms but also anywhere in which ideas are to be
conveyed to the audience.

DEVICE
Device is any means other than the subject -matter itself that is employed by the
teacher in presenting the subject matter to the learner.

Purpose of Visual Devices

1. To challenge student’s attention
2. To stimulate the imagination and develop the mental imagery of the pupils
3. To facilitate the understanding of the pupils
4. To provide motivation to the learners
5. To develop the ability to listen

Tradition Forms of Visual Aids

1. Demonstration
2. Field Trips
3. Laboratory experiments
4. Pictures, films, simulations, models
5. Real objects

Classification of Devices

1. Extrinsic – used to supplement a method

used Ex. Picture, graph, film strips, slides,

etc.

2. Intrinsic – used as a part of the method or teaching

procedure Ex. Pictures accompanying an article

3. Material Devices – device that have n o bearing on the subject

matter Ex. Blackboard, chalk, books, pencils, etc.

4. Mental Devices – a kind of device that is related in form and meaning to the
subject matter being presented
5. Ex. Questions, projects, drills, lesson plans, etc.
6.

ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING

It focuses on the development and utilization of assessment tools to improve the

teaching-learning process. It emphasizes on the use of testing for measuring
knowledge, comprehension and other thinking skills. It allows the students to go
through the standard steps in test constitution for quality assessment. Students will
experience how to develop rubrics for performance-based and portfolio assessment.

Measurement refers to the quantitative aspect of evaluation. It involves

outcomes that can be quantified statistically. It can also be defined as the process in
determining and differentiating the information about the attribtutes or characteristics of
things.

Evaluation is the qualitative aspects of determining the outcomes of learning. It

involves value judgement. Evaluation is more comprehensive than measurement. In
fact, measurement is one aspect of evaluation.

Test consist of question or exercises or other for measuring the outcomes of

learning

CLASSIFICATION OF TESTS

1. According to manner of response

 oral
 written

2. According to method of preparation

 subjectivity/essay
 objective

3. According to the nature of answer

 personality tests
 intelligence test
 aptitude test
 achievement or summative test
 sociometric test
 diagnostic or formative test
 trade or vocational test

Objective tests are tests which have definite answers and therefore are not
subject to personal bias.
Teacher-made tests or educational tests are constructed by the teachers based
on the contents of different subjects taught.

Diagnostics tests are used measure a students strengths and weaknesses,

usually to identify deficiencies in skills or performance.

Formative and summative are terms often used with evaluation, but they may
also be used with testing.

Formative testing is done to monitor student’s attainment of the instructional

objectives. Formative testing occurs over a period of time and monitors student
progress.

Summative testing is done at the conclusion of instruction and measures the extent to
which students have attained the desired outcomes.

Standardized tests are already valid, reliable and objective. Standardized tests
are tests for which contents have been selected and for which norms or standards have
been established. Psychological tests and government national examinations are
examples of standardized tests.

Standards or norms are the goals to be achieved expressed in terms of the

average performance of the population tested.

Criterion-referenced measure is a measuring device with a predetermined level of

success or standard on the part of the test-takers. For example, a level of 75 percent
score in all the test items could be considered a satisfactory performance.

Norm-referenced measure is a test that is scored on the basis of the norm or

standard level of accomplishment by the whole group taking the test. The grades of the
students are based on the normal curve of distribution

CRITERIA OF A GOOD EXAMINATION

A good examination must pass the following criteria:

Validity
Validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to
measure. It is the usefulness of the test for a given measure. A valid test is always
reliable. To test the validity of a test it is to be pretested in order to determine If it really
measures what it Intends to measure or what it purports to measure.

Reliability
Realibility pertains to the degree to which a test measure what is suppose to
measure. The test of reliability is the consistency of the results when it is administered
to different groups of individuals with similar characteristics in different places at
different times. Also, the results are almost similar when the test is given to the same
group of individuals at different days and the coefficient of correlation is not less than
0.85.

Objectivity
Objectivity is the degree to which personal bias is eliminated in the scoring of the
anwers. When we refer to the quality of measurement, essentially, we mean the
amount of information contained in a score generated by the measurement. Measures
of student instructional outcomes are rarely as precise as those of physical
characteristics such as height and weight.

Student outcomes are more difficult to define, and the units of measurement are
usually not physically units. The measures we take in students vary in quality, which
prompts the need for different scales of measurement. Terms that describe the levels
of measurement in these scales are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.

Measurements may differ in the amount of information the numbers contain.

These differencies are distinguished by the terms nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio
scales of measurement.
 The term nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio actually form a hierarchy. Nominal
scales of measurement are the least sophisticated and contain the least information.
Ordianl, interval, and ratio scales increase respectively in sophistication.

The arrangement is a hierarchy in the higher levels, along with additional data. For
example, numbers from an interval scale of measurement contain all of the information
that nominal and ordinal scales would provide, plus some supplementary input.

However, a ratio scale of the same attribute would contain even more information than
the interval scale.This idea will become more clear as each scale of measurement is
described.

Nominal Measurement

Nominal scales are the least sophisticated; they merely classify objects or
events by assigning numbers to them. These numbers are arbitrary and imply no
quantification, but the categories must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
For example, one could nominally designate baseball positions by assigning the pitcher
the numberal 1; the catcher, 2; the first baseman, 3; the second baseman, 4; and so on.
These assignments are arbitrary; no arithmetic of these numbers is meaningful. For
example, 1 plus 2 does not equal 3, because a pitcher plus a catcher does not equal a
first baseman.

Ordinal Measurement

Ordinal scales classify but they also assign rank order. An example of ordinal
measurement is ranking individuals in a class according to their test scores. Students
scores could be ordered from the first, second, third and so forth to the lowest score.

Such a scale gives more information than nominal measurement, but it still has
limitations. The units of ordinal measurement are most likely unequal. The number of
points separating the first and second students probably does not equal the number
separating the fifth and sixth students. These unequal units of measurements are
analogous to a rules in which some inches are longer than others. Addition and
substraction of such units yield meaningless numbers.

Interval Measurement

In order to be able to add and subtract scores, we use interval scales,

sometimes called equal interval or equal unit measurement. This measurement scale
contains the nominal and ordinal properties and is also characterized by equal units
between score points.

Example include thermometers and calendar years. For instance, the difference in
temperature between 10º and 20º is the same as that between 47º and 57º. Likewise
the difference in length of time betweem 1946 and 1948 equals that between 1973 and
 1975. These measures are defined in terms of physical properties suc that the
intervals are equal.

For example, a year is the time it takes for the earth to robit the sun. The advantage of
equal units of measurement in straightforwards: Sums and differences now make
sense, both numerically and logically. Note, however, the zero point in interval
measurement is really an arbitrary decision; for example, 0º does not mean that there
is no temperature.

Ratio Measurement
The most sophisticated type of measurement includes all the preceding
properties, but in a ratio scale, the zero point is not arbitrary; a score of zero includes
the absence of what is being measured. For example, if a person’s wealth equalled
zero, he or she would have no wealth at all.

Norm-Referenced and Criterion Referenced Measurement

When we contrast norm-referenced measurement (or testing) with criterion-

referenced measurement, we are basically referring to two different ways of interpreting
of information. However, Popham (1988 page 135) points out the certain characteristics
tend to go with each type of measurement, and it unlikely that results of norm-
referenced tests are interpreted in criterion-referenced ways and vice versa.

Norm-Referenced interpretation historically has been used in education; norm-

referenced tests continue to comprise a substantial portion of the measurement in
today’s schools. The terminology of criterion-referenced measurement has existed for
close to three decades, having been formally introduced with Glaser’s (1963) classic
article.
Over the years, there has been occasional confusion with the terminology and how
criterion-referenced measurement applies in the classroom. Do not infer that just
because a test is published, it will necessarily be norm-referenced, or if teacher-
constructed, criterion-referenced. Again, we emphasize that the type of measurement
or testing depends on how the scores are interpreted. Both types can be used by the
teacher.

Norm-Referenced Interpretation

Norm-referenced interpretation stems from the desire to differentiate among

individuals or to discriminate among the individuals of some defined group on whatever
is being measured. In norm-referenced measurement, an individual’s score is
interpreted by comparing it to the scores of a defined group, often called normative
group.

Norm-referenced interpretation is a relative interpretation based on an

individual’s position with respect to some group, often called the normative group.
Norms consist of the score, usuallyin some form of descriptive statistics, of the
normative group.

In norm-referenced interpretation, the individual’s position in the normative groups is of concern; thus,
this kind of positionining does not specify the performance in absolute terms. The norm being used is
the basis of comparison and the individual score is designated by its position in the normative group.

STAGES IN TEST CONSTRUCTION

I. Planning the Test

A. Determining the Objectives

B. Preparing the Table of Specifications
C. Selecting the Appropriate Item Format
D. Writing the Test Items
E. Editing the Test Items

II. Trying Out the Test

A. Administering the First Tryout – then Item Analysis

B. Administering the Second Try-out then Item Analysis
C. Preparing the Final Form of the Test

III. Establishing Test Validity

IV. Establishing the Test Reliability

V. Interpreting the Test Score

MAJOR CONSIDERATIONS IN TEST CONSTRUCTION

The following are the major considerations in test construction:

Type of Test
Our usual idea of testing is an in-class test that is administered by the teacher.
However, there are many variations on this theme: group tests, individual tests, written
tests, oral tests, speed tests, power tests, pretests and post tests. Each of these has
different characteristics that must be considered when the tests are planned.

If it is a take-home test rather than an in-class test, how do you make sure that
students work independently, have equal access to sources and resources, or spend a
sufficient but not enormous amount of time on the task? If it is a pretest, should it
exactly match the past test so that a gain score can be computed, or should the pretest
contain items that are diagnostic of prerequisite skills and knowledge?
If it is an achievement test, should partial credit be awarded, should there be penalties
for guessing, or should points be deducted for grammar and spelling errors?

Obviously, the test plan must include a wide array of issues. Anticipating these
potential problems allows the tst constructor to develop positions or policies that are
consistent with his or her testing philosophy. These can then be communicated to
students, administrators, parents and other who may be affected by the testing
program. Make a list of the objectives, the subject matter taught, and activities
undertaken. These are contained in the daily lesson plans of the teacher and in the
references or textbook used. Such tests are usually very indirect methods that only
approximate real-world applications. The constraints in classroom testing are often due
to time and the development level of the students.

Test Length

A major decision in the test planning is how many items should be included on
the test. There should be enough to cover the content adequatelym but the length of
the class period or the attention span or fatigue limits of the students usually restrict the
test length. Decisions about test length are usually based on practical constraints more
than on theoretical considerations.

Most teachers want test scores to be determined by how much the student
understands rather than by how quickly he or she answers the questions. Thus,
teachers prefer power tests, where at least 90 percent of the students have time to
attempt 90 percent of the test items. Just how many items will fit into a given test
occasion is something that is learned through experience with similar groups of
students.

Item Formats

Determining what kind of items to include on the test is major decision. Should
they be objectively scored formats such as multiple choice or matching type? Should
they cause the students to organize their own thoughts through short answer or essay
formats?

These are important questions that can be answered only by the teacher in terms of
the local context, his or her students, his or her classroom, and the specific purpose of
the test. Once the planning decision are made, the item writing begins. This tank is
often the most feared by the beginning test constructors. However, the procedure are
more common sense than formal rules.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN PREPARING A TEST

1. Are the instructional objectives clearly defined?

2. What knowledge, skills and attitudes do you want to measure?

3. Did you prepare a table of specifications?

4. Did you formulate well defined and clear test items?

5. Did you employ correct English in writing the items?

6. Did you avoid giving clues to the correct answer?

7. Did you test the important ideas rather than the trivial?
 8. Did you adapt the test’s difficulty to your students ability?

9. Did you avoid using textbook jargons?

10. Did you cast the items in positive form?

11. Did you prepare a scoring key?

12. Does each item have a single correct answer?

13. Did you review your items?

GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN CONSTRUCTING

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTS

 The test items should be selected very carefully. Only important facts should
be included.

 The test should have extensive sampling of items.

 The test items should be carefully expressed in simple, clear, definite,

and meaningful sentences.

 There should be only one possible correct response for each test item.
 Each item should be independent. Leading clues to other items should
be avoided.
 Lifting sentences from books should not be done to encourage thinking
and understanding.

 The first person personal pronouns I and we should not be used.

 Various types of test items should be made to avoid monotony.

 Majority of the test items should be of moderate difficulty. Few difficult and
few easy items should be included.

 The test items should be arranged in an ascending order of difficulty. Easy items
should be at the beginning to encourage the examinee to pursue the test and
the most difficult items should be at the end.

 Clear, concise, and complete directions should precede all types of test.
Sample test items may be provided for expected responses.

 Items which can be answered by previous experience alone without

knowledge of the subject matter should not be included.

 Catchy words should not be used in the test items.

  Test items must be based upon the objectives of the course and upon the course
content.

 The test should measure the degree of achievement or determine the

difficulties of the learners.

 The test should emphasize ability to apply and use facts as well as knowledge
of facts.

 The test should be of such length that it can be completed within the time
allotted by all or nearly all of the pupils. The teacher should perform the test
herself to determine its approximate time allotment.

 Rules governing good language expression, grammar, spelling, punctuation,

and capitalization should be observed in all items.

 Information on how scoring will be done should be provided.

 Scoring keys in correcting and scoring tests should be provided.

HIERARCHY OF VALUES

Hierarchy of values refers to the different scales or graduation of prioritizing

values. Listed below are some philosophers and their respective hierarchy of values.

PLATO (427-347 B.C)

 Knowledge – philosophers
 Honor – warriors
 Money/Business – artisans/merchants
 Pleasure
 Passion

MAX SCHELER

 Pleasure values
 Vital or welfare values
 Spiritual or cultural
Sacred – religious

DEFECTIVE NORMS OF MORALITY

Defective norms of morality is the term given to the different philosophical

beliefs about morality which somehow do not conform to the universally accepted
standards of human morality. Listed below are some of these non-conformists’ moral
ideologies;

HEDONISM is the belief that morality is determined by the acquisition of

pleasure. What is pleasurable and anything that bring pain is immoral. The supreme
end of man is acquisition of pleasure and delight. The foremost advocates of this
ideology were Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) of England, Epicurus and Democritus of
ancient Greece.

UTILITARIANISM subscribes to the idea that an acts is good if it brings good result or
the achievement of one’s goals and it is bad if it fails make man attain his goals. The
forerunners of this belief were Herbert Spencer and Charles Sanders Pierce.

Types of Utilitarianism

o individual or egoism
o social or altruism – the greatest good for the
greatest number.

Moral Rationalism is the belief that human reason is the sole source of all moral laws.
It was advocated by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) of Prussia

Moral Evolutionism is the idea that morality is not absolute but keeps on
changing until such time it reaches the perfect state. It was advocated by Friedrich
Nietzcshe (1844- 1900) of Germany who believed that the society must produce strong
people and kill the weak,which eventually became the basis of Hitler’s ideal of Aryan
supremacy.
Moral Positivism. This theory advocates that state laws are the bases of all
moral laws, ergo it is good if is in accordance with the laws of the state and anything
that opposes the state laws must be rejected. The foremost advocate of this ideology
was Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) of England.

Moral Sensism is the belief that man is endowed with special moral sense that
can distinguish good or evil. Therefore, an action is moral if it is harmony with this
human sense and immoral if not in harmony with this sense.

Communism is an economic theory which is based on the ideals of a classless

society as expounded in the UTOPIA written by Sir Thomas More of England and
COMMUNIST MANIFESTO written by Karl Marx of Germany, who believed that history
is marked by the constant struggle between classes of people and in order to attain an
ideal state, the burgeois or the ruling class must be overthrown by the proletarian or the
working class. This ideology denies the existence of God and views religion as an
opium.

It does not recognize human freedom and immortality of man’s soul. It treats man
as just an economic animal
 MODERN PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCAT

HUMANISM

In the ancient literature of Greece and Rome, humanity and the things that
interest and concerned humanity in this life were the focus or central theme. At this
period of revival, humanism was a philosophy that rejected supernaturalism, regarded
man as a natural object and asserted the essential dignity and worth of man and his
capacity to achieve self-realization through the use of reason and scientific method.

It was characterized by the revival of classical letters, an individualistic and critical spirit
and concerns. This movement started in Italy and later spread to other European
countries.

REALISM

Realism as opposed to the realistic movement in the medieval period is defined

as the type of education in which natural phenomena and social institutions rather
than languages and literature are made the chief subjects of study.

It is also considered as an educational philosophy which advocates that

education should be concerned with the actualities of life and prepare for its concrete

duties. It presumably arose as a reaction opposing humanism and religious formalism

that held education captive for nearly three centuries (1300’s to 1700’s).

DISCIPLINISM

This theory, also known as formal discipline, was based on Aristotle’s “faculty”
psychology which asserted that the mind is made up of certain faculties such as
memory, reason, will, judgement, etc. and each of which needs special activities for its
training and development. This theory maintained that the power developed in any
faculty by the study of a school subject can be used equally well in other subjects or to
meet any other experience in life.
Adherents of this theory maintained that Mathematics, because of the
universality of its principles, and linguistic because of the orderly arrangement of its
parts, should be given considerable emphasis for they were peculiarly well adapted to
the training of all the power of the mind like memory and reasoning.

Foremost of the advocates of this philosophy was John Locke who believed that when
the child is born his mind can be compared to “tabula rasa” or a blank tablet, and
whatever experiences the child will acquire it will be imprinted into that tablet and he will
carry these experiences until he grows old.

RATIONALISM

Rationalism was the educational philosophy prevalent in Europe in the latter part
of the seventeenth century. It took its roots during the period known as the “age of
reason” or “age of enlightenment”. This philosophy claimed that human reason was the
sole source of knowledge and the sole determiner whether things or actions were
acceptable or not. Anything that did not conform to human reasoning should be blatantly
rejected.
 Moreover, the rationalist upheld the right of a person expose his own ideas and
opinions, liberty of conscience and freedom of thought and expression. This movement
aimed at the development of individuals by means of restraints based upon his reasons.
By these man can his lot and can contribute to the common good and welfare of his
institutions and society.

NATURALISM

Naturalism is the educational philosophy which adamantly opposed formalism.

This tenet advocated that education should be in accordance with the nature of the child. Therefore, all
educational practices should be focused towards the natural development of all the innate talents and
abilities of the child
This was based on the ideals of Jean Jacques Rousseau who believed that man, by
nature, is basically good and the influences of the society are the things that drive man
to do evil acts. Rousseau wrote EMILE, a novel which is now considered as the Gospel
of the child’s educational freedom.

IDEALISM

This school of thought holds that knowledge is independent of sense perception

or experience. It lays stress on the mental idea, intrinsic or spiritual value rather than
physical fact or material value.
It also asserts that man as a part of the universe is a purposive being and knows some
truths by reasoning logically in the relationship between values, and that true ideas exist
innately in the sould of man. Idealism also claims that man’s knowledge is based on his
mental state and the mental stimulus perceived by man’s soul comes from an infinite
spirit which is God.

And God is the “summum bonum” or the highest good to whom all absolute good,
beauty and values are found.

In education, idealism argues that the individual’s freedom should be

emphasized and guaranteed. The idealist claim that education must provide for the
development of the mind of every pupil, and in order to realize this, the school must
concentrate on intellectual, moral, judgement, and aesthetic development of the
students.

This, they contend, can only be made possible through a subject matter-centered
curriculum designed to provide students with the best ideas of human culture and
civilization.

On the other hand, the idealist expect the teachers to be role models of
intellectual, moral, aesthetic and vocational excellence to their students. They should
teach by example.

PRAGMATISM

It is the doctrine that claims that the meaning of a proposition or idea lies in its
practical consequences. This can be attributed to the teachings of ancient intellectual
 like Heraclitus of ancient Ephesus and the Sophist. Yet pragmatism is education and in
modern perspective is credited to Professor John Dewey, Charles Pierce and William
James, some of the most famous American educators and philosophers. This
philosophy is very much related to experimentalism.

PROGRESSIVISM

It is an equally new approach to the philosophy of education. Like pragmatism, it

claims that the child’s growth and development as an individual depend on his
experiences and self-activity. This philosophy emphasizes that educational concern
must be on the child’s interest, desires and the learner’s freedom as an individual rather
than the subject matter.

It asserts that learning is a dynamic or active process and a learner must learn what he
lives and must accept and respond to his experiences based on the degree of his
understanding of a particular situation.

EXISTENTIALISM

It is a philosophical doctrine which emphasizes the freedom of human beings to

make choices in a world where there are no absolute values outside man himself. This
doctrine is primarily attributed to Soren Kierkegaard, a 19th century Danish philosopher
who adamantly argued that human existence was marked off from all other kidns by
man’s power to choose.

The decisions that a man makes will enable him to realize what kind of person he will be and will make
him distinct from other people. And if a person has developed and is aware of his own identity he will be
able to find meaning and purpose for his existence

ESSENTIALISM
Essentialism is a philosophical theory that ascribes ultimate reality reality to
essence embodied in a thing perceptible to the senses.

In education, it is a philosophy holding that certain basic ideas and skills or

disciplines essential to one’s culture are formulable and should be taught to all alike by
certain time-tested methods. The schools should inculcate into the minds and hearts of
the students the values that are hailed and are considered important by society.
The educational institutions as far as essentialism is concerned are the agencies for
the propagation and perpetuation of these long-cherished cultural traits and not an
entity to oppose such values.