Accepted Manuscript

Architecture and controlling factors of canyon fills on the shelf margin in the
Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea

Yunlong He, Xinong Xie, Benjamin C. Kneller, Zhenfeng Wang, Xushen Li

PII: S0264-8172(12)00060-8
DOI: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2012.03.002
Reference: JMPG 1565

To appear in: Marine and Petroleum Geology

Received Date: 31 October 2011

Revised Date: 13 February 2012
Accepted Date: 12 March 2012

Please cite this article as: He, Y., Xie, X., Kneller, B.C., Wang, Z., Li, X., Architecture and controlling
factors of canyon fills on the shelf margin in the Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea, Marine
and Petroleum Geology (2012), doi: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2012.03.002

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Architecture and controlling factors of canyon fills on the shelf margin in the

Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea

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Yunlong He1,2,3, Xinong Xie1, Benjamin C. Kneller3, Zhenfeng Wang4, Xushen Li4

1. Key Labrotatory of Tectonics and Petroleum Resources of Ministry of Education, China University of
Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China

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2. CAS Key Laboratory of Marginal Sea Geology, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Guangzhou,
510640, China

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3. Department of Geology and Petroleum Geology, Kings College, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen
AB24 3UE, Scotland

4. China National Offshore Oil Corporation Limited, Zhanjiang, 524057, China

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Corresponding author:
Yunlong He
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Department of Marine Science and Engineering
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Faculty of Earth Resources
China University of Geosciences
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Wuhan, China, 430074

Email: [email protected]
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Tel: +86 27 87481306 (O)

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Abstract

Most submarine canyons are documented as erosive features that cut deeply into the shelf margin, and are

considered as important conduits for the transfer of sediment to the lower slope or abyssal plain. However, in

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this study we investigate a series of Late Miocene submarine canyons developed on the shelf margin in the

Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea, which exhibit different morphological features and are

characterized by unidirectional migration. High resolution3D seismic and borehole data have been used to

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investigate the morphology, lithology and stacking pattern of these submarine canyons. Seven submarine

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canyons have been distinguished, with a length of 10-30 kilometers, a width of 500-5000 meters and a

maximum of 300 meters of relief. They are generally oriented NW-SE, approximately perpendicular to the

slope, but some of them show abrupt deflection in places. These submarine canyons also display both

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U-shape and V-shape morphology along their length. The each canyon fill is dominated by four kinds of

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architectural elements: erosion surface (ES), basal lag (BL), mass transport deposits (MTDs) and lateral

accretion packages (LAPs). Unidirectional migration of up to 10 kilometers is the most important

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characteristic of these submarine canyons. It is greatest at the head of the canyons and decreases along their

length towards the shelf margin. The changes in migration distance are shown by variation in stacking
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patterns in different sections along the canyon length. The unidirectional migration of these canyons is

attributed to the activity of the South China Sea Warm Current on the outer shelf. The evolutionary history of
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a single canyon form can be divided into three stages: erosion-dominated stage, erosion-deposition stage and

deposition-dominated stage. The interplay of the along-canyon turbidity currents and bottom currents results
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in the lateral stacking-pattern change of these submarine canyons. This discovery has important implications

for understanding the mechanism and evolution of the South China Sea Warm Current.
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Keywords: Submarine canyons, Unidirectional migration, Bottom currents, South China Sea Warm Current,
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Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea.

1 Introduction

Submarine canyons are common features on continental margins and are generally considered to be

important conduits for sediment transport from the continental shelf and upper slope into the deep-sea basins
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(e.g. Shepard, 1981; Droz et al., 1996; Babonneau et al., 2002; McHugh et al., 2002; Canals et al., 2006;

Harris and Whiteway, 2011). Some of them are attributed to major terrestrial river system, which were able to

incise into shelf margin and transport sediment to the deep sea (Droz et al., 1996; McHugh et al., 1998;

Babonneau et al., 2002; Wynn et al., 2007; Jobe et al., 2011), and may host sand-rich hydrocarbon reservoirs

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(Stow and Mayall, 2000; Abreu et al., 2003; Posamentier, 2003; Mayall et al., 2006; Meiburg and Kneller,

2010). Many canyons and corresponding channel fills often have a complex internal architecture with

multiple internal erosion surfaces (Deptuck et al., 2003; Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Deptuck et al., 2007;

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Kane et al, 2009; Figueiredo et al, 2012), which result from long-term evolution and interplay of channel

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erosion, aggradation, lateral migration, and levee deposition (McCaffrey et al., 2002; Abreu et al., 2003;

Mayall et al., 2006). Complex stratal geometries still can be generated even within a single channel form

(Sylvester et al., 2011).

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A growing number of studies has demonstrated that channel migration is a key process in determining the

overall architecture of submarine channel and canyon systems, and has been documented from several

studies (Wonham et al., 2000; Babonneau et al., 2002; Posamentier, 2003;Deptuck et al., 2007; Dykstra and
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Kneller, 2007; McHargue et al., 2011). Lateral accretion packages (LAPs), formed during the migration

process, have been considered an important reservoir element in submarine channels (Abreu et al., 2003). In
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some canyons, they are also very important components, which are larger than LAPs in submarine channels
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(tens of meters, e.g. Abreu et al., 2003; Deptuck et al., 2007) and could be over one hundred meters high (e.g.

Zhu et al., 2010; Jobe et al., 2011). However, most lateral accretion packages documented in studies can be
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developed on either side of channels, which resemble meandering features in plan view. Only a few channels

or canyons show consistently unidirectional migration (Viana et al., 1999; Zhu et al., 2010).
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In this study, we document a series of submarine canyons developed during the Late Miocene on the shelf
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margin of the Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea (Fig. 1). These submarine canyons show

consistent eastward migration, which differ from most canyon and channel migration characteristics

described elsewhere. Based on 3D seismic survey and borehole data, we investigate the morphology,

architectural elements, lithology, and particularly the unidirectional migration features of the submarine

canyons, and then analyse the controlling factors of the canyon migration.

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2 Geological setting

2.1 Tectonic setting and basin evolution

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The Qiongdongnan Basin (Fig. 1), located in the northwest part of the South China Sea, is one of a series of

Cenozoic basins which were formed by lithospheric stretching since the Paleogene in association with the

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rifting of the South China Sea (Ru and Pigott, 1986). The rift stage was followed by thermal subsidence (Li et

al., 1999; Clift and Lin, 2001), which commenced during the early Miocene and can be divided into two

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stages, the normal thermal subsidence stage and the accelerated subsidence stage (Xie et al., 2006). In the

west, the Qiongdongnan basin is bordered by the Red River Fault, which is closely related to the formation of

the South China Sea and uplift of the Tibetan plateau (Zhu et al., 2009). It experienced sinistral strike-slip

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movement from 35 to 20 Ma and changed to dextral movement after approximately 5 Ma (Allen et al., 1984;
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Leloup et al., 1995). Due to the variable activity of the Red River fault, the tectonics in the west of the basin

are complex, whereas tectonic activity in the east of the basin is relatively simple by comparison. Since the
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start of the post-rift phase in Miocene, tectonic activity in the eastern part of the Qiongdongnan Basin has

largely ceased. Even in the accelerated subsidence stage, only a few major faults have experienced
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reactivation (Xie et al., 2006; Yuan et al., 2008).

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2.2 Physiography and sediment supply

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Although deep water environments existed in the east part of the northern South China Sea during the early

seafloor spreading stage (Wang et al., 2003), depositional environments in the Qiongdongnan Basin have

changed gradually from lacustrine to bathyal since Paleocene. In this process, there are two abrupt
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depositional environment transformations (Xie et al., 2006). The first is from alluvial and lacustrine in the
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Paleocene-Oligocene to nearshore and neritic facies in the Early to Middle Miocene. The second change

occurred at the end of the Late Miocene, around 10.5 Ma, when continental slope systems began to dominate

over the northern South China Sea margin (Chen et al., 1993; Xie et al., 2006). This was coincident with the

onset of tectonic reactivation in northern continental marginal basins of the South China Sea. Since then,

deep water environments have dominated in most part of the Qiongdongnan Basin (Lin et al., 2001; Wu et al.,

2009; Yuan et al., 2009; Gong et al., 2011; He et al., 2011; Su et al., 2011).

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The most important rivers in the northern continental margin of South China Sea are the Red River and the

Pearl River. The sediment from the Red River forms rapidly progradational clinoforms (Xie et al., 2008) and

a large submarine fan (Wang et al., 2011) at the westernmost edge of the basin. Meanwhile, there is also a

large submarine fan system formed in the Pearl River Mouth Basin (Pang et al., 2006). However, as shown in

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Fig.1a, these two rivers are still not the main sediment sources for the Qiongdongnan Basin, especially in the

east part. On the one hand, they are too far away from the Qiongdongnan Basin (approximately 400

kilometers to the study area nowadays). At the end of the Miocene, the slope break nearest to the Red River

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was approximately 300 kilometers away from the study area (Xie et al., 2008). On the other hand, the

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presence of Hainan Island prevents the sediment from the Red River entering the Qiongdongnan Basin.

Furthermore, because of large-scale river capture and diversion of sediment away from the Red River since

the Late Miocene, the sediment supply from the Red River reached a low in the Late Miocene (Clift and Sun,

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2006). On the contrary, detailed analysis of chondrite-normalised REE distribution from the wells also shows

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that Hainan Island is the main source for the east part of the basin, although some volcanoes in the central

basin provided sediment before the Miocene (Shao et al., 2010). Therefore, due to inefficient sediment supply,
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the slope system in the east part of the basin shows a sub-vertical stacking pattern with a slight progradation,

characterized by abundant gravitational faults, rollover structures, and slump deposits (Xie et al., 2008).
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3 Data and methodology

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The primary source of data for this study, acquired by China National Offshore Oil Corporation, is
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conventional, industrially acquired 3D seismic reflection data, tied to regional grids of 2D seismic data. As

shown in Fig.1b, the 3D seismic survey is mainly on the shelf, which is in water depth around 250 meters and
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includes submarine canyons on the shelf margin. We also have data from several wells which were drilled on
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the shelf in the north part of the Qiongdongnan Basin, providing lithologic, biostratigraphic and

paleoenviromental information.

Over the last few years, 3D seismic reflection data have proved useful for the study and understanding of

submarine depositional processes. Several geophysical techniques such as seismic attribute analysis, horizon

and time slices, and 3D vizualization are helpful do identify and describe architectural elements in subsurface.

However, as most of strata developed on the Qiongdongnan’s shelf margin are very smooth and parallel or

sub-parallel to the boundary between Late Miocene and Pliocene, we mainly used variance horizon slices to
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demonstrate distribution and unidirectional migration features of these submarine canyons.

4 Results

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4.1 General features

In this paper we focus on the occurrence of the Late Miocene submarine canyons on the northeastern shelf

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margin of the Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea. As shown in Fig.2a and 2b, the outlines of

these canyons are identified, but it is difficult to recognize them once they extend onto the upper slope

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because of the impact of well developed MTDs on the slope on the original architectures.

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According to the sequence of canyons’ appearances from west to east in the study area, seven main canyons

have been distinguished in this area (Fig.2a and 2b).Canyon 1-1 and canyon 7-1 merge into larger canyons
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(canyon 1 and canyon 7, respectively). In plan view, Canyons 1, 2, 3 and 6 all initiate approximately 15

kilometers from the shelf break and are oriented NW-SE. Canyons 4, 5 and 7 initiate in a more proximal area
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and are orientated NE-SW but show a deflection towards the southeast between 20 and 25 kilometers from

the shelf break region. All 7 canyons are sub-parallel to each other in the shelf break region. In the profiles
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across the study area, the width of these canyons ranges from 500 meters to about 5000 meters and the length
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from 10 kilometers to over 30 kilometers long. The relief is variable with the largest canyon reaching up to

300 meters deep (Fig.2c). In the up-dip regions, the canyons show U-shape morphologies during the early
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stages of evolution, becoming V-shape during the late stages. Down dip, close to the shelf break, they show

V-shape morphology throughout the evolution. Asymmetric deposition is a remarkable feature of the

canyons.
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Several normal faults are developed on the shelf margin. The largest ones are W-E oriented and appear in the

southern part, whereas those in the northern part are small scale and oriented NW-SE (Fig. 2a and 2b).

4.2 Lithology of canyon fills

Based on the wells drilled on the shelf (but which did not encounter the submarine canyons), the lithology on

the shelf margin in the study area is dominated by mudstone. Furthermore, as shown in Fig.3b, the canyon

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fills are dominated by siltstones and mudstones. Mudstones are prevalent, interbeded with a silty mudstone

interval of 20 meters. However, since many submarine channels and canyons would contain a sandy fill (e.g.

Kane et al., 2009; Mayall et al., 2010 and references therein;), we may infer the presence of a sandy

component in the canyon thalweg, although this cannot be demonstrated from the limited well data.

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4.3 Interpretation of seismic facies

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Seismic profiles across the study area show complex architectures of these canyons’ fills, as in other

submarine canyons or channels worldwide, which indicates a complex history of the canyon cut-and-fill

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development, including erosion, infilling, migration and merging (Mayall et al., 2006; Deptuck et al., 2007;

Kane et al., 2007; Dykstra and Kneller, 2009; McHargue et al., 2011; Mayall et al., 2012).

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Following the methodology described by Mayall et al. (2006), based on external and internal geometry of the

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canyons and their fills imaged from 3D seismic data in sections and maps, four main architectural elements

were identified in the analyzed canyons: erosion surface (ES), basal lag (BL), mass transport deposits (MTDs)
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and lateral accretion package (LAPs) (Fig.4).
4.3.1 Erosion Surface (ES)
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Most canyons in studied area show erosional features on their NE margin. The east flank of all canyons is
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characterized by alignment of termination due to truncation of lateral reflections, which makes it easy to

distinguish the erosional features on the flank (e.g. canyon 5, 7 in Fig.4a and 4b). The erosion surfaces that

bounded each canyon depositional cycles are commonly cut by the basal erosion surfaces of subsequent
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canyon cycles, but some of them are still preserved and are characterized by the reflections with high to

medium amplitude, and high continuity. Occasionally, downlaps of the overlying reflections onto the erosion
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surfaces can be seen (e.g. the canyon 5, canyon 6 in Fig. 4a and Fig. 5). Furthermore, there are generally more
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preserved erosion surfaces in the sections near to the canyon head than the distal part of canyons, which

suggests deposition-dominated processes at the heads of canyons. Since these erosion surfaces bounded each

canyon cycles can’t be correlated from one canyon to another, it is hard to reconstruct a uniform evolution

history for all of these submarine canyons.

4.3.2 Basal lag (BL)

Most canyons have basal lags, formed during or shortly after the channel was cut, consisting of
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conglomerates (Mayall et al., 2006). However, core calibration of the seismic data from the studied canyons

suggests that higher amplitude reflections in the canyons probably represent sandy deposits and the lower

amplitude reflections represent muddy sediment (Fig.3). As discussed above, since the shelf was dominated

by mudstone, one might infer that mudclast conglomerate might be dominant in these canyons (Fig.3 and

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Fig.4). In seismic sections, basal lags seismic facies are mainly characterized by relatively higher amplitude

reflections with low continuity, or occasionally even chaotic reflections (e.g. Mayall et al., 2006; Deptuck et

al., 2007). They are confined to the thalweg of canyons, and are ordinarily 20ms thick (around 20m) and up to

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300 meters wide. Furthermore, the basal lag with high amplitude preferentially developed in the early stages

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of each canyon fill. Basal lags may be absent in some canyons, there place being taken by MTDs.
4.3.3 Mass transports deposits (MTDs)

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In studied canyons, mass transport deposits (MTDs) are interpreted as the main component of canyon fills.

MTDs are developed in the centre part of canyons, above the basal lag, and characterized by chaotic
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reflections with low amplitude, or even transparent seismic facies occasionally. Meanwhile, as shown in

Fig.3, it is reasonable to infer that the lithology of MTDs in these canyons is dominated by mudstone. Based
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on the sections along canyons, it is observed that MTDs are better developed in the distal part of the canyons,

of which relief in each canyon cycle is higher than the proximal part (Fig.5). In this study, the differences we
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used to distinguish the MTDs in central parts of the canyons and basal lag are that the latter are only
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developed at the canyon base of each stage, based on the formation process of basal lags (Mayall et al., 2006),

and generally the basal lags have higher amplitude.

4.3.4 Lateral accretion packages (LAPs)
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As discussed previously, depositional processes mainly occurred on the SW flanks of these submarine
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canyons. On this margin, a series of seismic reflectors dip towards the canyon thalweg, marking the

systematic lateral migration of the channels, which have been termed lateral accretion packages (LAPs)
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(Fig.4 and Fig.5), following Abreu et al. (2003). However, these are on substantially larger scale than the

typical LAPs. The LAPs are characterized by medium amplitude reflections, generally parallel or

sub-parallel with each other, with relatively high continuity. Occasionally, they also contain chaotic

reflections with low amplitude and low continuity, which are interpreted as MTDs derived from unstable part

of the LAPs and always merge with MTDs in central part of the canyon. As shown in Fig. 5, the LAPs are

developed better near the heads of the canyons. It is noteworthy that LAPs occur almost exclusively on the

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western flanks of the canyons (Fig.4 and Fig.5), which differs from that of most channels and canyons

described in other studies (Posamentier, 2003; Deptuck et al., 2007; Wynn et al., 2007; Amos et al., 2010;

Jobe et al., 2011).

4.4 Stacking patterns

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The stacking patterns of canyons described in this study show unusual features that differ from most

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submarine canyons and channels described elsewhere (e.g. Deptuck et al., 2007; Wynn et al., 2007;

Posamentier, 2003; Jobe et al., 2011). As shown in Fig.2c and Fig.4a, almost all the thalwegs migrate towards

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the NE as the canyons evolve.

A series of cross sections through the canyon 7 show the change of stacking patterns from canyon proximal to

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distal part of it (Fig.5, section a-e). In section 5a and 5b, canyons show progressive lateral migration through

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time, with a maximum horizontal shift of 10.5 kilometers (Fig. 5a, 5b and 5g). LAPs are well developed in

the proximal part. Meanwhile, these canyons exhibit wide U-shape morphology with higher width/depth
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ratio as well as sigmoidal lateral accretion seismic reflections developed on the west flanks, indicating

deposition-dominated processes. In section c, the submarine canyons also show NE-oriented migration but
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the migration distance decreases, less than 7 kilometers. Furthermore, from Fig.5g, we can find that at the

most distal part of canyon, stacking pattern of the canyons is characterized by vertical aggradation instead of
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lateral migration. In section d and e, canyons show lateral migration with a distance less than 4 kilometers at

the lower part, but the stacking pattern is dominated by vertical aggradation with only an extremely short
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lateral migration distance (less than 1 kilometer) at the upper part of the canyons. The canyons developed in

5e with V-shape morphology have steep flanks and lower width/depth ratio, indicating erosion-dominated
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processes. As shown in Fig. 5g, putting together all the trajectories of canyon thalweg position, it is clearly
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shown that the horizontal migration distance decreases whereas the incised depth of the canyons increases,

from the canyon head towards the shelf break.

4.5 Planform geometry

In order to investigate the features of lateral migration of these submarine canyons in different stages of

evolution history in plan form, successive horizon slices have been drawn from variance volume (Fig.6a-6g).

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Most of the canyons initiated more or less synchronously, and are approximately parallel to subparallel to

each other, and oriented approximately perpendicular to the strike of slope. At the head of canyons 5 and 7,

tributaries are developed, especially canyon 5. Some of them are deflected toward NE overtime as observed

in slices a and b (Fig. 6). From slice c to e, it is noticed that all canyons are most developed, and the tributaries

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disappear. The eastward migration of the canyons can be observed in the slices showed in Fig.6. Canyon 5

has its head greatly deflected to the east towards the mini faults and shows NE-SW strike. From slice f, it is

observed that all canyons diminish in size overtime and eventually became extinct. As shown Fig.6h and i,

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the migration distance of the proximal parts of canyons 5 and 7 are much longer than the distal part, being

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approximately 15 kilometers and 5 kilometers respectively, and an abrupt deflection occurs during the latter

stages of Canyon 5. The plan view geometry of these canyons changes from approximately linear to curved

type that curves towards southwest.

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5. Discussion AN
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Generally, in the absence of other factors, channel and canyon aggradation is determined by changes of flow

properties (Kneller, 2003). Under conditions of invariant average flow properties, erosion and deposition
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within channels or canyons can develop on either flank, which will allow them to meander, just as do

channels described in many other studies (Posamentier, 2003; Wynn et al., 2007;Deptuck et al., 2007; Amos
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et al., 2010; McHargue et al., 2011). However, the situation described here suggests some consistent external

control on migration of these submarine canyons.

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5.1 Sediment supply

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The sediment supply from one flank of canyons and channels can generate asymmetry and will force them to
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migrate towards the other flank, especially when the canyons and channels are oblique to slope dip (Kertznus

and Kneller, 2009). However, as shown in Fig.6, all canyons are NW-SE oriented, particularly in the distal

part, which are approximately perpendicular to the slope. Furthermore, according to Fig. 6j and Fig.7, the

canyons are still showing unidirectional migration even in relatively high sea level (at the end of the Late

Miocene).

Although there is an increasing number of studies suggesting that sediment delivery to deep water also may
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occur during sea–level highstands when the sediment supply is relatively high, the shelf margin development

under these conditions is dominated by very high sediment supply and characterized by rapid progradation

(Burgess and Hovius, 1998; Porebski and Steel, 2006; Steel et al., 2008). However, as shown in Fig.7b,

relative sea level was rising gradually since the Late Miocene, and the stacking pattern of shelf margin is

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dominated by vertical aggradation with slightly retrogression, even the sea level is at low-stand in the Late

Miocene when the sequence begins to develop. It implied that, compared to the west part where rapidly

progradational clinoforms formed due to higher sediment supply, the sediment supply in the east part of the

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Qiongdongnan Basin from the Hainan Island is relatively low and only a small amount of sediment might be

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transported to out of the shelf by turbidity flow occasionally, especially when relative sea level was high.

Furthermore, when the sediment supply is low, there could not be sustained flows, resulting in long-lived

turbidite system (Plink-Bjorklund and Steel, 2004), which can’t result in constantly asymmetric sediment

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supply on both sides of these submarine canyons. Hence, the sediment supply from inner shelf should not be

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the driver for the consistently unidirectional migration of submarine canyons.

5.2 Tectonic activity

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The post-rift stage of the Qiongdongnan Basin commenced in the Early Miocene (Li et al., 1999; Clift and
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Lin, 2001) and most of major faulting and tectonic activity ceased at that time (Xie et al., 2006). Nevertheless,
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the accelerated subsidence, which was dominated by thermal relaxation and contraction of the lithosphere in

the Qiongdongnan Basin since the Late Miocene, gave rise to the reactivation of some faults (Xie et al., 2006;

Yuan et al., 2008). In the northeastern part of the South China Sea, some deep faults even control the
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development of the shelf/slope system since the Early Miocene(Sun et al., 2005; Sun et al., 2009). Similarly,

as shown in Fig.5 and Fig.6, minor faults are well developed in study area, but most of them ceased to be
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active prior to the Pliocene, with fault throws generally of less than or much less than 80m and the overlying
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strata only showing slight flexure which make them hard to discern; activity on many of these faults clearly

ended before formation of the canyons (Fig. 8). However, there may be evidence of a relationship between

fault activity and at least one of the submarine canyons. Some minor ENE-WSW faults, throwing down to the

SSW, are either close to or intersect the head of Canyon 5. As shown in Fig.6a and 6b, the head of Canyon 5

is oriented northwest, but along with the northeastward migration of the canyon, the trend of the tributary at

the head of the canyon swings towards the north-east, becoming perpendicular to the faults in central part of

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the study area (Fig.6c-6e). The horizontal migration of canyon head is over 20 km (Fig.6h). It is possible that

the locally abrupt deflection of the canyon may have been influenced by a local change of accommodation

caused by the activity of these faults.

Initiation of the submarine canyons may locally have had some relationship with minor faults developed in

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the area of the shelf margin. There is no clear relationship between the canyons and any shelf margin delta

systems with which their initiation might be associated (Plink-Bjorklund and Steel, 2004; Kertznus and

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Kneller, 2009). There are, however, mass transport deposits on the adjacent slope (Fig. 7b), suggesting

instability and failure of the shelf margin (Masson et al., 2002; Bryn et al., 2005). Such failures where

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developed at the shelf margin may retrogress across the outer shelf (Bryn et al., 2005; Vanneste et al., 2006)

generating multi-phase sediment gravity flows (Tripsanas et al., 2008) that flow down (and may amplify) the

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canyons. In this area, there is some coincidence of canyons at the shelf break with the presence of faults,

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especially those of greater length (Fig.6).Hence, it is possible that the initiation of the canyons could be

attributed to the activity of minor faults, but further seismic analysis would be necessary to confirm this.
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However, although migration of the submarine canyon due to tectonics has been documented (Yu and Hong,

2006) and the faults developed in the shelf break region might give rise to the generation of the canyons, as
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discussed above, most of the unidirectional migration canyons can be ascribed to faults.
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5.3 Paleoceanography
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According to previous studies, the northern South China Sea (SCS) has a complex and energetic circulation,

due to the influence of the East Asia monsoon and intrusion of Kuroshio current (Su, 2004; Xue et al., 2004;
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Fang et al., 2005)(Fig. 9). The ocean circulation can be divided into surface circulation (less than 350 m water

depth), intermediate water circulation (350–1350 m), and deep water circulation (more than 1350 m) (Chen
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and Wang, 1998). Among the complex surface currents in the northern South China Sea, there is a consistent

northeastward current, named the South China Sea Warm Current (SCSWC) by Guan (1978), straddling the

shelf-break region (Guan, 1978; Hsueh and Zhong, 2004; Xue et al., 2004). Although it was observed from

the sea surface to 800m water depth, by a mooring station (No. 607, located at a water depth ca. 1000 m

southeast of Shantou) (Guan and Fang, 2006), it is concentrated from 200m to 400m water depth along the

shelf margin (Guan, 1978) and the intensity of it in shallow water (less than 400m, i.e. 40cm/s from 10m to
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100m water depth) is much more stronger than the deep water (4cm/s at 800m water depth) (Guo and Huang,

1983). The mechanism for the SCSWC is controversial (Su, 2004; Guan and Fang, 2006).Some researchers

consider the across-shelf pressure gradient as the cause of the SCSWC (Hsueh and Zhong, 2004; Wang et al.,

2010) generated by the strong density contrast between waters of the shelf and upper slope. According to

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others this phenomena is related to, the anti-cyclonic eddy (Li et al., 1998), periodical relaxing of the

northeasterly winds (Chao et al., 1995), or influence of the monsoon. However, exact reconstruction of

paleo-SCSWC is difficult, because the monsoon intensity has varied considerably (Wang et al., 2005; Wan et

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al., 2007).There is still important tectonic activity around or in South China Sea (Hall, 1997; Ludmann et al.,

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2001), such as uplift of the Dongsha Island, which may have influenced the route of Kuroshio intrusion.

By using 2D seismic survey, Zhu et al.(2010) have documented a series of canyons showing consistently

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unidirectional migration in the east part of northern South China Sea, approximately 250km northeast of our

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study area. The canyons are oblique to the slope and developed in water depths ranging from 450m to 1500m.

Since there are no apparent links between the canyons and fluvial systems up-dip, the northeastward

migration of the canyons is attributed by these authors to the activity of bottom currents due to intermediate
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water circulation. Based on this analysis, Zhu et al. (2010) reconstructed the evolution of paleoceanography

of the South China Sea and suggested that the intermediate water circulation has existed at least since the
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Late Miocene.
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In this study, based on 3D seismic data, the detailed history of canyon evolution has been documented,

showing consistent northeastward migration as well as abrupt deflections. Furthermore, as shown in Fig.10, a
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similar canyon on the shelf nearby also shows consistent migration towards northeast since its initiation

during the Late Miocene, and persists to the modern seafloor. Due to scarce 2D seismic data, it is hard to
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investigate the detailed migration features of this modern canyon, but it reveals continuous process of
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northeastward canyon migration since the Late Miocene. Combined with the migration characteristics of the

canyons in the area of the 3D seismic survey, it is reasonable to conclude that the migration of these

submarine canyons is due to bottom current activity resulting from SCSWC, which suggests that the activity

of SCSWC has been active since the Late Miocene.

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5.4 Evolution processes

Based on the geometries, relationship of depositional element and effects of bottom currents, an evolutionary

model for these canyons has been proposed (Fig.11). In this model, a single canyon form is divided into three

stages: erosion-dominated stage, erosion-deposition stage and deposition-dominated stage. At the

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erosion-dominated stage, the initial morphology of canyons has been formed due to the erosion by turbidity

currents. Although most sediment supplied has been transported to the slope or deep abyssal plain by

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turbidity currents, deposits of residual basal lags were formed (Mayall et al., 2006). MTDs also developed

during this stage due to the failure of the canyon margin or head (Posamentier, 2003; Deptuck et al., 2007).

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Compared with bottom currents, the intensity of turbidity currents is relatively strong in this stage. In the

erosion-deposition stage, the erosion by the turbidity current along the canyons relatively decreased and part

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of the sediment transported by bottom current was preserved. LAPs begun to formed at the west flank of the

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canyon. When the deposition-dominated stage came, sediment transportation along the canyon was

extremely limited. Bottom currents dominated this process and mass of LAPs were formed along the west

margin of submarine canyon. MTDs derived from the canyon flank also were developed. It is interpreted that
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the bottom currents are stronger than turbidity currents in this stage. According to the seismic facies in
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profiles, most preserved erosion surfaces in canyons had not eroded the LAPs significantly and the thalweg

of canyons inherited the position of the former one. From this, we conclude that the canyon had not been
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filled entirely when the next canyon formation started. The sediment from the west transported by bottom

current forced the canyon migration towards the east.

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The change between the vertical aggradation and lateral migration developed in the canyons is due to the

interplay of down-slope turbidity currents and bottom currents; changes in their relative intensity can lead to
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the changes in stacking pattern of the canyons. On one hand, as shown in Fig.7b, the closer to the slope, the
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steeper the angle of stacking of the canyon fills (i.e., higher ratios of aggradation to migration).Acceleration

of turbidity currents down the canyons would produce deeper erosion in more down-slope locations, and the

removal of sediment transported into the canyons by bottom currents, resulting in steeper stacking patterns;

by contrast, in the more up dip parts of the canyons, the efficiency and erosional effects of turbidity currents

are relatively less, and deposition from bottom currents would dominate canyon development, which

consequently show more marked migration.

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On the other hand, it is also possible that the intensity of the bottom current is spatially variable. In the outer

shelf region the bottom currents may be weaker and supply less sediment to the canyons, which are

consequently controlled mainly by turbidity currents and dominated by aggradation. In the proximal part of

the canyons, in the shallower water of the mid-shelf, the bottom currents are stronger and supply more

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sediment to the canyons, with the effects of turbidity currents becoming relatively weaker by comparison.

Here the lateral accretion packages are well developed and canyons are dominated by lateral migration. In

either case, the stacking pattern and degree of canyon migration is a consequence of spatial variation in the

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relative importance of bottom current and turbidity currents; this may imply spatial (perhaps depth-related)

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variation in bottom current intensity, in addition to the down-canyon increase in the efficiency of turbidity

currents.

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6 Conclusions
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A series of the Late Miocene submarine canyons was developed on the shelf margin of the Qiongdongnan
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Basin, northern South China Sea. These canyons, with lengths of 10-30 kilometers, widths of 500-5000

meters and the relief of up to 300 meters or more, are generally orientated NW-SE, approximately
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perpendicular to the slope. In these canyons, four kinds of architectural elements have been recognized:

erosion surface (ES), basal lag (BL), mass transport deposits (MTDs) and lateral accretion packages (LAPs).
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Due to inefficient sediment supply, one possible hypothesis for the initiation of these canyons is likely the

backstepping of failure at the shelf break, possible related to minor faulting of the shelf-margin, with
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subsequent headward erosion. The activity of northeastward bottom currents has an important effect on the

evolution of these submarine canyons fills, developing LAPs only on the western flank, resulting in a
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unidirectional migration. Evolution of individual submarine canyons can be divided into three stages:
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erosion-dominated stage, erosion-deposition stage and deposition-dominated stage. MTDs may form at any

stage of the development of the canyon, whereas the BL and LAPs mainly form in the erosion-dominated

stage and deposition-dominated stage respectively. The variation in relative intensity of down-canyon

turbidity currents and cross-canyon bottom currents results in spatial variation in stacking patterns in these

submarine canyons. At the heads of the canyons, intensity of bottom currents is relatively high whereas

efficiency and erosion of turbidity currents are relatively low; canyon evolution is dominated by bottom

currents, and the canyons show distinct unidirectional migration. By contrast, efficiency and erosion of
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turbidity currents increases at the distal part of canyons compared with effects of bottom currents; here the

evolution of the canyons is dominated by down-canyon turbidity currents, and consequently the canyons are

dominated by vertical aggradation with much less lateral migration. Nevertheless, more work is required to

determine whether the variation in intensity of turbidity currents or bottom currents has dominated in the

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evolution of the canyons. Since canyon 5 shows a relatively abrupt deflection (of almost 90°) when others

nearby show only gentle deflection, it is possible that there is some structural control on its evolution, and

likely on some of the other canyons.

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As the range of activity is unclear and the mechanism of the South China Sea Warm Current is still

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controversial, these canyons characterized by unidirectional migration have implications for understanding

the mechanism and evolution of the South China Sea Warm Current. The evidence of unidirectional

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migration of these canyons can at least help to extend the spatial range of the South China Sea Warm Current

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to the eastern part of the Qiongdongnan Basin, and temporal range into the Late Miocene. Based on the

submarine canyons in this study, further work will focus on understanding the possible mechanism of the

South China Sea Warm Current, and in unraveling whether the deeper water current documented by Zhu et al.
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(2010) is in fact the same current as that operating in the far shallower water depths of the middle shelf, or

whether two separate water masses were involved.

D
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Acknowledgements
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This study is financially supported by Key Program of National Natural Science Foundation of China

(No.91028009), CAS Key Laboratory of Marginal Sea Geology (MSGL11-04), the National Basic Research
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Program of China (No.2007CB411705-05) and National Natural Science Foundation for Youth of China

(No.41002031). We appreciate China National Offshore Oil Corporation permitting us to publish this paper.
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In addition, we also thank Dr. David Iacopini, Mark Mckinnon, Tao Jiang, Cheng Zhang and Ming Su for

their helpful discussion and advice during the preparation of the manuscript. Constructive reviews by Michal

Warchol, an anonymous reviewer, and issue editor, Ian Kane, improved the manuscript, for which we are

grateful.

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Yuan, Y.S., Yang, S.C., Hu, S.B., He, L.J., 2008. Tectonic subsidence of Qiongdongnan Basin and its main
control factors. Chinese Journal of Geophysics-Chinese Edition 51, 376-383.

Zhu, M.Z., Graham, S., McHargue, T., 2009. The Red River Fault zone in the Yinggehai Basin, South China

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Sea. Tectonophysics 476, 397- 417.

Zhu, M.Z., Graham, S., Pang, X., McHargue, T., 2010. Characteristics of migrating submarine canyons from
the middle Miocene to present: Implications for paleoceanographic circulation, northern South China Sea.

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Marine and Petroleum Geology 27, 307-319.

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Figure caption

Fig. 1. a. Location of the Qiongdongnan basin and its adjacent basins in northern South China Sea, modified

from Wang and Li (2009). The base map is from NOAA GEODAS. b. Bathymetric map of northeast part of

the Qiongdongnan Basin, based on the 2D seismic lines from CNOOC. White box shows the position of 3D

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survey. Note location of Fig. 10 is shown in Fig. 1b.

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Fig. 2. The submarine canyons in 3D survey. a. horizon slice taken from the variance volume shows the 7

main canyons in the 3D survey. The slice position has been shown in (c). b is drawn from a, showing general

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sediment facies in the study area. c shows the features of these canyons in profile, the position has been

shown in a. Note Fig. 7b and Fig. 8 is shown in Fig. 2a. All vertical scales used in this study are TWT

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(Two-way reflection time).

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Fig. 3. a. The architecture features of the canyons and the position of Fig. 3b. b. Lithological features of the

core and the calibration of core and seismic profile.

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Fig. 4. Detailed features of seismic facies in the canyons, and their interpretation along the strike direction of

the slope. BL: basal lag; LAPs: lateral accretion packages; MTDs: mass transport deposits; ES: erosional
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surface.
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Fig. 5. Variation in stacking-pattern style of canyon 7 in different sections from 3D survey (a-e, locations of

sections are shown in f ). From section a to e, along with the decreasing distance to slope, the stacking pattern
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changes from oblique lateral stacking to aggradation with slightly lateral migration. Few faults are still active

after these submarine canyons have been completely filled. Most of them stop their activities before canyons
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become extinct. g. Trajectory of canyon thalweg position show variation in lateral migration distance in
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sections a to e.

Fig. 6. A series of horizon slices (a-g) have been taken from the early stage (a) to late stage (g) of canyon

development. In these slices, from older to younger, the canyons are migrating and the number of faults also

decreases. h and i show the migration processes of canyon 5 and canyon 7. From b to f, the proximal part of

canyon 5 deflects its strike from northwest to northeast. j shows the position of these slices in profile. Position

of j is shown in a.
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Fig. 7. a. The relative sea-level curve since Late Miocene in the Qiongdongnan Basin, and the global eustatic

curve, modified after Wei et al. (2001) and Haq et al. (1987) respectively. b. It shows that the stacking pattern

of shelf margin sequence is dominated by aggradation with slightly retrogradation in Late Miocene. Position

of Fig. 7b is shown in Fig. 2a.

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Fig. 8. Some blind faults have affected the local morphology of the study considerably, which may result in

the abrupt deflection of the Canyon5. The location of the section has been shown in Fig. 2a.

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Fig. 9. The surface circulation of northern South China Sea in summer (a) (Xue et al., 2004) and winter (b)

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(Guan and Fang, 2006). Number1-4: current numbers; 1: Kuroshio Current; 2: Branch of Kuroshio in South

China Sea; 3: South China Sea Warm Current; 4: Coastal Current. The study area is shown in the white box.

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Base map is from NOAA.

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Fig. 10. Submarine canyon, developed to the east of the study area since Late Miocene, which persists the sea

bed and has the same lateral migration trend as canyons in study area. Position of profile is shown in Fig. 1b.
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Fig. 11. Evolutionary model of the submarine canyons within a single canyon form. Three stages have been

divided: erosion-dominated stage, erosion-deposition stage and deposition-dominated stage. ES: erosion
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surface; BL: basal lag; MTDs: mass transport deposition; LAPs, lateral accretion packages.
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