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A Critical Essay on the Aristotelian Concept
of Greek Tragedy (4355 Words)
By Asad Imran
April 8, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism, Literary Essays
would end happily. In order to understand a

Introductory Greek tragedy, we have to resort to Aristotle.
Although he presented 4 plots, one of them
Greek Tragedy, though an old genre it is, but it transcended from misery to happiness but
is still a genre of great significance, important Aristotle favoured the modern-day plot for a
and inspirational for modern plays in general tragedy that would start happily and would
and modern tragedies In particular. But what end in tragic misery.
is a Greek Tragedy and how did it originate
and what set it apart from the rest of
tragedies like Shakespearean or Marlowian
ones? Let’s begin: Aristotle’s Concept of Greek
Tragedy
The word “Tragedy” is derived from a Greek
word tragōidia which means “a goat’s song”. Aristotle defines the concept of an ideal
But it is a play that is serious in nature so what (Greek) tragedy as follows,
is its relation to goats? During the festival of
Dionysus, 4 plays were presented in which Tragedy, then, is a representation of
three of these plays were serious tragedies
an action that is worth serious
but one of them was a comic play dedicated
attention, complete in itself, and of
for tragic relief. The writer of the best play was
some magnitude in language
awarded with a goat.
enriched by a variety of artistic
The difference between modern tragedy and a devices appropriate to the several
typical Greek tragedy lies in its ending. A parts of the play; presented in the
modern tragedy ends on a serious note while
form of action, not narration; by
it was not essential for a Greek Tragedy to end
means of pity and fear bringing
in a serious note. It would house some tragic
scenes in either its beginning or middle but it
about the purgation of such derives from the actual world itself. Aristotle
emotions. further divided the concept of imitation into

three sub-categories,
This is, by far, one of the most comprehensive
definitions of tragedy. It can be divided into Object or Subject Matter of Imitation
the two parts for a better comprehension of Medium of Imitation
the classic genre. The first half deals with the Manner of Imitation
imitative enterprise while the second half

Let’s discuss this in connection with Aristotle’s
makes clear the functions of a tragedy.
definition of tragedy since Aristotle deems it
one among the imitative arts.
Imitative Enterprise of the
Classical Tragedy Object of Tragedy
Before discussing at length about the imitative Object or subject-matter of an imitation
qualities of an ancient tragedy, first, we have means the source or the topic of an imitation.
to make ourselves acquainted with the term Tragedy, in this regard, differs itself from its
imitation itself. The literal meaning of sister genre comedy. As the name suggests,
Imitation is to copy or to mimic a person or a the subject matter of a typical Greek Tragedy
thing into a different thing. For example, the is serious. While comedy follows a light or
sea is an actual earthly body, painting it to a satiristic object in it. It is the subject matter
canvas can be called a visual imitation of the that determines the function of an imitation.
sea. That is why, the function of tragedy of bringing
about the catharsis of the emotions of fear
Plato used the term imitative arts in his book,
and pity, as compared to the comedy which is
discussing about an ideal state, to define
only purposed for spreading waves of laughter
“useless” arts in contrast to the “useful” arts
and smiles.
he divided. He condemned the “useless” arts
especially poetry by calling it an “imitation of
Manner of Tragedy
an imitation, twice removed from reality. ”
Plato deemed the whole world an imitation of Manner of an imitation means how it is
god’s idea of creating a world. He suggested
presented before its audience. Classical
that he would banish poets from his ideal
tragedy differs from an epic in this field. The
republic for spreading ‘lies’.
two prestigious genres may present a serious
story but in a different manner. An epic
However Aristotle came in defence of poetry
presents an incident through narration. But a
as an imitation of the “poet’s idea” that he
tragedy presents a story with action on the
stage. When a story is presented through Magnitude
actors performing on stage, it makes the story
more immersive and understandable. Some critics argue that magnitude, in
Aristotle’s definition of tragedy, means a grand
Medium of Tragedy story or subject matter. But Aristotle meant it
for the length. He suggests that tragedy
Medium of Imitation means what medium is should not be too long that people find it
used to illustrate it. We may set a distinction difficult to recall and not too short that people
of tragedy with a lyric. Although both of the cannot even understand the story. Its length
genres use verse to convey their idea to the should be maintained appropriately so that it
public. Tragedy uses dialogues to unfold the may be performed within a day and actors
hidden action to its audience. may remember dialogues easier.
Proper Plot Law of Probability and

One of the core requirements of a tragedy that
Necessity
it should be complete. Which means that it
This law means that the actions of a character
should not leave any patch of the story
must be up to the mark of people’s
behind. It must have a proper plot with an
expectations. His actions must be justifiable
appropriate beginning, middle and the end.
and should align properly with the story.
Beginning means the action that is not
Similarly, his actions must be necessary in
followed by a prior action and establishes a
accordance with the story. For instance,
base for the story. Usually, characters and
Oedipus was expected to send a person to
problems are introduced in this phase. The
Delphi to bring an Oracle that may help his
middle follows the beginning and then gives
people get out of the plague. But he had
rise to the ending. It is a point in which a
already sent one. Oedipus’ action was
solution to the problem is exposed and the
necessary and appropriate to the demanding
hero or characters try to alleviate the problem.
situation and problem. So, he emerged as a
While the ending follows the middle but it is
responsible figure in Thebes.
NOT followed by anything. This is a crucial
part of a story as it can either make or break a
Functions of Classical Greek
story. Almost all the Greek Tragedies
unintentionally followed the simple concept of Tragedy
plot structure to bring home the message of a
story (mostly the role of gods) to the people. Aristotle makes it obscurely easy for us to
trace the functions of the Greek tragedy since
he has mentioned it in his definition. Its main
function is to bring about the catharsis of the This neo-classic and allopathic segment says
emotions of pity and fear. But his that an excess of something can be cured by
interpretation of functions of tragedy is lost its opposite counterpart. Critics of the
that he supposedly may have discussed it in eighteenth century believed that one of the
the second half of his Poetics. Therefore, major problems of their society was pride and
different interpretations of catharsis have anger. That pride and anger could be cured by
been exposed by different critics. their opposite emotions of pity and fear
respectively.
Purgation Theory
Purification Theory
Purgation Theory deals with the medical side
of Catharsis. In ancient times, Greeks believed Purification theory also deals with the
that a human body was made of four humours alleviation bad emotions but differently as
(liquids), which were blood, black bile, yellow compared to the above-mentioned theory of
bile and plagum. A proper balance was purgation. Purification deals with the quality of
essential to maintain a healthy life but excess emotions that are to be purified from the
of one of the humours could put the life of a excess of those emotions and those emotions
human being at stake. Therefore, partial to return or reduced to an intermediate state.
removal of excess was known as “Purgation”.
Clarification Theory
Like Curing the Like
Clarification Theory overlooks the above-
Behind this rhetoric was the concept of mentioned theories of catharsis that put the
homoeopathic treatment. It was explained audience of a tragedy at the centre. Rather it
that “a little solution of something can cure puts the pleasure within a tragedy on top of
the excess of the same thing. ” But this the hill. But that pleasure is to be attained by
homoeopathic interpretation does not make learning. That learning comes through the
any direct sense in the realm of tragedy. This probable actions in the play. Therefore, the
segment of the theory says that the scenes of centre of catharsis is the spectator who learns
fear may cure the fear in the audience the from the probable actions of a hero.
same way as a crying child is silenced by the
sound of something or music, calming a Six Formative Elements of
mental melancholy.
Greek Tragedy as Discussed
Unlike Curing the Unlike by Aristotle
Aristotle says that an ideal tragedy is made of 2. Complex Plot: Complex plot may have
six essential elements that are plot, character, different sub-plots linking to the main plot
thought, diction, spectacle and song. The first in the end. This plot showcases sudden
three are internal elements while the latter changes propelled by Peripeteia and
three are external. Plots, characters and Anagnorisis.
thoughts are the subject matter of a tragedy. 3. Plot of Suffering: Aristotle suggests that it
Diction and song are medium of tragedy while is the most inferior kind of plot. This type
spectacle is the manner of tragedy. of plot depicts a story full of sufferings and
killings. Aristotle says that scenes of
Plot sufferings should follow the law of
probability. It is also known as the plot of
Plot means an arrangement of events or revenge. Seneca, a Roman tragedian, has
incidents that happen in a story. These written most of his tragedies in this plot. In
arrangements are set by the author himself. fact, Shakespeare’s flagship tragedy,
According to Aristotle, plot is the most Hamlet is based upon the very plot.
important element of a tragedy. He even goes
to extent that a tragedy can be without a Peripeteia: This term means a sudden
character but not without a plot. This reversal of situation. For example, when
statement of Aristotle has upset many critics Oedipus is too eager in capturing the
as it is rather impossible to create a story murderer of King Laius, things start to turn
without a character. upon him. -Remember Teiresias’ Prophesy?
]
But here, Aristotle meant something else. Anagnorisis: It is the revelation of
Characters are of two types. The first one that peripeteia. For example, When Oedipus
exhibits actions while the second one learns from the Corinthian Shepherd that
demonstrates the mental or psychological he is the one who is the son of Laius who
approach to it. Aristotle wants to say that a not only killed his father but married his
tragedy can be created without the mental own mother, he gauges out his own eyes.
side of characters since it directly relates to
the action (of heroes). Criticism
Aristotle has divided plots into three kinds: Modern critics do not seem to agree with
Aristotle’s point of view of the plot. They are
1. Simple Plot: Simple Plot is a plot that does more inclined towards breaking the unity of
not exhibit sudden changes. Also, the story events or presenting them in different order.
contains only one plot.
Just a Quick Sidenote: There is a fundamental Diction is the language in which a tragedy is
difference between Plot and Story. A story is unfolded and the thoughts of a writer are
the chronological sequence of events while a expressed through it. Aristotle says that a
plot is a specific arrangement of events tragedy should have a lofty diction that should
according to the liking of a writer. be enriched by the apt use of figurative
elements that should beautify the language
Character instead of obscuring it.
A character is the one who moves the story of Spectacle

a tragedy forward through his or her actions.
Characters are divided into two kinds: Spectacle has its association with the stage
and it is the background that is used before a
Dramatic Persona: Name and identity of a stage to present a scene of, for example, a
character. For example, the name Oedipus forest. But, in Greek Tragedies, it was not
directly hints at a Theban king who received limited to the backgrounds but to the stage
the prophecy of committing patricide and effects that were produced through the
incest. costumes and masks actors wore.
Moral Bent of Mind: The psychological

Song
intinctions of a person which highlight his or
her inner personality. Song is one of the embellishments that was
used to intensify the scenes of a tragedy. The
Aristotle has described four qualities of a
songs or odes were usually performed by the
dominant character (hero) in ancient Greek
Chorus who not only explained the situation to
Tragedy. And those qualities are, goodness,
the audience but also commented on it.
appropriation, true to life and consistency.
Quantitative Elements of a
Thought
Tragedy
Though in a tragedy is the intellectual
questioning of the themes of a writer. A writer These elements of tragedy are directly
can either approve his themes or disapprove it connected with the content or writing of a
through the medium of thoughts. But those tragedy itself. These elements are Prologue,
thoughts cannot be expressed without Episodes, Exode and a choral portion that is
diction. further divided into Parode and Stasimon.
Diction Parode or Parodos

The first initial part of a tragedy begins on a concept that was traditionally accepted in
choral performance that is called Parode or the Ancient Greece. Today, we associate
Parodos. goodness with everything that is morally
good but the ancient Grecians believed
Prologue that goodness is hidden in the show of
valour, bravery and courage in the
This portion of a tragedy is directly followed battlefield. That influence of goodness is
by Parodos. This portion makes people aware clearly visible in the Greek Tragedies of
of the problems of a tragedy. their time.
Appropriate: Greek Tragedies, in general,
Episode demanded appropriate characters that
were given appropriate roles. For example,
Episodes are a series of an action that is a woman of that time was not expected to
either divided on the basis of setting or be brave or a slave was not identified as a
incidents that are directly interlinked. good person, so portaging them brave and
good respectively would create
Exode or Exodos inappropriate characters in a tragedy.
True to Life: A character in a tragedy is a
This portion of tragedy is presented at the end true representation of the actual person of
of it, featuring its moral lesson or its final that time. If a tragedy is showcasing a
outcome. historical figure, then the main historical
character must be accurate to the actual
Stasimon historical personality.
Consistent: The actions of a consistent
It is a choral song with a specific poetic character should remain consistent
meter. throughout the play while the inconsistent
character should remain inconsistent.
Characterization in Tragedy
Ideal Tragic Hero
As discussed earlier a character in a tragedy
must be good, appropriate, his caricaturing Aristotle has defined two major qualities of an
must be true to life and his actions must be ideal tragic hero in a Greek Tragedy. He
consistent or inconsistent throughout the suggests that a hero must be essentially good
play. and his tragic downfall must be propelled by
his good nature. And his downfall should
Goodness: The concept of goodness in the
affect a large number of people under him.
present day is different as compared to the
Essentially Good: An ideal tragic hero is mandatory for the plays without realizing the
expected to be good. But Aristotle says core motive behind these unities. They
that his character must be a mixture of believed that those unities were essential for
both his good and bad qualities. creating dramatic illusions. There are three
Hamartia: The tragic downfall of an ideal dramatic unities. Unity of plot, unity of time
tragic hero is accelerated through his and unity of place. Aristotle only emphasized
hamartia. But it is to be noted that on the unity of plot.
hamartia must be executed through his
goodness instead of his wicked intinctions Unity of Plot
or else the tragedy will not be able to
produce the effect that is expected from it. As mentioned above, Aristotle gives great
importance to the unity of plot. He suggests
Competitive Importance of that in the ideal Greek Tragedy, plot should be
one and simple, that should have proper
Plot and Character
beginning, middle and end and the events of
the story must be interlinked together. But
Aristotle said that there can be a tragedy
Aristotle does not favour sub plots within a
without a character but not without a plot. As
plot. He accepted single plot with a single
stated earlier, it dismayed many critics of past
action. For instance, if a play begins as a
and present.
tragedy, it should end on a tragic note while a
Aristotle has divided characters into two comedy should follow the same rule. He
types. One is a dramatic persona that only believed that those two genres could not be
indicates at the identity of a character but it is mixed together in the form of tragic comedy.
a character’s inner moral belt of mind that But modern critics argued Aristotle’s point that
really exhibits the true form of a character. In a Man’s life is a mixture of both happiness and
fact, it is the moral belt of mind that shows misery. Portraying only one side of the coin
how a character will behave if he is put on the may not hold up to the idea of realism. In fact,
test by a problem and how will he come out of the Elizabethan dramatists did not follow
it. It is the plot that provides him ample Aristotle’s concept of stern dramatic unity of
opportunities for his inner decisions to shape plot and (tragic) action. They added some
into outward actions. minor comic elements to their flagship

tragedies to increase the entertainment value
of their plays. For example, in Othello, we see
Dramatic Unities
a brief mention of clowns and musicians while
Dramatic Unities in tragedy was hinted by Iago’s destructive but amusing tongue helps
Aristotle but the Neo Classics made it retain the entertaining value of the tragedy.
While in Oedipus Rex, we cannot trace any
comic elements because the action begins in Aristotle did not present the rule of unity of
a tragic tone and ends on an extreme tragic place. It was attributed to him by the
note. Some critics even argued Aristotle’s idea misinterpretation of Neo Classics of his
to the fact that in the festival of Dionysus, comparison of Epic and Tragedy. Epic, he said,
three plays were serious while one play was had a variety of places to narrate. While a
comic in nature so how could Aristotle defy tragedy had to be presented in a smaller
the role of comic elements in tragedy? setting because it was small in magnitude as
compared to Epic. Also the limitation of stage
Unity of Time attributed to the lack of places. Because even
today, it is difficult to transition from the scene
Unity of time is something that Aristotle did of a forest to the scene of an ocean in
not present as a rigid rule of writing tragedies. theatres and we are talking about an era that
It was something that he observed. He states was two thousand and five hundred years
that the actions of a tragedy are attempted to before us. So the limitation of spaces had to
be presented within “one revolution of the be chosen by the writers so that their plays
sun”. The phrase “one revolution of the sun” would not be bottlenecked by the limitation of
annoyed the French critics of the seventeenth- the stage.
century and English critics of the eighteenth
century. English critics argued that the actions Limitations of Aristotelian
in a tragedy must be presented within the
Concept of Tragedy
actual setting of time in tragedy on stage. For
example, if a tragedy consists of an action
Aristotle, no doubt, gave a comprehensive
that spans over 6 months, Neo Classics
definition of tragedy but as time changes, the
suggested that the tragedy must be presented
requirements of tragedy has been changed
for the 6 months on the stage! The idea in
significantly. Let’s discover some of the
itself is strange and impractical as people will
limitations that are traced in Aristotle’s
lose interest in the play if it is prolonged for an
concept of tragedy.
unreasonable amount of time. While the
French critics went to the extent to find the
Lack of Religious Elements
actual time through the above-mentioned
phrase. Some said that Aristotle suggested a Aristotle does not allude to the importance of
year while others speculated only a day or a religion in tragedies despite its presence in
month. plays as these plays were intended for the
purpose of celebrating the god of fertility,
Unity of Place Dionysus. For instance, we see some clear
references to gods (Apollo) and the role of
oracles in characters’ lives as a strong create the most noticeable tragic effect in the
religious influence but Aristotle did not mind of a reader. Oedipus Rex was a success
mention about the role of religious elements of its time due to the quality of intense
in the tragedies he was scrutinizing. concentration. Intense concentration is
something that is achieved through starting a
Lack of Conflicts story from its catastrophic point of the plot.
For instance, Oedipus Rex opens when
Another core point that is missing from his Oedipus has unknowingly killed his father and
comprehensive definition is the role of internal married his mother. But the story of the play
and external conflicts in driving a person’s begins when Oedipus’ parents receive an
tragedy. He merely focuses on the outer oracle that their son will kill his father and will
actions but the inner turmoil that takes place marry his mother. If Shakespeare had written
is equally as important as the outward this play, he would have started it with Laius
conflicts. In fact, it is the “inner weather” that and Jocasta, receiving the prophecy. Intense
creates a sense of superiority of humans concentration was used to create a tragic
among other living beings. And internal effect that was stronger than the Elizabethan
conflict also adds its significant share to the tradition. But it did not provide a strong
arousal of catharsis. Modern writers tend to foundation of character development. Also, it
depict both internal and external conflicts. imposed a limitation of its own upon writers to
present a story in its limited glory. But some
His Unsatisfying Explanation of modern writers are also taking a fancy to
‘Action’ intense concentration in the form of the

stream of consciousness technique.
Aristotle defined action as something that is
serious and of some magnitude in his famous Lack of Subjectivity in Greek
definition of tragedy. But he was unable to Tragedy
explain the true magnitude of a tragedy as he
only limitized it to its size in pages. He could One point that modern critics raise is the
have added more to it to explain it a bit further classical Greek Tragedy lacks subjectivity as
like the loftiness of an action or the nature of these tragedies are mainly objective. Which
an action whether it can be external or means it only displays the outer conflict of a
internal. hero. But his inner psyche and intinctions are
of a significant value that is to be shown to
His Idealization of Oedipus Rex the audience. Shakespeare, although he is an
Elizabethan playwright, but, he masterfully
Aristotle presented Oedipus Rex as an ideal
tragedy that checked all the required boxes to
strikes a balance between subjectivity and technique, do not use the unity of plot in their
objectivity in his plays. novels. In fact, for them, the concept of a rigid
plot is dead.
Qualities of a Tragic Hero
Conclusion
This is the point of which Aristotle is critiqued
the most. Firstly, he says that a tragic hero Despite some serious limitations and
must belong to a higher class. But modern shortcomings of the Greek Tragedies and
writers are more democratic in their approach. Aristotle’s Concept of it as discussed by the
They believe that the tragic downfall of a critics of every time, it is worth noting that, in
miner is as significant as that of a dictator. fact, it was the Grecian Tragedy that pioneered
tragic stage performances with their own set
Another point critics argue is Aristotle’s of embellishments while influencing the big
concept of essential goodness. He suggests names like Shakespeare and Marlowe to
that a hero can be neither too good, nor too further clear the grounds for modern writers.
bad but a simple blend of the both. The critics Tragedy, now, is not limited to the plays only
say that tragic heroes can be extremely good but it is magnificently present in novels in its
or extremely bad. We can see the example of own form and colour. But all those colours are
Macbeth or the Jew of Malta by Marlowe as indebted to the Classical Greek Tragedy for its
the heroes exhibiting extreme bad characters. stouter foundation.
While TS Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral and
Shaw’s St. Johns portray extremely good
characters or (tragic) heroes.
This essay was written by assembling the
Rigid Plot pieces of lecture given by Sir Fazal Ur Rehman
on the Greek Tragedy and its Aristotelian
Aristotle favours plots that have a definite Concept. So, a big shout out to him for making
beginning, middle and end. But modern this possible.
writers, lulled in the stream of consciousness
Charges Levelled Against Poetry and Sidney’s

Defence of Poetry
By Asad Imran
August 7, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism
than poetry due to the above-mentiuoned
Introduction merit that makes poetry special.
Just as Plato levelled charges against poetry Poetry is not a Mother of Lies
and poets in his Republic, similarly during the
Elizabethan era, a puritan Stephen Gosson Sydney further continues defending poetry by
opened the weapon of his pen against the claiming that poetry is not a mother of lies. He
poetry that was accustomed during the era. claims that a poet is the most truthful person
Like Aristotle, Sir Philip Sidney came to rescue as compared to other humans. He even
as well as defend poetry through his book, An makes clear that an astronomer may tell lies
Apology for Poesy. The charges that have because later, his measurements may prove
been levelled by Gosson against poetry are: wrong. A physician tells lies if his medicine
takes away the life of a patient. A poet does
Poetry is the waste of time. not tell lies because he confirms nothing.
Poetry is the mother of lies. Sidney adds that a historian can tell lies
It is the nurse of abuse. because in his quest to find out the events
Plato had rightly banished poets from his that took place in the past, he has to confirm
Republic. many things. But a poet does not try to convey
what is true or what is false. A poet only tries
Let’s discuss how Sydney rebutted against to assert that what can be and what can’t be.
such allegations against poetry in detail.
Poetry is not a Nurse of

Abuse
Poetry is Not a Waste of Time
After repelling the second charge against
Sydney answers the first allegation of Gosson poetry, Sidney turns to the third one to debunk
against poetry that poetry is not a waste of its false associations. The third accusation
time. According to Sydney, poetry is a branch claims that poetry is the nurse of abuse in
of learning that aims at making a person learn society. The sexual conceits in Comedy
the noble virtues of life. Poetry not only corrupt the morally clean side of man. And
teaches noble virtues but also encourages a love in a lyric increases the passion of love.
learner to put these virtues into practice. Sidney adds that including the passion of love
Sydney further adds that there is no other in a love poem is not a sin. Also, the insertion
branch of learning that accomplishes the two- of lustful material does not make poetry
way implication of learning. He also goes on responsible for the corruption of the mind.
to say that there is no fruitful knowledge other Sidney tries to wind up his point by saying that
it is not poetry that corrupts the mind of a Sidney’s defence of poetry is a significant
reader but there are some (immoral) poets milestone in the Elizabethan era but some of
who corrupt poetry. He further explains his his assertions are not true and are
point by performing a comparison between exaggerated. At first, he claims that poetry is
poetry and painting. If a painting contains the most suitable form of learning that puts
Abraham sacrificing his son Isaac, the other subjects to shame. Surely, poetry has its
painting will be pleasing for the ones who will significant share in Arts but calling it a most
look at it. Similarly, if a painter portrays an profound source of knowledge is somewhat
immoral scene then the painting will look unjust. Because even in our modern time,
disgusting to its on-lookers. poetry derives its essence from history,
science as well as social surroundings.
Plato’s Banishment of Poets
Another instance of shortcoming in his poetry
not Poetry
is rather a strong one. He asserts that poetry
is the finest form of truth. It is a well-
The fourth comment that comes by Gosson is
established truth that poetry or any other form
the weightiest one that Sidney answers by
of literature is not exempted from fiction or
putting strong arguments in favour of poetry.
something that is not real and true. But calling
Gosson accepts Plato’s banishment of poets
astronomers and physicians liers is his great
and considers it right to banish all the poets of
weakness of understanding. What he is calling
the contemporary era. Sidney answers that
lies is the hypothesis that leads to modern
Plato did not condemn poetry as his own
scientific discoveries.
writings were mostly poetic in style. Plato
should not have accused poetry for being
Also, Sidney says that it is the poet who
immoral because his own ideal Republic was
corrupts poetry. But the fact remains the same
immoral. What Plato hated in poetry was the
as poetry and even other forms of writings are
sexual portrayal of their gods and other
not free from the amorous display of life.
shortcomings like the ones found within the
people of that era. Sidney also proves that
Conclusion
Plato did not banish poetry from his Republic.
He stood against the misuse of poetry and
Lastly, Sidney concludes his debate by saying
suggested banishment of the very abuse. He
that poetry is a “delightful teaching”. Sidney
was not an enemy of the poets as is
accepts the element of delight in poetry but
commonly referred to.
phrasing a didactic purpose to an artistic
genre takes away the artistic appeal from it.
Some Limitations Poetry should propose moral virtues but those
virtues should not be overshadowed by the 1. Current Notes – Page 125
bliss of meter, rhyme and melody. 2. https://sites.udel.edu/britlitwiki/sidneys-
defense-of-poesy/
Sources and Suggested (https://sites.udel.edu/britlitwiki/sidneys-
defense-of-poesy/)
Readings
Sidney’s Views on Contemporary Poetry and

Drama
By Asad Imran
August 8, 2021
Sidney gives his views on lyrical poetry and

Introduction asserts that lyrical poetry would be a great
genre of poetry if it introduced the praise (and
Sidney puts contemporary poetry as well as love) of God in it. But the common lyrical
dramas to scrutiny and he does not like the poetry abounds in the theme of love which
way both genres are treated by the writers as arouses little to no pure emotions because of
well as the public alike. He even goes on to the cold artificiality in it. Sidney calls this a
state that the level of poetry in England is as lamentable defect in poetry.
low as the low reputation of quacks in Venice.
Sidney gives a reason that because England Sidney, then, comes to find faults in the style
was at that time in peace. Due to the absence of poetry. He says that the English poets are in
of elevated themes like war, the poets are the habit of putting sugar and spice upon
unable to create a masterpiece as old poets every dish. And they follow the Red Indians
did. Sidney even criticizes tragedies and who not only wear rings in their noses but also
comedies which, we shall discuss in detail in thrust them in their lips that ultimately shows
upcoming paragraphs. an orderless beauty. Sidney means that the
poets use ornaments and embellishments
wrongly in poetry. They draw metaphors from
all sources like the stories of birds and beasts.
Comments on Contemporary They use strange words that are alien to the
laymen in England. In short, poets run after
Poetry
false ostentation and pay no attention to Then he moves on to comment on comedies.
correct their style of poetry. He says that comedies in that era only try to
arouse laughter, not delight. He suggests that
Despite Sidney’s devotion to the old poets, he the primary motive of a comedy should be to
admires Chaucer and his genius “Troilus and spread delight. But English playwrights
Cressida” yet he discovers some limitations in attempt to broadcast the feeling of delight
Chaucer’s poetry. He praises the noble birth through laughter and by depicting sinful
and noble mind that shows up in the lyrics of deeds. Sidney asserts that comic characters
Earl of Surrey. He likes Spencer’s Shepherd should not display laughter through misery but
Calendar but still, he finds the language crude through a fussy courtier or a proud traveller
in it. who has borrowed foreign dress and talk. He
claims that comedies can be used as a vehicle
Comments on Contemporary of teaching to depict delight through
Drama instruction.
Sidney asserts that English tragedies and Limitations

comedies need to be criticized because they
do not follow certain rules. He even goes on to It is very obvious from a surface reading of
state that these plays are neither right Sidney’s commentary on the poetry as well as
tragedies, nor right comedies because they plays of that time that he was somewhat
mix up kings and clowns. The mixture of these limited in his approach to analysing the said
events is not demanded by the subject matter genres. For instance, in his analysis of
but the playwrights stuff them at their own Chaucer, he completely forgot to mention the
will. Due to such mingling, these plays lose defining work of Chaucer, The Canterbury
their tragic as well as comic appeal. Sidney Tales. Chaucer had himself claimed that
explains that writers in the past also mixed Troilus and Cressida was a translation, not an
comedy with tragedy but with skill. He labels original genius.
these plays as tragicomedies. According to
him, a good tragedy is, Sidney detested the mingling of comic
elements in a tragedy but later, Shakespeare
The ideal tragedy is an imitation of proved tragi-comedy a fruitful genre of English

Literature. Dr. Johnson as well as Dryden
a noble action, in the representation
defended tragi-comedy as an interesting
of which it stirs, admiration and
invention. Sidney’s claim of comedy for delight
commiseration. is also not true because laughter is the main
function of a comedy. Also, the scenarios he
mentions will make comedy limited.
Conclusion 2. https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12
examine-sidneys-views-on-a-tragedy-and-
Sidney’s commentary on contemporary drama tragi-comedy-b-comedy-and-c-the-
and poetry acknowledges the artistic value dramatic-unities/
associated with it. But his adherence to (https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/1
classical values makes him unable to examine-sidneys-views-on-a-tragedy-and-
appreciate the future development of these tragi-comedy-b-comedy-and-c-the-
prestigious genres. dramatic-unities/)
3. https://masudadam.blogspot.com/2020/10
Sources and Suggested objections-to-contemporary-drama.html

(https://masudadam.blogspot.com/2020/1
Readings
objections-to-contemporary-drama.html)
1. Literary Criticism – Current Notes – Page

144
Sidney as a Critic and His Contribution to

Criticism
By Asad Imran
August 9, 2021
commentary on various forms of poetry and

Introduction his being the first practical critic in the history
of English Literature.
Sir Philip Sidney is renowned for his generous
services in the field of literary criticism. As a
critic, Sidney was fond of classic literature.
But he was not a devotee to the contemporary His Defence of Poetry
literature around him. Dr. Johnson did not
acknowledge the prosaic excellence of An Sidney as a critic is best known for his sound
Apology for Poetry. An Apology for Poetry is defence of poetry against the charges levelled
one of the sound books of criticism on poetry. by Stephen Gosson. He condemned poetry for
Sidney’s contribution as a critic is mainly being a mother of lies, a nurse of abuse, a
remembered for his defence of poetry, his waste of time and Plato’s right banishment of
poets. Sidney came forward as a defender of Throughout the writing of Sidney, both
poetry, claiming that poetry is not a waste of appreciation, as well as criticism, can be
time, but a fruitful activity of noble learning; it found in it. At first, he gives a critical or
is not a mother of lies but a source of appreciative statement and then proves it
truthfulness; it is not a nurse of abuse but is through an already established work of
missed by the poets of that time and Plato literature. For instance, when he says that
was not an adversary to poetry rather he poetry can depict human passions in the best
patronized poetry. Thus, his apt answering to convincing way possible. Then he also states
the charges against poetry is one great the example of Homer’s epic that illustrates
contribution to criticism. patriotism. Furthermore, when Sidney claims
that the earliest form of writing was poetry, he
His Devotion to Poetry gives references to the earliest Grecian writers
like Homer or Hesiod who were poets.
Sidney was earnestly devoted to poetry to Conclusively, Sidney contributed his initial
safeguard its reputation. He asserts that it is share in the initial development of practical
unfair to show disregard to poetry. Every form criticism through proving statements through
of poetry serves mankind. For instance, the work of art that existed already.
pastoral poetry can depict the plight of the
people of the lower class under a tyrant ruler Limitations
or vice versa. Comedy can make people learn
to lothe evil and to adopt virtues into their Sidney’s contribution to criticism is of
lives. Elegiac poetry helps to arouse the considerable merit. But in some areas of his
feelings of pity by mourning the suffering of criticism and defence, traces of exaggeration
the whole mankind. Lyrical poetry fills a and limitations can be found. For instance, in
person with admiration of virtue and his defence, he claims that poetry is the only
sometimes, singing the glory of the credible source of knowledge which is not
immortality of God. Thus, in showing the true. Just like history can contain lies, so do
positive qualities of different forms of poetry, poetry.
Sidney clearly shows his devotion to poetry.
Also, when Sidney states the functions of
Practical Criticism different genres of poetry, he seems very

limited in his approach. For instance, when
One of the innovative contributions to Sidney asserts that pastoral poetry can only
criticism of Sidney is his use of practical depict the happy or the miserable life of the
criticism. Practical criticism is the evaluation rustic people, he neglects the importance of
of an already existing genius according to a the appreciation of natural beauty. Similarly,
specific set of criteria that is excellent. when explaining the properties of a comedy,
he disassociates the function of arousing 1. Literary Criticism – Current Notes – Page
laughter. His neglect of the passions of love in 155
a lyrical poem is a significant shortcoming in 2. https://literariness.org/2017/11/17/literary-
his criticism. So, it is obvious that Sidney criticism-of-sir-philip-sidney/
favours the classical approach. (https://literariness.org/2017/11/17/literary-
criticism-of-sir-philip-sidney/)
Conclusion 3. https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/1
a-detailed-account-of-the-contributions-
Sidney’s literary endeavours and his utter of-sidney-to-the-english-criticism/
devotion to the noble cause of literature in (https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/
general and poetry, in particular, puts him into a-detailed-account-of-the-contributions-

of-sidney-to-the-english-criticism/)
the frontiers of the notable critics in the
history of English Literature.
Sources and Suggested

Readings
Superiority of Poetry over Philosophy and

History
By Asad Imran
August 10, 2021
function. Philosophy is a branch of knowledge

Introduction that tries to answer the questions related to
human existence as well as solutions for the
Sir Philip Sidney is one of the great critics of problems of life. The main function of
English Literature. He is recalled for the philosophy is to instruct. While history deals
moralistic defence of poetry. That is why, he with narrating the events happened in the past
gives a considerable space describing the and such narration is its main function as well.
greatness and superiority of poetry over other Let’s return back to our subject.
forms of learning. Before discussing why
Sidney has regarded poetry as superior to
philosophy and history. Let us define what is
philosophy and history, and what is their core
Early Mingling of Poetry, of-poetry.html), Sidney considers poetry the
best source of learning virtue as compared to
Philosophy and History
philosophy and history because it reaches a
person through the strong examples that can
To assert the greatness of poetry, Sidney
leave a strong impact than the abstraction
affirms that the first form ever written was the
found within philosophy.
poetry itself. He even goes on to suggest that
in the past, there was no distinction between
The most compelling reason behind the
poets, historians as well as the philosophers.
dominance of poetry is its utilization of the
For instance, Solon, the one who wrote the
essence of both philosophy and history. Such
constitution for Athens wrote poetry. Plato,
mingling makes the process of learning noble
who was also a philosopher, wrote his
virtues much easier and it does not require
dialogues in eloquent poetic diction. Romans
any background knowledge of something to
used to revere the poets by calling them seers
proceed. A similar poetic trend can be found
or prophets. Sidney, then, suggests that Bible
within Bible which can be termed as the Divine
is also a kind of “Divine Poem”, to indicate a
Poetic Genius consisting of both philosophy
reader “God coming in His majesty”.
and history.
Why is Poetry Superior over Conclusion

Philosophy and History?
Due to such merits of poetry, Sidney regards
Sidney gives several reasons why poetry is poetry as the “monarch” (king) of all arts. He
superior to philosophy and history. The first successfully proves that poetry can be
reason for the greatness of poetry is the vivid superior to philosophy and history. But it must
and compelling portrayal of something. Poetry be noted that both history and philosophy
tells a reader not only what can be and what have their own distinct place in the process of
cannot be but also what should be. But a learning. But these two spheres of learning
philosopher only theorizes the certain aspect can transmit more effectively when paired
of life. Yet the image painted by a poet is with poetry.
perfect because he or she utilizes the power
of imagination. Furthermore, history only Sources and Suggested
narrates the events of past with little to no
Readings
instruction found in it. But poetry can utilize
any timeframe, be it past, present and even
1. https://literaturetimes.com/for-sidney-
future to instruct mankind. As asserted in my
how-poetry-is-superior-over-philosophy-
previous article
and-history/
(https://iasad1.blogspot.com/2021/08/sidneydefence-
(https://literaturetimes.com/for-sidney- 3. https://www.litcharts.com/lit/an-apology-
how-poetry-is-superior-over-philosophy- for-poetry/themes/poetry-vs-history-and-
and-history/) philosophy
2. http://englishhelplineforall.blogspot.com/2016/02/sidneys-
(https://www.litcharts.com/lit/an-apology-
concept-of-superiorityof-poetry.html?m=1 for-poetry/themes/poetry-vs-history-and-
(http://englishhelplineforall.blogspot.com/2016/02/sidneys-
philosophy)
concept-of-superiorityof-poetry.html?m=1)
T. S. Eliot’s Concept of Tradition and

Individual Talent
By Asad Imran
August 11, 2021
Introduction
What is Tradition?
Thomas Stearns Eliot is one of the noble
names among the great poets ever produced Tradition, in common sense, means the ever-
in English Literature. But he is also a developing set of customs and ideologies of a
renowned critic, a devotee to classicism. nation or a group of nations. But for Eliot,
Before his contribution to poetry and criticism, tradition is something that links the present
poetry was lingering in its chaotic form. Poets with the past. Eliot adds the sense of history
were (blindly) trying to imitate the revolt of to tradition. Eliot gives his insight on literary
Romanticism. Therefore, a new poetic tradition as thus,
doctrine was unevitable to be established. So,
T S Eliot came forward with his own Not only of the pastness of the past,
judgement of poetry as an outcome of both but also of its presence. One who
traditional and individual talent. The essay has has the historic sense feels that the
been divided into three parts. The first one
whole of the literature of Europe
deals with the explanation of Tradition while
from Homer down to his own day,
the second part evaluates the Theory of
including the literature of his own
Impersonality and the third part consists of a
conclusion. country, forms one continuous
literary tradition.
Eliot asserts that in literary tradition, the genius he is intended to compose. Eliot gives
present is the product of the past and the past the example of a chemical reaction between
dependent on the present to be discovered. sulfur dioxide and oxygen under the catalyst
Manifestly, tradition is: of platinum. As a result of the reaction,
sulfuric acid is released as the final product
The acknowledgement of the continuity of but the catalyst remains unchanged. Similarly,
literature from past to present. a poet composes a poem by attaining the
A critical evaluation of the significance of subject(s) through the hard labour under the
old writers in the present age. sense of (historical) tradition. During the
The knowledge of those old writers process of composition, a poet does not add
attained through a great struggle. something that may show his personality just
like we do not see platinum mixing in sulphur.
Eliot also asserts that the old tradition of in this experiment of poetic creation, the mind
literature is followed by a new one, slightly of the poet is the catalyst. Thus, the individual
altered according to the trends of the present
talent of a poet is to compose a poem as an
day. For example, the poetry of Virgil, Dante
“individual” piece from his poetic personality.
and Shakespeare helps to form a new trend in
the poetry that should be written in the
Criticism
coming years.
Eliot has, no doubt, revolutionized the poetic

What is Individual Talent? landscape of the twentieth century through his
critical essay, But his criticism has received
Individualism means subjectivity. Subjectivity much criticism by other literary figures for not
is associated with the Romantics because explaining inadequate terms about tradition. A
they infused their personal emotions into literary figure, Harold Bloom disagrees with
poetry. Eliot does not agree with the
Eliot’s remarks on Romantic Poetry which he
Wordsworthian concept of poetry – a
terms “dissociation of sensibility”. This is not
spontaneous overflow of powerful emotions. true because Romantic poetry does
Eliot, however, suggests: appreciate the beauty of nature and a
(temporal) escape from the harsh realities of
The business of the poet is not to life. Another point of Eliot critics argue about
find new emotions, but to use the is his idealization of European culture and
ordinary ones. history as a mamendatory requirement for
becoming a poet. However, Eliot himself
Individuality in Eliot’s terms, is not about praised the genius of Eastern civilization. For
subjectivity. It is about being impersonal – instance, his acknowledgement of
removing the personality of the poet from the Mahabharta.
Conclusion 3. http://www.literary-
articles.com/2010/02/what-does-t-s-eliot-
Despite the criticism, Eliot’s concept of mean-by-tradition.html (http://www.literary-
tradition and individual talent was a articles.com/2010/02/what-does-t-s-eliot-
remarkable step in breathing a new life in the mean-by-tradition.html)
“dull” poetic landscape. Surely, excessive 4. http://www.askliterature.com/literary-
learning kills the element of delight in a poetic criticism/how-does-t-s-eliot-conceptualize-
composition but learning differs from person tradition-and-how-can-it-be-acquired/
to person. Therefore, this essay is a (http://www.askliterature.com/literary-
somewhat sound but an unofficial manifesto criticism/how-does-t-s-eliot-conceptualize-
of T. S. Eliot. tradition-and-how-can-it-be-acquired/)
Sources and Suggested 186
Readings
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradition_and_the_Individual_Talent
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradition_and_the_Individual_Talent)
2. https://interestingliterature.com/2017/02/a-
short-analysis-of-t-s-eliots-tradition-and-
the-individual-talent/
(https://interestingliterature.com/2017/02/a-
short-analysis-of-t-s-eliots-tradition-and-
the-individual-talent/)
Poetic Process or Theory of Impersonality

By Asad Imran
August 12, 2021
opposition is felt in the said theory. The theory

Introduction of Impersonality is mainly about the removal
of self from poetic art or the removal of
Eliot’s Theory of Impersonality is a direct subjectivity. Eliot himself explains the core
answer to Romantic and Victorian modes of concept of his theory as thus,
poetry. Therefore, a strong sense of
The progress of an artist is a Separation of Poet from his
continual self-sacrifice, a continual Poetry
extinction of personality.
Eliot, then, presents his cynical judgement
So, Eliot is opposed to the adherence of upon the poetry of the impersonal poet that
Romantics to showcase personal emotions in once a poet completes composing a poem,
their poetry. Eliot’s theory has been divided the poem does not belong to him. His poetry
into several parts and we shall discuss them becomes a contribution to the already
one by one in detail. established literary tradition. The feelings and
emotions coming out of the “mature” poetry
are very different from the feelings and
emotions of the poet himself.
Appreciation of the Dead
Poets The Mind of a Poet like a
Catalyst
T S Eliot indirectly asserts that the personality
of the poet is worthless. In order for his poetry
To explain the separation of the poet and his
to flourish, a poet must strive as much as
poetry, Eliot strikes the analogy of the
possible to make himself acquainted with the
importance of catalyst in a chemical reaction.
literary tradition that is set up by the poets
Without a catalyst, a chemical reaction cannot
before him or the “dead poets”.
proceed ahead. In the presence of a reactant,
two (or more) elements or compounds merge
No poet, no artist of any art, has his
into a new substance or compound. But the
complete meaning alone. His properties of the catalyst do not change. Eliot
significance, his appreciation is the gives the example of a chemical reaction
appreciation of his relation to the taking place between sulphur dioxide and
dead poets and artists. oxygen under the catalyst of platinum.
Resultantly, sulphuric acid is produced but
In order to acquire excellence in sharpening platinum remains unchanged. Similarly, the
his poetry according to literary tradition, a poet mind of the poet serves as a catalyst to
must (critically) appreciate and learn from the mingle raw emotions and feelings to create a
established poetry of the “dead poets”. Eliot new one in which his mind remains
instructs that a poet must forget about his unchanged but no adulteration of his own
joys and sorrows when he sits down to write feelings is observed within his poetry.
poetry.
Poetry is Organization
Eliot further assesses that poetry is the Eliot concludes his theory as thus,
arrangement of feelings and emotions
(“Poetry is an organization rather than Poetry is not a turning loose of
inspiration”, says Eliot). He considers the emotions, but an escape from
learned emotions and feelings are stuffed in a emotion; it is not the expression of
jar. And it is the job of a poet to pick the
personality, but an escape from
appropriate emotions and arrange them in
personality.
apple-pie order for an effective experience
upon the reader.
Thus, it is obvious that Eliot’s Theory of
Impersonality is a revolt against subjectivism
Poetic Process and emotions, and an establishment of rather
cynical adherence to classical values.
Eliot puts a great emphasis on the impersonal
but intense poetic process. He claims in a
References and Suggested
chemical reaction, the more pressure is
applied to it, the more effective the final Readings
product. Similarly, if a poet puts hard effort
1. https://www.literaturemini.com/2018/08/dis
into learning the literary tradition, his poetic
in-details-theory-of-impersonality-in-
outcome should be more effective. During the
t.s.eliot.html
poetic process, Eliot suggests that a poet
(https://www.literaturemini.com/2018/08/dis
should remain as impersonal as possible. He
in-details-theory-of-impersonality-in-
should not add his personal emotions into his
t.s.eliot.html)
poetic genius. Eliot views Ode to Nightingale
2. http://yazdaliterature.com/theory-of-
merely as a medium but not an apt
impersonality-by-t-s-eliot/
demonstration of the emotions of the
(http://yazdaliterature.com/theory-of-
nightingale. Eliot rejects the unconsciousness
impersonality-by-t-s-eliot/)
of the poet and favours a conscious departure
3. https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/0
from the personality of the poet during the impersonal-theory-of-poetry/
poetic process. (https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/
impersonal-theory-of-poetry/)
Conclusion 4. Literary Criticism – Current Notes – Page 192
TS Eliot as a Critic
By Asad Imran
August 13, 2021
vision to attain the sense of literary tradition

Introduction looks similar to the close reading objective of
New Criticism. To accept the dominance of
TS Eliot is one of the greatest poets ever Eliot over New Critics, William Empson
produced in the history of English Literature. asserts as thus,
But one defining aspect of his literary
personality is his criticism on poetry that was I do not know for certain how much
a revolutionary step in making poetry of my own mind invented, let alone
mainstream and remarkable again. The critical how much of it is a reaction against
stature of Eliot is as high as of Sir Philip
him or indeed a consequence of
Sidney, Ben Johnson, Dryden, Johnson,
misreading him. He is a very
Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Matthew Arnold.
Eliot wrote five hundred essays as reviews
penetrating influence, perhaps not
that had a significant impact on the landscape unlike the east wind.
of literary criticism. George Watson expressed
Thus, Eliot had his remarkable authority that
his views upon the influence of Eliot in
successfully moulded their ideas according to
criticism as thus,
his own judgement.
Eliot made English criticism look

different, though not in a simple His Appreciation of
sense. Metaphysical Poets
Another remarkable contribution of Eliot to

criticism is his revival of the so-called
His Influence on New Metaphysical Poets. His criticism had been a

great source in rekindling the appreciation of
Criticism the long-forgotten Metaphysical Poetry.
Metaphysical Poets were notorious for their
New Criticism was a 20th-century literary
abrupt use of unpredictable conceits. Eliot
movement in criticism that focused on a close
praised those poets for displaying sensual
reading of the texts of literature especially
and phycological experiences simultaneously
poetry to discover the functionality of the work
in their poetry. According to Eliot, such a
itself. As it is obvious from the objective of the
portrayal of both inner and outer experiences
very movement, Eliot’s criticism had a strong
was unique and witty.
influence on New Criticism. His struggling
His Dejection for (But let’s see how much of the poetic process
does Eliot himself follows in his own poetry).
Romanticism
Eliot openly rejects the enormous overflow of

Limitations
emotions that Romantics depicted in their
Eliot, no doubt, put the poetic landscape
poetry. He criticizes the subjectivity of the
upsidedown through his criticism. But he was
Romantics. Eliot is not against the expression
authoritative and didactic in his approach.
of emotions in poetry. He only objects to the
Whatever he wrote, he wanted it to become a
addition of personal emotions to poetry. Eliot
verdict (farmaan). Eliot was criticized for
does not consider poetry as something
unjustly criticizing Milton. Also, the Poetic
personal and links it directly to tradition. But
Process that Eliot suggests is not only difficult
Eliot also asserts that poetry is an escape
but also halts the personality of the poet to be
from emotions and subjective show of
seen. We can read through the lines of a poem
personality.
if the identity of the poet is visible within a
poet. For instance, Robert Frost is a poet of
Poetic Process
Nature not only because his poems abound in
natural imagery, but also his personal
One of the striking contributions of Eliot in the
attraction to the objects of Nature. Therefore,
field of criticism is his introduction to Poetic
poetry cannot be disassociated from the poet
Process – a roadmap of writing exceptional
who composes it. Lastly, Eliot could not follow
poetry through the organization of emotions
the product of his own “Personal Workshop of
(and ideas). Eliot’s Poetic Process is difficult
Poetry” which is the Poetic Process. Despite
and requires a considerable amount of
the poetic greatness “The Waste Land” carries
knowledge and understanding of the works of
with it, the poem is basically a representation
the “Dead Poets” to form a sense of literary
of Eliot’s own ideas of the horrors caused by
tradition. After a poet successfully acquires
World War First.
the particular sense, he has to pick up the
suitable emotions (accumulated through
literary tradition) and arrange them in order.
Conclusion
After that, the poet should make himself ready
Despite those sharp limitations in Eliot’s
to write poetry while remaining as impersonal
judgement, his criticism has brought a new
as possible like a catalyst in a chemical
taste of poetry for the readers to relish and
reaction. Eliot also suggests that poetry does
new tools of criticism to put a poetic work
not belong to the poet but to the literary
under scrutiny. The greatness of Eliot as a
tradition. This is Eliot’s painful Poetic Process.
critic is beautifully summed up by John
Hayward as below,
I cannot think of a critic who has (https://literariness.org/2020/11/21/literary-
criticism-of-t-s-eliot/)
been more widely read and
3. http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/t-
discussed in his own life-time; and
s-eliots-critic.html
not only in English, but in almost (http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/t-
every language, except Russian. s-eliots-critic.html)
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._S._Eliot
Sources and Suggested (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._S._Eliot)
5. http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-optional-
Readings
subjects/group-v/english-literature/381-t-s-
eliot-critic.html
(http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-optional-
213
subjects/group-v/english-literature/381-t-s-
2. https://literariness.org/2020/11/21/literary-
eliot-critic.html)
criticism-of-t-s-eliot/
TS Eliot’s Commentary on John Milton

By Asad Imran
August 14, 2021
Milton 2, Eliot admired the use of Blank Verse.

Introduction Let’s examine those remarks in detail.
John Milton, who strived to “justify the ways of

God to men” was unjustly justified by the
renowned critic, TS Eliot. In his transcribed Charges – Milton 1
lecture Milton 1, Eliot severely criticized
Milton. But in his second lecture, Eliot The first defect that Eliot points out in the
somewhat corrected his judgement and poetic personality of Milton is his blindness.
apologized for it. In Milton 1, Eliot criticized Milton, at the time of writing Paradise Lost,
Milton’s style as a great wall of China due to entered into complete disconnection from the
the use of abandoned diction and for the visual experience of the world. Eliot suggests
portrayal of his individual personality. It must that Milton’s blindness might be a chief reason
be noted that Eliot, at that time, was against behind the lack of sensuous imagery that
the ones whose poetry was subjective. But in ultimately might have affected his language.
Another limitation that Eliot asserts in his Both lectures are written in a
lecture is Milton’s use of dead language. convoluted style of qualification and
Thirdly, the words Milton chose lack
reservation that grows more
meaningful expression. Fourthly, Milton
complex with the years, so that it is
ignored following the literary tradition of that
time. In the concluding paragraph, Eliot
only by a narrow margin that the
somewhat accepts Milton’s greatness but he first lecture can be called an
still considers his poetry dangerous for the exercise in the qualified rejection of
new poets to read because of Milton’s lack of Milton, or the second one of
traditional value in his poetry. qualified assent. There are three
voices of T.S. Eliot, the critic: First,
Correction – Milton 2 the youthful, exploratory
enthusiasm of the twenties, where
As mentioned earlier, in the second lecture,
Eliot corrected most of his “rushed” an almost ideal balance between
judgement of Milton’s poetic genius. At first, poetic and critical activity is
Eliot criticized Milton for using language realized; second an abortive career
remote from the language of laymen. Now, of social and religious advocacy in
Eliot accepts it as a distinct feature of Milton.
frankly obscurantist causes; and
He admits that the poetic diction Milton chose
third, a bold but exhausted attempt
to decorate Paradise Lost shows his true
to recover the creative urge,
talent. Secondly, Eliot asserted that Milton’s
blindness was a major factor behind his followed at once by denial and
grotesque language. Later, Eliot considers desperation.
Milton’s blindness as a blessing in disguise.
Watson beautifully sums the rhetoric behind
He further adds that it was through Milton’s
Eliot’s commentary on Milton.
blindness that we received an unearthly
description of the Garden of Eden. If Milton
had been blessed with slight, we would have Conclusion
ended up with a limited world of Eden.
Consequently speaking, Eliot’s remarks on
Milton are unjust on its first instalment but its
Commentary of Critics
second instalment somewhat clears the
grudges of the devotees of Milton.
These two lectures, especially the first one
caused a significant uproar from the
community of critics. Watson adds, Source
There are no reliable sources for this topic resources. Although the answer is somewhat
available online other than the text of Milton 1 unsatisfactory, I shall add more relevant
and 2 lectures. A huge thanks to Rana Talha material to this answer as soon as I find new
Razzaq for providing me with enough helpful sources.
Steps in Critical Practice – Catherine Belsey

By Asad Imran
August 16, 2021
Criticism and Common Sense

Introduction
The first step in the evaluation of the text is to
Critical Practice by Catherine Belsey is a book make ourselves familiar with the text itself as
on criticism that puts six literary theories in well as the story. While common sense in
the funnel to find the meaning of a given text. literature means knowing about a set of
According to her, the actual problem in a text valuable texts as well as the period in which
is ‘where’ to look for the meaning in a text. they were produced. But they also include a
Belsey presents six theories to ponder: rough idea about the depiction of human
nature and society too. Common Sense
What is poststructuralist theory and its advocates that Man is the centre of the action,
implication in criticism? meaning, history and meaning.
Does the meaning of the text lie in the
author’s head or in the reader’s?
Ideology
Or is the meaning traced during practice?
How do our values affect the interpretation Ideology is a discourse of language while
of the text? discourse is a domain of language that
And what is the role of the text? focuses on a particular way of conversation.
Belsey, then, asserts that ideology is a total of
Belsey considers these questions important to
our response to the happenings of life. Thus,
draw a line between the mindset of the
ideology is somewhat reaching to the core
readers and the (authority of the) text. Let us
meaning of a writing through the stairs of text,
discuss these theories in detail:
author’s intent and then through his
contemporary society. Author-Oriented Theory
can he an important step in finding out the
meaning of the text. The theory encourages to
find the meaning in the mind of the author (of speaker and the addressor. Belsey, one by one
the particular text) and it can only be the one. rejects the following theories:
Belsey, then, adds Plato’s interpretation of the Expressive realism

poets who says that when poets write poetry, General experience
they come out of their senses. Just like a Reader Oriented Theory
anxious man is unconscious of his anxiety but Existentialism
his anxiety is obvious when someone sees Absurdism
that man. Similarly, when a poet composes a Historical and psychological approaches
poem, he becomes unaware of his current
surroundings but he gets into the immersion The reason behind her rejection of these
of the world he is writing about. theories (and others) is because according to
her, they withhold a person from reaching to
The ideological interpretation of finding the exact meaning. But they do help in lighting
meaning in realistic or unrealistic work of up the path to find out the exact meaning a
literature through applying different theories is person is looking for.
difficult. Belsey gives a rather simple
explanation of the relation of ideology with a Deconstruction
literary work,
Deconstruction is not destruction but splitting
Ideology is both a real and an a piece of work according to the language it
imaginary relation to the world. exhibits. This approach of the reconstruction
of the meaning by division of the work is
Therefore, ideology is the whole environment favoured by Belsey. Deconstruction is a
including thoughts, beliefs, practices, structural analysis of a piece of work. For
language and feelings. example, when analysing a poem,
deconstruction focuses on splitting the
Split Subject contents of the poem on the basis of literary
devices, diction, rhyme and rhythm etc.
Another question arises while evaluating a
work of literature whether an individual is As mentioned before, deconstruction is
important or the subject of the work. A basically a two-way process in which a work, i
specific solution is Spirit Subject that divides e a poem has to be divided into its structural
the two. It involves in two different elements (as mentioned in above lines). And
interpretations of I, as personal ideology as then reconstructing the actual meaning
well as the ideology of the critic. Other ‘I’ is the (theme or central idea) through the raw
materials of the structural data.
Conclusion Source
Belsey’s tendency to critically evaluate a piece 1. Literary Criticism – Current Notes – Page
of writing is that of a structuralist. Although 287
not all modern theories are false yet her
approach is most close to what we have been
observing in our academics (in the form of
writing a critical appreciation of a poem).
Literary Criticism – Short Questions and Their

Answers (From Sargodha University Past
Papers) MA English Literature Part 2
By Asad Imran
September 20, 2021
Categories: Literary Criticism, Short Questions
Already answered
Q3: Why does Eliot oppose the romantic
View Even More Short Questions for Literary conceptions in his famous theory of
Criticism/preview/button impersonality in Art?
Eliot opposes the romantic conception
2021 because he thinks poetry should be an
outcome of the impersonal experience of the
Q1: What is Aristotle’s concept of an ideal poet. The subjectivity in romanticism dismays
tragic hero? him the most.
According to Aristotle, an ideal tragic hero: Q4: What is T.S. Eliot’s view about
Wordsworth’s theory of “Spontaneous
Must belong to the noble class overflow of powerful emotions”?
His downfall must be sudden Eliot rejects the Wordsworthian conception of
His downfall must be governed by his poetry. He considers poetry as an organization
tragic flaw of the feelings collected through objective
observation.
Q2: What do you know about the term
“Peripeteia” about Plot in Aristotle’s poetics?
Q5: What are three kinds of texts mentioned the hero’s actions that result in his tragedy. In
by Belsey in her book critical practice? a complex plot, the story is governed by the
Already answered sudden reversal of the situation and the
Q6: How does Belsey draw the analogy discovery of the hero’s actions which later
between a reader and a consumer in her book transform into tragedy.
critical practice? Q2: Define the term “Anagnorisis” given in
Belsey draws the comparison between a Poetics.
reader and a consumer through the analogy of Anagnorisis is the discovery of something
books being commodities. which turns the ignorance of the tragic hero
Q7: What is the worst kind of tragic plot into knowledge and puts the event upside
according to Aristotle? down against the favour of a tragic hero.
The episodic plot is the worst kind of tragic Q3: How does Aristotle define “Comedy in
plot, according to Aristotle. Poetics?
Q8: What is Belsey’s view about classical Aristotle defines Comedy as something which
realism? depicts human beings as “worse” than they
According to Belsey, Classical Realism is a actually are in real life. Aristotle does not
reader’s own ideological interpretation of the mean evil. But ridiculous and
realism shown in the text he/she is reading. laughable. Source
Q9: What is Sir Philips Sidney view about (http://www.english.hawaii.edu/criticalink/ari
poetry? stotle/terms/comedy.html)
Already answered below Q4: What are the three kinds of texts
Q10: What were the charges of the puritan mentioned by Belsey?
against poetry which Sidney answers? According to Catherine Besley, there are three
The charges include the following: kinds of text:
Poetry is the mother of lies. Declarative Text: Which declare a certain

Poetry is a nurse of abuse. ideology in it
Poetry is a waste of time. Imperative Text: Which compels a reader to
Plato had tightly banished poets from his think against a certain ideology
Republic. Interrogative Text: The text which makes a
reader question the way a text is
2020 constricted and the ideology which comes
with it. Source
Q1: Differentiate between Simple and (https://prezi.com/mid71odf_eai/catherine-
Complex plot as suggested in Poetics? belsey-interrogative-text/)
Simple plot means which does not follow a
sudden reversal of situation and discovery of
Q5: Where does ideology exist in Belsey’s Eliot wants from a poet to compose his work
view? based on his collected experiences. During
According to Belsey, Ideology exists in the the poetic process, he should completely
text. It’s upon the reader to discover it. Source remove himself from the poetry.
(http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/cri
tical-practice-by-catherine-belsey.html?m=1) 2019
Q6: What does Belsey mean by the term
“Common Sense”? Q1: Enumerate the essential qualities of a
Common Sense is the natural understanding good critic?
of the text that comes out of the particular According to T. S. Eliot, a good critic is the one
text, suggests Belsey. who remains completely impartial, objective
Q7: How has Sidney established that poetry is and unprejudiced in his approach, has a highly
antique and universal in nature? trained sensibility as well as has a knowledge
Sidney asserts that the end goal of poetry is to of structural principles. Source
teach someone while providing delight. Poetry (http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/t-
uses examples from the past and present to s-eliots-critic.html?m=1)
explain ideas. That is how it has achieved Q2: Define “Tradition” in the light of Eliot’s
antiquity and universality. Source essay Tradition and the Individual Talent.
(https://m.facebook.com/permalink.php? According to Eliot, tradition is the living of the
story_fbid=681379191966500&id=344398288 present, formulated by the incidents of the
997927) past and history.
Q8: What does Sidney mean by a poet as a Q3: What is the role of a reader in reading the
“maker”? text as suggested by Belsey?
According to Sidney, a poet is a “maker” According to Belsey, the role of a reader is to
because he makes his own world in his interpret the text based on his experiences
poetry. and intellectual skills. So far, this theory has
Q9: Why, according to Eliot “emotions been rejected because not everyone has
recollected in tranquillity” is an inexact enough intellectual power to meet the
formula? requirements of a text to be interpreted.
T. S. Eliot considers the Wordsworthian (Originally answered by Ajwa and Samreen
maxim of poetry inexact because he thinks in M.A ENGLISH(Annual System) University of
poetry has no relations with tranquillity and Sargodha(UOS)
emotions. He considers poetry as an outcome (https://www.facebook.com/groups/1132201
of experiences that are not subjective. Source 936968178))
(https://www.literaturemini.com/2018/10/wh Q4: Define “Expressive Realism” as per
at-is-eliots-theory-of-poetry.html?m=1) Belsey?
Q10: What does Eliot want from a poet?
According to Belsey, expressive realism is a 16/how-does-sidney-define-poetry-how-does-
reader’s own version of realism experienced he-establish-its-superiority-over-philosophy-
by his or her own imaginary senses while and-history/)
reading a piece of text. Q10: What does the term “Hamartia” mean?
Q5: What is the role of the poet’s mind in the Hamartia, a term in tragedy, means a flaw in
creative process? the hero (also his error of judgement) of a
The role of a poet’s mind is to compose a tragedy which leads to his downfall. Source
poem without the indulgence of the poetic (https://literarydevices.net/hamartia/#:~:text
personality, much like the role of catalyst in a =Hamartia%20is%20a%20literary%20device,m
chemical reaction. isfortune%20for%20a%20tragic%20hero.)
Q6: What kind of understanding about poetry
was felt in Sidney’s time? 2018
Under the influence of Stephen Gosson, poetry
was considered to be a mother of all lies and Q1: How literary criticism is different from
a nurse of abuse. fiction?
Q7: List out the differences between Tragedy While fiction only deals with a narration of a
and Epic poetry as given in Poetics? fictional account of life, literary criticism is the
Aristotle mostly considers epic and tragedy evaluation, interpretation and a quest to find
the same as both depict heroic deeds in hidden meanings of any piece of literature.
elevated manner and both the heroes of epic Q2: What does the term “Peripety” mean?
and tragedy suffer. The key difference Peripety is a term used in a tragedy, signifying
between the two is epic showcases incidents the sudden reversal of circumstances that
through the means of language while a become adversely unfavourable for the tragic
tragedy is exhibited through actions. hero.
Q8: How does Aristotle describe plot as a Q3: Why, according to Eliot, “emotion
whole? recollected in tranquillity” is an inexact
Aristotle considers plot as a whole because formula?
according to him, plot carries all the Already answered in Q9 of 2020
necessary bits to display a proper sequence of Q4: What does “deconstruction” mean in the
incidents in a tragedy. light of Belsey’s Critical Practice?
Q9: Define poetry as per Philip Sidney’s view. Through deconstruction, Belsey means the
Sidney defines poetry as thus, attainment of the meaning of the text after
Poetry is an art of imitation, a representing, splitting the text into the chunks based on its
counterfeiting, or figuring forth; to speak characteristics.
metaphorically, a speaking picture, with this Q5: How poetry is more philosophical than
end ,—to teach and delight. Source history in Aristotle’s opinion?
(https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/
According to Aristotle’s opinion, poetry is Q1: What type of man is suitable for imitation
more philosophical than history because in Aristotelian Tragedy?
poetry is universal as opposed to history Already answered in Q6 of 2018
which focuses on the particular. Source Q2: What is the importance of Plot in
(https://joannasaristotelianreflections.wordpr structuring tragedy?
ess.com/2011/05/02/history-vs-poetry/) According to Aristotle, plot is the soul of a
Q6: List out four essential qualities of an tragedy as the proper sequence of events
Aristotelian tragic hero. grants the meaning of endurance in a
The four essential qualities of the Aristotelian tragedy.
tragic hero are given below: Q3: Define the term “Anagnorisis” given in
poetics.
Essentially good Already answered in Q2 of 2020
Should belong to a noble class Q4: What does Sidney say about Epic Poetry?
Should bear exceptional suffering Sidney says that epic is the “best” form of
His downfall should be sudden poetry, compelling people to learn heroism
through the portrayal of heroic deeds. Source
Q7: What does Belsey mean by “Ideology”? (http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/an-
Belsey means “ideology” as “the very apology-for-poetry-by-sir-philip.html?m=1)
condition of our existence in the universe”. Q5: According to Sidney what is the utility of
Source: Critical Practice by Catherine Besley
comedy other than providing mere delight?
Q8: What is Belsey’s view of “New
Sidney asserts that comedy can be utilized as
Criticism”? a vehicle to teach something delightfully.
Belsey states in her book that New Criticism is Q6: How does Sidney condemn the tragic
a “contradictory” movement as on one side, it comedy?
favours liberation from authority but on the
Sidney condemns tragic comedy by claiming
contrary, gives considerable weight to
that mingling of the two un-elevates the tragic
observation. Source: Critical Practice by dignity of a play.
Catherine Besley Q7: Why does T.S. Eliot reject the theory of
Q9: What does Aristotle mean by the term “Spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings”
“Comedy”? by Wordsworth?
Already answered in Q3 of 2020
Eliot rejects the Wordsworthian notion of
Q10: State briefly Sidney’s strong claim about
poetry because he thinks that the uncontrolled
the poet? emotions can give rise to chaotic literature
Sidney claims that a poet paints the most and also, he asserts that poetry is not about
truthful picture as compared to a historian.
personal emotions but about the impersonal
experience. Source
2017 (https://www.literaturemini.com/2018/10/dis
cuss-eliots-view-of-poetry-as-escape-from- Thought
emotion.html?m=1) Language or Diction
Q8: How does Belsey see the function of a Song
reader in a literary text? Spectacle or Background
Belsey sees the reader as an interpreter of the
literary text according to his own version of Q3: What is the main difference between Epic
realism derived from the text. and Tragedy?
Q9: What is the relationship between Already answered in Q7 of 2019
language and thought according to Belsey in Q4: Eliot used the term “objective co-relative”
her book critical practice? what does it mean?
Belsey compares language with a sheet of Objective correlative is a term deviced by Eliot
paper. She considers language a side of the which means objectives, events and chain of
paper and thought its other side. Source situations which will arouse particular
(http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/cri emotion in the reader.
tical-practice-by-catherine-belsey.html?m=1) Q5: What is T.S Eliot’s opinion about
Q10: Define the term “Catharsis”. Wordsworth’s theory of poetry?
Catharsis means the purgation of one’s Already answered in Q7 of 2017
thoughts from the excess of the emotions of Q6: Why does Sidney prefer poetry to
pity and fear through art (particularly philosophy?
tragedy). Sidney prefers poetry over philosophy
because, to him, it is only the poetry that can
2016 guide people to what “should be done” instead

of what “will be done” as is the case with
Q1: According to Aristotle, what aspects of philosophy.
life are represented by comedy? Q7: How does Sidney define comedy?
Aristotle asserts that in comedy, characters Sidney defines Comedy as ‘an imitation of
are “worse than real life” but not necessarily common errors of life’ displayed in a
evil. But in comedy, ridiculous (and funny) ridiculous and scornful manner. Source
aspects of life are depicted. (https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/
Q2: What are the six elements that make up 16/critically-examine-sidneys-views-on-a-
tragedy? tragedy-and-tragi-comedy-b-comedy-and-c-
According to Aristotle, there are six the-dramatic-unities/)
formulative elements of a tragedy which are Q8: What is the function of tragedy according
listed below: to Sidney?
According to Sidney, the function of a tragedy
Plot is to stir admiration and commiseration (a
Character fancy word for pity).
Q9: What is Belsey’s views about classical comedy?
realism? Already answered in Q5 of 2017
Already answered in Q4 of 2019 Q6: What is the origin of poetry according to
Q10: What is the relationship between Aristotle?
language and thought explained by Belsey? Aristotle claims that poetry originated from
Already answered in Q9 of 2017 the soul of humanity with an instinct of
imitation and harmony. Source
2015 (https://www.enotes.com/homework-
help/what-were-causes-that-led-origin-poetry-
Q1: What type of plot does Aristotle prefer to elaborate-376276)
capture the attention of the audience? Q7: What do you mean by the phrase
Aristotle prefers a complex plot with the “objective correlative” used by T.S Eliot?
sudden downfall of the tragic hero through Already answered in Q4 of 2016
peripety and anagnorisis to capture the Q8: Why does Eliot regard Milton as a bad
attention of the audience. influence on classical poetry?
Q2: Define the term “Perripetcia” and Eliot regards Milton as a bad influence on
“Anagnorisis” given in Poetics. Classical Poetry because of:
Already answered in Q2 of 2018 and Q2 of
2020. His lack of eyesight
Q3: How much importance does Aristotle give His use of archaic or dead language
spectacle’, the element of tragedy? His style is not classical. Source
Aristotle gives spectacle the least importance (http://neoenglishsystem.blogspot.com/20
in the elements of tragedy because he asserts practical-criticism-his-critical.html?m=1)
that tragedy can also be narrated through text
(much like an epic). Source Q9: Does T.S. Eliot accept Wordsworth’s
theory of poetry is a “Spontaneous overflow
(http://www.english.hawaii.edu/criticalink/ari
stotle/terms/spectacle.html) of powerful feelings”?
Q4: What is Sidney’s opinion about the heroic No, he does not. The reason is already stated
or Epic poetry? in Q7 of 2017.
Already answered in Q4 of 2017 Q10: What is Belsey’s view about classical
Q5: Sidney says “comedy is not merely to realism?

Already answered in Q4 of 2019
provide delight” what is the other utility of
Role of Ideology in Shaping of the Subject –

Critical Practice – Catherine Belsey
By Asad Imran
November 19, 2021
Furthermore, Catherine also links ideology

Introduction with the language of that nation that helps its
spread.
Catherine Belsey’s Critical Practice is an
important milestone in structuring literary Ideology and Reading of the
criticism on an academic level. In this book,
Text
Catherine Besley presents her opinions in
shaping up the meaning by dissecting the text. Belsey conveys that there are two kinds of
The meaning of a text can be traced in the ideologies. The one that is realistic (and can
light of a specific ideology. But Belsey asserts be felt through the actions of a nation)
that ideology is helpful in shaping up the whereas the second one is the imaginative
subject of a particular work.
ideology that lives in people’s hearts. It is the
imaginative ideology that helps a reader
connect with the text of a work. When the text
of a work is being read, a reader perceives the
Ideology – According to said work on the basis of the imaginative
Belsey ideology that is hidden in his brain.
Imaginative ideology can differ from person to
Before expanding Belsey’s view on ideology, person.
first, we have to learn what is actually meant
by ideology. Ideology is a system of ideas and Ideology and the Subject
ideals that help in shaping the political and
social body of a nation. But Belsey utilizes the It is the imaginative ideology that shapes the
view of Althusser to explain the function of subject. And Catherine says that the subject is
ideology. According to Althusser (and Belsey), the man himself or herself who identifies
ideology works along with politics and himself or herself as “I”. When a reader reads
economics to format a society. Belsey makes a certain text, the ideology hidden in the said
the trait of ideology much simpler and she text affects the imaginative ideology of the
simplifies ideology as thus, person who is attached to the certain book.
The subject is shaped partly by the
Ideology is a way of thinking, imaginative ideology of the person as well as
speaking, experiencing. the ideology presented in the book. It is the
language that transmits the ideological
subject from the mind of a person to the mind and that is transmitted through
other. language.
Conclusion Source
Thus, ideology plays an important role in Text of Critical Practise – Catherine Belsey
establishing the subject that lives in a person’s
List of Important Long Questions of Literary

Criticsm in 2022 for MA English Literature
Part 2 – Sargodha University
By Asad Imran
December 9, 2021
concept-of-catharsis.html)
Poetics 6. Tragic Flaw
(https://www.thefreshreads.com/aristotles-
1. Plot and its Kinds concept-of-hamartia/)
(http://nazarbazmi.com/tragic-plot/) 7. Difference between Poetry and History
2. Superiority of Tragedy over Epic (https://www.gradesaver.com/aristotles-
(https://www.literaturexpres.com/the- poetics/q-and-a/what-difference-does-
reasons-of-superiority-of-tragedy-over-epic- aristotle-find-between-historyand-poetry-
poetry/) 257311)
3. Ideal Tragic Hero
(http://askliterature.com/literary- Note: This is just a rough estimate from the
criticism/aristotle/aristotles-views-on- past papers. Read everything included in
ideal-tragic-hero/) Current Notes regarding Poetics!
4. Importance of Plot over Character
An Apology
(https://bennykarinattu.wordpress.com/2014/06/29/aristotles- to Poetry
preference-for-plot-over-
character/comment-page-1/) 1. Sidney’s Defense of Poetry
5. Catharsis (http://192.168.1.100:8000/wordpress/202
(http://allrfree.blogspot.com/2009/10/aristotles-
levelled-against-poetry-and-sidneys- of-t-s-eliots-hamlet-and-his-problems/) (A
defence-of-poetry/) Careful Measure)
2. Functions of Poetry
(https://literaturetimes.com/nature-and- Critical Practice – Catherine
function-of-poetry-for-philip-sidney/)
Belsey
3. Superiority of Poetry over Philosophy and
History 1. Expressive Realism
(http://192.168.1.100:8000/wordpress/2021/08/10/superiority-
2. Role of Ideology in Shaping up the Subject
of-poetry-over-philosophy-and-history/) (http://192.168.1.100:8000/wordpress/202
4. Sidney’s Views on Three Unities of-ideology-in-shaping-of-the-subject-
(https://spengtutor.blogspot.com/2020/04/sidneys-
critical-practice-catherine-belsey/)
view-on-three-unities-expressed.html) 3. Extracting meaning of the Text
4. Authority of Common Sense in Critical
Tradition and Individual Practice
Talent
Note: The interpretation of Critical Practice in
1. Influence of Eliot’s Theory Current Notes is pathetic. You are advised to

read the original book known as Critical
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradition_and_the_Individual_Talent)
2. Theory of Impersonality Practice by Catherine Besley which is
available on Z Library for free to download.
(http://192.168.1.100:8000/wordpress/2021/08/12/poetic-
process-or-theory-of-impersonality/)
3. Eliot on John Milton The Well Wrought Urn –
Cleanth Brooks
(http://192.168.1.100:8000/wordpress/2021/08/14/ts-
eliots-commentary-on-john-milton/)
4. Eliot as a Critic I think Sargodha University has forgotten
(http://192.168.1.100:8000/wordpress/2021/08/13/ts-
about the inclusion of Cleanth Brooks in the
eliot-as-a-critic/) syllabus.
5. Eliot’s Sense of Tradition
(http://192.168.1.100:8000/wordpress/2021/08/11/t-
Critical Appreciation of a
s-eliots-concept-of-tradition-and-
individual-talent/)
Poetic Verse
6. Hamlet and His Problems
If you know what you are doing, go for it!
(https://literariness.org/2020/07/04/analysis-
Literary Criticism – Past Papers – MA English
Literature – Part 2 – Sargodha University
By Asad Imran
January 7, 2022
8. what is Belsey’s view about classical

Time Allowed: 3 Hours realism?
Total Marks: 100 9. How does Belsey draw the analogy
Passing Marks: 40 (As of 2020) between a reader and a consumer in her
Note: Objective part is compulsory. Attempt book critical practice?
any four questions from the subjective part.
10. What are three kinds of texts mentioned by
Belsey in her book critical practice?
2021
Long Questions
Short Questions
1. How does Aristotle’s view of character
1. What is Aristotle’s concept of an ideal inform the poetics? How does the
tragic hero presentation of the tragedy relate to
2. What do you know about the term morality? Discuss. How does the
“Peripeteia” about Plot in Aristotle’s presentation of character in tragedy relate
Poetics morality?
3. What are Sir Philips Sidney views about 2. What are Aristotle’s six elements of
poetry tragedy? What according to him is the
4. What were charges of the puritan against primary purpose of tragedy? Discuss.
poetry which Sidney answers? 3. What does T.S Eliot mean by objective
5. Why does Eliot oppose the romantic correlative? illustrate.
conceptions in his famous theory of 4. According to Raymond Williams the
impersonality in Art? concept of tradition is important to
6. What is T.S. Eliot’s view about understand modem tragedy discuss.
Wordsworth’s theory of Spontaneous 5. What is expressive realism according to
overflow of powerful feelings”? Catherine Belsey? Discuss.
7. what is the worst kind of tragic plot 6. Examine critically any one of the following
according to Aristotle?
(a)
Apparelled in celestial light, 5. Where does ideology exist in Belsey’s
view?
The glory and the freshness of a dream, 6. What does Belsey mean by the term
“Common Sense?
It is not now as it hath been of yore:
7. How has Sidney established that poetry is
antique and universal in nature?
Turn wheresoe’er I may,
8. What does Sidney mean by a poet as a
“maker”?
By night of day,
9. Why, according to Eliot, “emotions
The things which I have seen I now gan seen recollected in tranquillity” is an inexact
no more. formula?
10. What does Eliot want from a poet
b) Essence of winter sleep in on the night
Long Questions
The scent of apples: I am drowsing off
1. How does Aristotle define plot? What are
I cannot rub the strangeness from my sight the various types of Plot? Critically
evaluate
I got from looking through a pane of glass 2. Tragedy is the higher art, as attaining its
end more perfectly Compare Tragedy and
I skimmed this moving from the drinking
Epic poetry and establish the superiority of
trough
Tragedy over Epic poetry in the light of
Poetics
And held against the world of hoary grass.
3. Eliot’s conception of tradition is unique in
the sense that it both influences and gets
2020
influenced by the individual poet” Elaborate
in the light of Eliot’s essay, Tradition and
Short Questions Individual 7alent.
4. Sidney’s Apology for Poetry 1s a command
1. Differentiate between Simple and Complex
performance in English Criticism. how
plot as suggested in poetics?
does Sidney react to Stephen Gosson’s
2. Define the term “Anagnorisis” given in
School of Abuse? Elaborate with
Poetics
arguments
3. How does Aristotle define “Comedy in
5. What is Expressive Realism? Critically
Poetics?
evaluate Belsey’s ideas on expressive
4. What are the three kinds of texts
realism in the light of Critical Practice
mentioned by Belsey?
6. Examine critically any one of the following
a ) Let me not to the marriage of true minds 2019
Admit impediments. Love is not love
Short Questions
Which alters when it alteration finds,
1. Enumerate the essential qualities of a good
critic?
Or bends with the remover to remove.
2. List out the differences between Tragedy
O nol it is an ever-fixed mark and Epie poetry as given in Poetic

3. How does Aristotle describe plot as a
That looks on tempests and is never shaken whole?
4. What does the term “Hamartia” mean?
It is the star to every wandering bark, 5. Define poetry as per Philip Sidney’s view.
6. What kind of understanding about poetry
Whose worth’s unknown, although his height was felt in Sidney’s time?
be taken 7. what is the role of a reader in reading the
text as suggested by Belsey?
Love’s not Time’s fool, though rosy lips and
8. Define “Expressive Realism” as per Belsey?
checks
9. Define “Tradition” in the light of Eliot’s
essay Tradition and the Individual Talent
Within his bending sickle’s compass come
10. What is the role of the poet’s mind in the
Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks, creative process?
But bears it out even to the edge of doom. Long Questions
1f this be error and upon me prov’d, 1. What is Aristotle’s concept of an ideal

Tragic Hero? How far is it applicable to the
I never wTit, nor no man ever lov’d modern tragic heroes?
2. without action there cannot be a tragedy,
b ) I shall be telling this with a sigh there may be without character”. Explain
Aristotle’s concept of tragedy in the light of
Somewhere ages and ages hence
the given statement
3. How does Sidney prove that, in moral
Two roads diverged in a wood, and
doctrine, the poet surpasses historian as
well as the philosopher? Elucidate with
took the one less travelled by,
reference to An Apology for poetry.
And that has made all the difference
4. Define ideology. How does ideology shape Short Questions
the subjeet? Explain with reference to
Belsey’s Critical Practice 1. How literary criticism is different from
5. Elaborate Eliot’s concept of impersonal fiction?
theory of poetry. How is it relevant to some 2. What does the term “Peripety” mean?
of the modern poetic texts that you have 3. List out four essential qualities of an
read? Aristotelian tragic hero
6. Examine critically any one of the following 4. What does Aristotle mean by the term
“Comedy2
a ) He who was living is now dead 5. State briefly Sidney’s strong claim about
the poet?
We who were living are now dying
6. How poetry is more philosophical than
history in Aristotle’s opinion?
With a little patience
7. What is Belsey’s view of “New Criticism?
8. Why, according to Eliot, “emotion
Here is no water but only rock
recollected in tranquillity” is an inexact
Rock and no water and the sandy road formula?
9. What does Belsey mean by “ideology”?
The road winding above among the mountains 10. What does “deconstruction” mean in the
light of Belsey’s Critical Practice?
Which are mountains of rock without water
Long Questions
If there were only water amongst the rock
1. “The plot is the life and soul of tragedy

Amongst the rock one cannot stop or think
Examine critically in the light of Aristotle’s
Poetics
b ) We look before and after,
2. Tragedy contains incidents arousing pity
and fear, wherewith to accomplish its
And pine for what is not:
catharsis of such emotions”. Elaborate in
Our sincerest laughter the light of Aristotle’s Poetics

3. Write a detailed note on Eiiot’s theory of
With some pain is fraught, Impersonality of Poetry in the light of his
essay Tradition and Individual Talent
Our sweetest songs are those that tell of 4. Discuss the methods of extracting
saddest thought. meanings out of a creative text as
described by Belsey in Critical Practice
2018
5. What is Sidney’s view of poetry? What does And leaden-cycd despairs,
Sidney say about the functions of poetry?
6. Examine critically any one ‘of the following: Where Beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes,
a ) No! I am not Prince Hamlet, nor was meant Or new Love pine at them beyond to-morrow.
to be;
2017
Am an attendant lord, one that will do
Short Questions
To swell a progress, start a scene or two,
1. What type of man is suitable for imitation

Advise the prince; no doubt, an easy tool,
in Aristotelian Tragedy?
2. What is the importance of Plot in
Deferential, glad to be of use,
structuring tragedy?
3. Define the term “Anagnorisis” given in
Politic, cautious, and meticulous;
poetics.
Full of high sentence, but a bit obtuse; 4. What does Sidney say about Epic Poetry?
5. According to Sidney what is the utility of
At times, indeed, almost ridiculous comedy other than providing mere delight?
6. How does Sidney condemn the tragic
Almost, at times, the Fool. comedy?
7. Why does T.S. Eliot reject the theory of
b ) Fade far away, dissolve, and quite forget “Spontaneous overflow of powerful
feelings” by Wordsworth?
What thou among the leaves hast never
8. How does Belsey see the function of
known,
reader in literary text?
9. What is the relationship between language
The weariness, the fever, and the fret
and thought according to Belsey in her
Here, where meu sit and hear each other book critical practice?
groan; 10. Define the term “Catharsis”.
Where palsy shakes a few, sad, last grey hairs, Long Questions
Where youth grows pale, and spectre-thin, and 1. What is Aristotle’s concept of ideal tragic
dies; hero? How far it is applicable to the
modern tragic heroes?
Where but to think is to be full of sorrow
2. How does Aristotle discuss Hamartia or My cheek is cold and white, alas!
Tragic Flow in his book poetics?
3. Discuss in detail Sidney’s views on three My heart beats loud and fast;
unities and compare his views with those
Oh! Press it to thine own again,
of Dryden and Johnson.
4. Discuss T.S. Eliot’s theory of tradition and
Where it will break at last.
individual talent.
5. How does Catherin Belsey discuss the
authority of common sense and critical
2016
theory?
6. Critically evaluate any one of the following Short Questions
excerpts:
1. According to Aristotle what aspects of life
1.Beneath the lamp the lady bowed are represented by comedy?

2. What are the six elements that make up
And slowly rolled her eyes around tragedy?
3. What is the main difference between Epic
Then drawing in her breath aloud, and Tragedy?
4. S. Eliot used the term “objective co-
Like one that shuddered, she unbound relative” what does it mean?
5. What is T.S Eliot’s opinion about
The cincture from beneath her breast
wordsworth’s theory of poetry?
6. Why does Sidney prefer poetry to
Her silken robe, and inner vest
philosophy?
7. How does Sidney define comedy?
Drop to her feet, and full in view
8. What is the function of tragedy according
Behold! Her bosom and half her side to Sidney?

9. What is Belsey’s views about classical
A sight to dream of, not to tell. realism?
10. What is the relationship between language
2.. Oh life me from the grass! and thought explained by Belsey?
I die! I faint! I fail!

Long Questions
Let thy love in kisses rain
1. What is Aristotle’s concept of “Ideal Tragic
Hero”? Discuss in detail.
On my lips and eyelids pale
2. What are the views of Aristotle on comedy But really I am neither for nor against
and how does he differentiate in with Epic institutions,
poetry?
3. What were the various objection raised by (What indeed have I in common with them? Or
the contemporary philistines against what with the destruction of theme?)
poetry? How does Sidney answer them?
4. Discuss T.S Eliot’s theory of Impersonality One I will establish in the Mannahatta and in
of Poetry”. every city of these states inland and sea-

board,
5. How does Catherine Belsey explain the
common sense view of literature?
And in the field and woods, and above ever
6. Critically evaluate any one of the following
keel little or large that dents the water,
excepts of poetry.
The institution of the dear love of Comrades.

a. To think of time— of all that retrospection,
Have you guess’d you yourself would not 2015

continue?
Short Questions
Have you dreaded these earth beetles?
1. What type of plot does Aristotle prefer to
Have you feared the future would be nothing capture the attention of the audience?
to you? 2. Define the terms “Perripetcia” and
“Anagnorisis” given in poetics.
Is today nothing? Is the beginningless past 3. How much importance does Aristotle give
nothing? ‘spectacle’, the element of tragedy?
4. What is Sidney’s opinion about the heroic
To think that the Sun rose in the East—- that
or Epic poetry?
men and women were flexible, real, alive–That
5. Sidney says “Comedy is not merely to
everything was alive
provide according to Aristotle?
6. What do you mean by the phrase “objective
To think that you and I did not see, feel think,
correlative” used by T.S Eliot?
nor bear our part,
7. Why does Eliot regard as a bad influence
on classical poetry?
To think that we are now here and bear out
8. Does T.S. Eliot accept Wordsworth’s theory
part.
of poetry is “Spontaneous overflow of
b. I hear, it was charged against me that I powerful feelings”?
sought to destroy institution.
9. What is Belsey’s view about classical b. hear it was charged against me
realism?
That I sought to destroy institutions
Long Questions
But really I am neither for nor against
1. What is the main difference between institutions,
poetry and history? What does Aristotle

(What indeed have I am common with them?
apparently mean by the term “universal”?
Or what with the destruction of them?)
2. What is Aristotle’s concept of ideal tragic
hero? How far it is applicable to the
Only will establish in the Mannahatta and
modern tragic heroes?
3. Discuss the detail Sidney’s views on three
in every city of these states in land and sea
unities and compare his view with those of
board,
Dryden and Johnson.
4. Discuss Eliot’s concept of ‘Tradition’. What And in the fields and woods; and above every
is its role in poetic creation? keel
5. Describe in your own words the modern
critical methods in the light of Belsey’s Little or large that dents the water,
critical practice.
6. Critically evaluate any one of the following Without edifices or rules or trustees or any
excerpts. arguments,
a. I’m going out to clean the pasture spring; The institution of the dear love of comrades
I’ll only stop to rake the leaves away. 2014

(And wait to watch the water clear, I may”.)
Short Questions
I shan’t be gone long –you come too.
1. In what three ways does Aristotle
differentiate various art forms from one
I’m going out to fetch the little calf.
another?
2. What is the Probable impossibility as
That’s standing by the mother. It’s so young
discussed by Aristotle?
It totters when she licks it with her tongue, 3. Which comment of T.S.Eliot does Brooks
quote about Beauty is truth”.
I shan’t be going long – you come too. 4. What is a “Sylvan historian” according to
Brooks?
5. how does Sidney relate the allegation we, instead, make meaning in the practice
against poetry being the mother of lies? of reading itself? If so, what part do our
6. How has Sidney established that poetry in own values play in the process of
antique and universal in nature? interpretation? Discuss with reference to
7. What was Sidney’s approach on Plato’s Belsey’s Critical Practice.
banishment of poets from his ideal 6. Critically evaluate any one of the following
republic? excerpts.
8. What is Belsey’s opinion about Saussure’s
theory? a. What would it take may standing there for,
9. What analogy does T.S. Eliot use for the
poet’s mind? Holding open a restive door,
10. What do you understand by the term

Looking open a restive door,
historical sense’ as introduced by T.S.
Eliot?
Summer was past and the day was past.
Long Questions Somber clouds in the west were massed.
1. Is Aristotle’s conception of plot organic Out on the j-porch’s sagging floor,

or mechanical? Explain.
2. What were the objections against poetry L.eaves got up in a coil and hissed,
that Sidney chose to answer? Evaluate
Sidney’s answers critically. 1Blindly struck at my knee and missed
3. Eliot’s essay, The Metaphysical Poets has
brought about a revaluation and Something sinister in the tone
reassessment of Donne and other

Told me my secret must be known:
Metaphysical poets, and has caused a
revival of interest in these poets who had
Word I was in my life alone,
been neglected for a considerable time.
Comment. b. Somewhere I have never traveled gladly
4. Cleanth Brooks proposes his methods lor
beyond
the analysis of poetry by making the
lowest examination of what the poem says Word I had no one lefi but God.
as a poem”. How does he employ this
method while he discusses/ analyses any experience yout èyes have their silence:
different poems?
5. Where do we find the meaning of the text: nPond most frail gesture are thigs which
in the author’s head? In the readers’ Or do enclose me,
or which I cannot touch because they are too you open always petal by petal myself as
near Spring opens
your slightest iook will easily unclose me (louching skillfully, mysteriously) her first rose
though I have closed myself as fingers,
Literary Criticism – Short Questions – MA

English Literature – Sargodha University
By Asad Imran
May 22, 2022
Categories: Literary Criticism, Short Questions
explaining justice, he also adds political strain

Aristotle’s Poetics to it. Source (https://iep.utm.edu/republic/)
1 What is literary criticism? 4 What does ‘Poetics’ deal with?
The process of weighing a certain piece of The subject matter of Aristotle’s Poetics is
literature, be it in the form of prose or poetry, Tragedy, its elements and its function on the
under certain theories and practices is called onlookers of tragedy.
literary criticism.
5 How does Aristotle define poetry?
2 What does Plato say about poetry?
Aristotle defines poetry as an art of imitating
Plato despised poetry on account of being used the world through the help of words only.
for spreading “immorality” and “lies about gods”.

6 In what three ways does Aristotle
He called poetry the imitation of an imitation,
differentiate various art forms from one
twice removed from reality.
another?
3 The subject of ‘Republic’ is politics.
Aristotle differentiates between various forms
Comment.
of arts through their object/subject matter,
The subject of Plato’s Republic is not politics. medium and manner of imitation. For example,
The book is based on the dialogues of Socrates epic and tragedy may look similar as these two
on how to live life justly and happily, and in forms depict the heroic deeds of a valiant
person. However, their distinction can be
measured by their medium and manner of Thus, the recreation of a poem is based on a
imitation. The manner of imitation of epic and poet’s own imitation of his surroundings and his
tragedy is narration and action respectively. surroundings are the imitation of god’s image of
the poet’s world.
7 What is the difference between epic poetry
and tragedy? 11 Define the term ‘mock epic’.
According to Aristotle’s Poetics, the difference Narrating a trivial happening in the guise of the
between epic poetry and tragedy lies in how grandeur and diction of a classical epic is called
these two approach the seriousness of a given mock-epic.
situation. Epic poetry can include a variety of
settings and time spans whereas tragedy is 12 What is the main difference between poetry
limited to few settings. However, the limitation and history?
of epic is narration as action in tragedy is more
immersive than narration. As suggested by Aristotle, history narrates
facts of a certain frame of time whereas poetry
8 Why does Aristotle value Homer so highly as converts these facts into universal truths.
a poet in ‘Poetics’?
13 What are the six parts every tragedy must-
Aristotle admires Homer because of the have? Which, according to Aristotle, is the
reduction of his own narration. Instead of the most important?
narrator bringing the story forward, the
characters in his epic move the story Aristotle asserts that every tragedy has 6
ahead. Source formative elements. These elements are:
(https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/poetics/section10/#:~:text=Aristotle%20is%20clearly%
Plot
9 How does Aristotle define ‘the universal’? Character

Thought
Aristotle defines “the universal” as a Diction
phenomenon mutually acceptable among the Spectacle
people of all ages and time. Song
10 What are the three meanings of imitation? Out of the 6 elements listed above, Aristotle
deems plot as the most important element as,
According to Aristotle, god constructed the according to him, plot helps drive action in a
universe in his own image. The universe created tragedy.
by him was the exact imitation of his own idea.
Similarly, a poet creates his own image of the 14 What, according to Aristotle, is the primary
world around him and uses words to recreate it. purpose of tragedy?
Aristotle considers arousing the emotions of a closely-knit sequence of events and actions
pity and fear among the audience and catharsis that takes a hero to his final downfall.
of such emotions as the main function of a
tragedy. Thus making them understand the 19 What is the place of suffering in tragedy?
ways of gods and men as they leave the
theatre. Source The final scene of suffering of the hero despite
his sincere efforts to solve the problem, helps a
(https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/a/agamemnon-
the-choephori-and-the-eumenides/critical- great deal among the audience to feel
essay/aristotle-on- sympathetic for the downfall of the hero which

leads to the catharsis of harmful emotions.
tragedy#:~:text=The%20aim%20of%20tragedy%2C%20Aristotle,ways%20of%20gods%20and%2
15 What is the place of catharsis in tragedy? 20 Among the three unities, which one is
called Aristotelian?
Catharsis holds an integral place in tragedy as
Aristotle calls it the main function of a tragedy. Among the unity of action, time and place, unity
of action the only dramatic unity that is
16 What is ‘anti-climax’ in drama? suggested by Aristotle.
Anti-climax is the unsatisfactory and ludicrous 21 What are the characteristics of an ideal
result/outcome of a serious and climax-building tragic hero?
situation that ends up in a disappointed or a
boring one. Source An ideal tragic hero must be:
(https://literarydevices.net/anti-climax/)
Noble
17 What is the importance of plot in tragedy? Susceptible to tragic flaws

His downfall must be the result of peripety
Aristotle considers plot as the soul of tragedy. and anagnorisis Source
Plot helps a tragedy move the action forward. (https://www.litcharts.com/literary-
Aristotle deems plot more important than the devices-and-terms/tragic-hero)
characters inhabiting it.
22 Why does Aristotle consider a saintly figure
18 What is the opinion of Aristotle about three inappropriate to be a tragic hero?
unities in the play?
Aristotle considers a saintly figure to be an
Aristotle did not introduce the idea of three inappropriate tragic hero as his downfall, due to
unities. He only mentioned one unity and that his excessive goodness will not arouse the
was Unity of Action. By Unity of Action, Aristotle feelings of pity among the audience as his
asserts that a tragedy must be centred around sacrifice will be seen as a spiritual one.
However, T. S. Eliot, in his Murder of Cathedral
has proven that even a saint can be a suitable 27 What are ‘recognition’ (anagnorisis) and
tragic hero. ‘reversal’ (peripeteia)?
23 What does Aristotle mean by the singleness Peripeteia means the reversal of a particular
in tragedy? situation whereas anagnorisis is the discovery
of the reversal, that is not in favour of the tragic
By the singleness in a tragedy, Aristotle means hero and leads to his tragic downfall.
to assert that a tragedy must follow a single
organic unity of events, from the beginning, to 28 What role does language play in the
the middle and till the end. development of epic and tragedy?
24 What does the term hamartia mean? The role of language or diction in epic or
tragedy is largely determined by its use in the
Hamartia means the error of judgment of the prestigious genres of story-telling. Language in
tragic hero that leads to his tragic an epic is tweaked in such a way that is suitable
downfall. View Poll for narration. However, in a tragedy, language is
(https://www.facebook.com/groups/1132201936968178/posts/1976334275888269/)
moulded in such a manner that makes a tragedy
presentable on stage.
25 What is the Probable Impossibility as
discussed by Aristotle? 29 What is peripety? What is a discovery?
What is the best form of discovery?
Probable Impossibility can be a possibility that
can be interpreted as impossible by the Already answered in Q27. The best form of
audience but can be made possible with discovery is the one that is proceeded by
science. (Correction will be appreciated) Source reversal, without any gaps, for an acute tragic
(https://www.quora.com/What-did-Aristotle- effect.
mean-by-Probable-impossibilities-are-to-be-
preferred-to-improbable-possibilities) 30 What are the four requirements of a
character?
26 Why is plot more important than character
or speech in a tragedy? A character in a tragedy must be:
Aristotle deems plot to be preferable to Essentially good

character. As controversial a statement as it True to life
may sound, by plot, Aristotle means action. Consistent
Action is the most important factor in a tragedy. Appropriate
Characters or dramatic personages can exit in
theory by their names but it is action or what
they do that makes them alive to the audience.
An Apology for Poetry by The word “Poet” comes from the Greek word
“poiētēs” which means “to make”. The Greeks
Sir Philip Sidney revered poets as “Makers”. Source
(https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-
1 Who was Philip Sidney?
play/the-history-of-the-word-poet)
6 What is the nature and function of poetry
Sir Philip Sidney was an influential literary
according to Sidney?
figure of the Elizabethan Era. Sir Philip Sidney is
known for his Astrophel and Stella and his
The nature and function of poetry, according to
Defense of Poetry against the unjust charges of
Sidney, is to imitate the objects of Nature and
Stephen Gusson. Source
to make it more serene.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Sidney?
7 How is poetry superior to philosophy and
oldformat=true)2 What was the purpose of
history?
writing “An Apology for Poetry”?
According to Sidney, poetry is superior to

The purpose behind “An Apology to Poetry” was
philosophy and history as history deals with a
to retort the false charges of a puritan, named
particular event whereas poetry converts it into
Stephen Gusson, on poetry and contemporary
a universal one. Similarly, philosophy suggests
literature that used poetry as a manner of
what may happen but poetry also adds example
imitation.
to the perception devised under philosophy.
8 How has Sidney established that poetry is
3 Define the term Renaissance.
antique and universal in nature?
Renaissance is a term which is used as an

Sidney asserts that poetry is the most antique
indication of the period of the revival of
form of knowledge and expression among
knowledge and learning in Europe after the
Greeks and Romans. Similarly, poetry was
darkness of the Medieval Era
universally adopted and nurtured from Red
4 What two ideas does “An Apology for Poetry” Indians to Englishmen as well. Source
(https://www.literaturexpres.com/antiquity-
deal with?
and-universality/)
“An Apology to Poetry” not only deals with 9 What, according to Sidney, is the relationship
refuting the charges levelled against poetry but between pleasure and learning?
also highlights the importance as well as
According to Sidney, the relationship between
superiority of poetry.
5 What is the origin and meaning of the word pleasure and learning is essential for
knowledge. Poetry has the ability to make
“poet”?
someone learn sciences and arts with
pleasure.
10 How does the poet’s art differ from that of An elegy is a kind of subjective poem, that is
the astronomer, geometrician, moral sombre or serious in nature and revolves around
philosopher, rhetorician, and others? a person who is dead. For example, the poem, O
Captain! My Captain! is an elegy composed by
A poet’s art differs from others as he draws his Whitman on the departure of Abraham Lincoln.
inspiration from his everyday experience of his
surroundings. Whereas an astronomer or a 15 What is the essence of Sidney’s defence
mathematician might be inefficient in his against poetry?
findings.
11 What, according to Sidney, did Greeks mean Sidney asserts that poetry is not a waste of
by the philosophical term architectonike? time as it is the most fruitful form of learning.
He further suggests that poetry is not a mother
According to Greeks, the term architectonike of lies as he thinks a poet is the most truthful
was used to denote the structural unity of a being. Answering the charge of poetry
piece of literature. spreading immorality, he says that it is a poet’s
fault to use poetry for immoral purposes. Lastly,
12 Is Sidney’s idea of mimesis Platonic or he answers that Plato was not against poets but
Aristotelian? the bad use of poetry.
Sidney’s idea of mimesis is Aristotelian. Sidney 16 What is Sidney’s opinion about the heroic or
follows the concept of Aristotle in defining Epic poetry?
poetry as an imitation of the poet’s creative
facility but he also adds the element of teaching Sidney is of the view that Epic or heroic poetry
as a purpose of poetry other than delight. is the greatest form of poetry that compels
13 What are the three kinds of poetry readers to learn heroic deeds through the
according to Sidney? heroes of great merit.
Sidney asserts that there are three kinds of 17 Why does Sidney says, “Comedy is not
poetry which are listed below: merely to provide laughter”.
Religious Poetry: The most notable form of Sidney suggests that comedy should also
poetry that revolves around the provide delight with learning.
“inconceivable excellencies of God”
Philosophical Poetry: 18 What are the main objections brought
Imaginative Poetry: This kind of poetry is against poetry by its enemies?
composed by the poets who provide learning
and delightfulness in their compositions. Stephen Gosson, in his School of Abuse, levels
out these charges against poetry:
14 What is Elegy?
Poetry is a waste of time. Sidney rebuts the first allegation of poetry
Poetry is a mother of lies. being a waste of time by asserting that poetry is
Poetry is a nurse of abuse. the noblest and most fruitful form of learning.
Plato had rightly banished poets from his By learning, he means virtuous deeds and
Republic. actions.
19 To what extent, ultimately, does Sidney 23 How does Sidney refute the allegation
agree with Horace about the aim or “end” of against poetry being the mother of lies?
poetry?
Sidney answers that a poet is the least a liar.
Horace famously asserts that the aim of poetry Unlike astronauts, physicians or historians, who
is to teach and provide delightfulness. Sidney strive to elaborate what is and what is not, a
also agrees to Horace but he adds morality to poet simply tells what should be and what
the mix. should not be.
20 Does “rhyming and versing” make a poet, 24 How does Sidney refute the allegation
according to Sidney? against poetry being the nurse of abuse?
Sidney asserts that rhyme and versification Puritans like Gusson considered poetry as a
alone cannot make one a poet. It is his ability to nurse of abuse as, according to them, it would
fuse images of virtues and vices with the arouse lustful feelings among the readers.
intention of making readers learn that makes Sidney replies that it is not the fault of poetry
him a poet. for being considered as a medium of
immorality, it is the fault of those poets who
21 How does Sidney refute the allegation infact their poetry with immorality.
against poetry that it is bound up with
“rhyming and versing”? 25 What was Sidney’s approach on Plato’s
banishment of poets from his ideal republic?
Sidney refutes poetry being tied to “rhyming and
versing” by presenting the Bible of the Old It was considered by Puritans that Plato
Testament as an example of poetry. Be it Song rightfully banished poets from his ideal
of Songs by Solomon, Psalms of David or the Republic because of their immoral poetry.
Book of Job. Sidney also believes that it is a Sidney answered that Plato’s own republic was
person’s ability to imitate the world that makes based on many immoral ideas (i.e allowing
him a poet. sexual relationships). Sidney further explained
that Plato was against the immorality and
22 How does Sidney refute the allegation disrespectfulness of gods in his Republic.
against poetry being the waste of time? Sidney assumed Plato is a patron of poets.
26 Why has England grown so hard a step- While mentioning Unity of Place, Sidney
mother to poets? Asks Sidney. maintains that the rapid change of place or
setting should be avoided. He thinks that usage
Sidney himself answers the question asked of the same stage for a garden, cave or a
above by asserting that England has no good pitched field can render a play unnatural.
poets as the poets of England try to produce According to my feeble judgement, the
poetry like a product in a factory. They lack the comment of Sidney on Unity of Place does not
genuine instinct of a poet. Source seem fitting as the audience of the play can
(http://neoenglishsystem.blogspot.com/2010/12/examine-
overcome the rapid shift of places on the same
in-detail-main-ideas-in-sidneys.html) stage by unconsciously applying willing
suspension of disbelief when watching a
27 What should be the qualities of a tragedy play. Source
according to Sidney? (https://spengtutor.blogspot.com/2020/04/sidn
view-on-three-unities-expressed.html)
According to Sidney, a tragedy should:
30 What is the value of Sidney’s criticism?
Imitate a noble action
The noble action should stir the admiration Sidney’s criticism holds a strong value among
and sympathy for the hero among the the other critics preceding next to him as he not
audience only presented sound theories but elaborated
them with practical criticism. His criticism is
28 What should be the qualities of a comedy
also important for defending poetry against the
according to Sidney?
unjust allegations of Stephen Gosson.
Sidney suggests that a comedy should:

Tradition and Individual
Imitate common errors of life in a ridiculous Talent by TS Eliot
manner
Provoke the audience to avoid such errors 1 Why does Eliot oppose the romantic
Promote delightful learning Source conceptions in his famous theory of
(https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/16/critically-
impersonality in Art?
examine-sidneys-views-on-a-tragedy-and-
tragi-comedy-b-comedy-and-c-the- Eliot opposes the romantic conception because
dramatic-unities/) he thinks poetry should be an outcome of the
impersonal experience of the poet. The
29 What argument does Sidney make subjectivity in romanticism dismays him the
concerning the unity of place? Does his most.
comment seem fitting? Why or why not?
2 What is T.S. Eliot’s view about Wordsworth’s According to Eliot, tradition is the living of the
theory of “Spontaneous overflow of powerful present, formulated by the incidents of the past
emotions”? and history.
Eliot rejects the Wordsworthian conception of 7 Why does T.S. Eliot reject the theory of
poetry. He considers poetry as an organization “Spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings”
of the feelings collected through objective by Wordsworth?
observation.
Eliot rejects the Wordsworthian notion of
3 Why, according to Eliot “emotions poetry because he thinks that the uncontrolled
recollected in tranquillity” is an inexact emotions can give rise to chaotic literature and
formula? also, he asserts that poetry is not about
personal emotions but about the impersonal
T. S. Eliot considers the Wordsworthian maxim experience.
of poetry inexact because he thinks poetry has
no relations with tranquillity and emotions. He 8 Eliot used the term “objective co-relative”
considers poetry as an outcome of experiences what does it mean?
that are not subjective.
Objective correlative is a term deviced by Eliot
4 What does Eliot want from a poet? which means objectives, events and chain of
situations which will arouse particular emotion
Eliot wants from a poet to compose his work in the reader.
based on his collected experiences. During the
poetic process, he should completely remove 9 Why does Eliot regard Milton as a bad
himself from the poetry. influence on classical poetry?
5 Enumerate the essential qualities of a good Eliot regards Milton as a bad influence on
critic? Classical Poetry because of:
According to T. S. Eliot, a good critic is the one His lack of eyesight

who remains completely impartial, objective His use of archaic or dead language
and unprejudiced in his approach, has a highly His style is not classical
trained sensibility as well as has a knowledge of
structural principles. Critical Practise by
6 Define “Tradition” in the light of Eliot’s essay
Catherine Belsey
Tradition and the Individual Talent.
1 Who was Catherine Belsey?
Catherine Belsey was a professor and a literary The common-sense view of literature is partly
critic whose work centred around post- justified and partly refuted by Belsey. Belsey, at
structuralism. first, accepts it as a natural response of a
reader to a literary text. But, later, she rejects it
2 What subject does Belsey deal in Critical as the learning or response of the common
Practice? sense of a reader can prove insignificant once
the author chooses a different set of words to
In Critical Practice, Catherine Belsey discusses express the same idea.
different theories to approach the meaning of a
literary text. 6 What relationship does Belsey establish
between criticism and common sense?
3 What is Belsey’s view about Classical
Realism? Belsey draws relationship between Criticism
and Common Sense through the journey from
According to Belsey, Classical Realism tends to natural acquisition of meaning to something
display individuals as characters whose that is obvious within the text.
development are throttled by their choices. She
thinks that this kind of realism was a tool to 7 What, according to Belsey, is the difference
propagate certain agendas in the eighteenth between common sense and literary theory?
and nineteenth centuries.
According to Belsey, the difference between
4 What does Belsey mean by Expressive common sense and literary theory
Realism?
How does Belsey discuss the authority of
Belsey defines Expressive Realism as thus, common sense with respect to Saussure’s view
of linguistic theory?
“The theory that literature reflects the reality of
experience, as it is perceived by one individual, 8 What is Belsey’s opinion about Saussure’s
who expresses it in a discourse which enables theory?
other individuals to recognise it as true. ”
Belsey’s opinion regarding Saussure’s theory
Belsey, by Expressive Realism, means to suggest which argued that the lingual analysis of a word
that reality lies in text as perceived by a reader. should be performed according to a specific
Who, then, passes his experience of reality to period of time, is mostly positive. She asserts
others. “ that Saussure’s linguistic approach has
eradicated the obscurities between the
5 How much the common-sense view of relationship of a language with the ideology of a
literature is justified? Discuss with reference certain word.
to Belsey’s arguments.
9 Explain the Post-Saussurean notion that the philosophical and logical stance by asking and
transparency of language is an illusion. answering. Source
(http://www.differencebetween.net/language/th
According to this notion, the transparency of difference-between-rhetoric-and-
the signifier can lead to the illusionary version dialectic/#:~:text=Rhetoric%20is%20also%20r
of the signified. For instance, in French, the
word (signifier) “mouton” is used to refer to the 13 Differentiate between Dialectical and the
two different signifieds, muton and sheep Rhetorical Text.
simultaneously. Thus the dual meaning of the
aforementioned signifier is illusionary as it may Dialectical text may only appeal a specific
hint incorrectly hint at the meat when the number of people, Rhetorical Text is intended to
author intended for sheep. be read by a large number of people. Source
(http://www.differencebetween.net/language/th
10 What is post-structuralism? difference-between-rhetoric-and-
dialectic/#:~:text=Rhetoric%20is%20also%20r
Post-structuralism is a term that is used to
refer to the rejection of ideas and theories 14 Critical Practice is produced with a bias
offered and proposed by the in favour of the Interrogative Text. Do you
structuralists. Source agree?
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-
structuralism?oldformat=true) Critical Practice is written in such a way that it
seems as if it is biased
11 What are the three kinds of the texts against favouring Interrogative Text, especially
mention by Belsey? her rejecting Expressive Realism and her keen
interest in deconstruction.
Declarative Text: Which declares a certain
ideology in it 15 Discuss the concept of split and unfixed
Imperative Text: Which compels a reader to subject with reference to the Interrogative
think against a certain ideology Text.
Interrogative Text: The text which makes a
reader question the way a text is constricted Will be answered later.
and the ideology which comes with it.
16 What, according to Lacan, are the three
12 What do you understand by Dialectical stages of child development?
Text?
Lucan suggests three stages of child
Dialectical Text showcases the address of a development:
speaker to a specific set of people in the form
of text. The speaker attempts to bring home his
The Real: The fulfilment of a child’s need 20 What are the three features that describe a
through his movements of urge. Classic Realist text?
The Imaginative Order: In this stage, a child’s
need may turn into (fantastic) demands as 1. It suppresses contradictions
he learns to differentiate between himself 2. Compels a reader to assume the position
and others as he looks into the mirror and that whatever he read is obvious
tries to control his (Imaginative) image 3. It is mystical (and enigmatic) by its
The Symbolic Order: A child’s acceptance of constructive nature.
the rules of the language of his society and
his ability to communicate regarding his 21 Define the terms ideology and discourse
desires to the people around him. Source and explain their relationship to each other.
(https://cla.purdue.edu/academic/english/theory/psychoanalysis/lacanstructure.html)
In literature, discourse is a term that is used to
17 In what ways did New Critics change the highlight the process of the presentation of
approach of criticism towards a literary text? one’s thought through language. Ideology,
however, is the structure of beliefs and customs
Before New Criticism, the meaning of the text which binds certain people together. Discourse
was approached through its social and moral helps in providing ideology, a concrete shape of
context. New Critics emphasized that the words while ideology serves a key role in
meaning of the text lied in the structure of the shaping one’s discourse. Read more
text itself. They put text at the forefront of (https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/73006)
criticism.
22 How does ideology shape the subject?
18 How can meaning be constructed by
reproducing what is familiar? Ideology shapes the subject by infusing itself
into the text, without a reader realizing it.
Deriving a meaning out of a familiar word
through its reproduction can be done by looking 23 Can the subject find its way out of
into its usage by the people at a time. ideology?
19 Discuss Belsey’s arguments in the favour of Ideology holds a firm grip in language and a
structural criticism. subject is also expressed in that language, the

subject cannot find its way out of a certain
Belsey favours Structural Criticism by arguing ideology.
that the meaning of a text lies in the structure
of the ideology of a society. For her, what 24 “There is no criticism without ideology”.
matters is not text but how and why the How does Belsey argue this thesis?
meaning is extracted out of the text.

Belsey asserts that ideological beliefs are Belsey asserts that the meaning of a text lise in
personal and personal interpretation of a text the structure of social formation.
can be illusionary. In short, she rejects this
notion. 29 Discuss the methods of extracting
meanings out of a creative text as described
25 What is the influence of Marx and Althusser by Belsey.
on literary criticism?
Belsey proposes the following methods:
Althusser believed that ideological propagation
in a text was only devised to achieve the goal of Analytical Criticism: In which a reader
controlling the narrative of the people. He evaluates the different images presented in
introduced the ideological effects of a text in the text.
literary criticism. Source Evaluating Criticism: In which the facts
(https://literariness.org/2016/04/12/althusserian- contained in the text are evaluated.
marxism/amp/)
30 What are the problems involved in the
26 What is Deconstruction method? How has it production of text?
changed the concept of modern criticism?
The chief problem involved in the production of
Deconstruction is a close (structural) study of text is the allocation of an author’s intended
the text. Deconstruction, in criticism, shifted meaning inside it. As meaning may differ from a
the authority of the author to the authority of reader who is casually reading his text to a critic
the reader in interpreting his text. who is evaluating his text on the basis of factual
raw materials in his text.
27 Explain the deconstruction of the text with
reference to Barthes and Macherey. 31 What are the major drawbacks preventing
the attainment of a new and productive
Barthes, in reference to deconstruction, critical practice?
claimed in his “Death of the Author” that the
author knew about the book he wrote no more The evaluation of the text will not be up to the
than the reader. mark of the current necessities of the time.
28 Where does the meaning lie: in the text, the

reader, the writer, or the structure?
Expressive Realism in Critical Practice by

Catherine Belsey
By Asad Imran
July 13, 2022
Expressive Realism
Introductory
A combination of two words, “Expressive” and
Catherine Belsey, in her Critical Practice, “Realism” hint at the realism perceived or
strives to pinpoint the location of the meaning expressed through text. Expressive Realism is a
of a text being criticized. Expressive Realism fusion of two concepts, the concept of Aristotle
places the author at the centre of the text and of art as mimesis is combined with the concept
makes him the only source of meaning of the of Romantics of art as an expression of the
text for a reader. New Critics, who went ahead emotions of a person. The chief characteristics
to challenge Expressive Realism also became of Expressive Realism are as below:
an extension of Expressive Realism. Before
diving deep into the theory of Expressive 1. Expressive Realism puts a great deal of
Realism, it is essential to know what realism emphasis on honesty and immediacy, and
actually is. rejects the inclusion of implausibility and
ideology.
Realism and Classical 2. Expressive Realism favours the notion that
literature is a reflection of life.
Realism
3. Expressive Realism deems literature as
authentic when it correctly describes social
Realism was a literary movement of the 19th
relationships or highlights the inner
century, set in direct response to Romanticism
experience of a person’s struggle for
to portray and describe people, their feelings
identity.
and emotions as they actually are in real life,
without fantasizing it.
Catherine Belsey defines Expressive Realism as
thus, The theory that literature reflects the
Classical Realism, according to Belsey, aimed at
reality of experience, as it is perceived by one
propagating a specific version of ideology in a
individual, who expresses it in a discourse
capitalist system from 19th to 20th century.
which enables other individuals to recognise it
That ideology would be pumped through books,
as true.
electronic and print media and it would become
the only source of meaning for the people as the
As is evident from the definition of Expressive
material was available in abundance and in a
Realism by Belsey, author is the centre of
language a significant majority of the people
meaning in the theory of Expressive Realism.
knew and were familiar with.
Challenges to Expressive Northrop Frye, an influential Canadian literary
critic of the 20th century, also rejects the idea
Realism of the projection of realism in literary texts. He
suggests that the depiction of realism is
The inclusion of Aristotelian as well as
undesirable and disdainful. He considers the
Romantic concepts of mimesis and expression
literature based on realism as immature and
of emotions respectively in the theory of
asserts that imaginative elements tend to
Expressive Realism lead to many challenges
appeal to more readers. Frye also asserts that a
and even rejections by the critics of the
writer’s aim is to produce a structure of words
twentieth century.
for words themselves, thus rejecting the
authority of author’s own expression as
New Critics concluded by Expressive Realism. Frye’s stance
is valid on the grounds of linguistics but his
The first notable challenge to Expressive
approach is limited to linguistics only as he
Realism came from New Critics like Thomas
ignores historical as well as cultural background
Stearns Eliot and Cleanth Brooks who claimed
which are linked indirectly to Expressive
that the meaning of a text lied in the text itself,
Realism.
not in the author. New Critics were of the view
that it was neither desirable nor possible to look
Reader Response Theory
for the intentions of an author while scanning
the text. They were keener on finding the
Reader Power or Reader Response Theory is
meaning of a text by peering through
considered as a serious threat to the authority
conventional elements of close-up readings like
of author in Expressive Realism. As is evident
themes, symbols, images, rhyme, meter,
from the name, the Reader Power Theory
characterization and plot etc. However, Belsey
constitutes the (well-informed) reader as an
rejects the idea of text as a source of meaning
authority for the interpretation of text. This
as text is written in a language and every
theory distinguishes the reader as an active
language has its own system of meanings,
agent who “imparts real existence” and
always going through the phases of evolution
completes its meaning after interpretation. The
and a shift of meanings is observed with the
reader makes use of the stylistic devices to
passage of time. Personally, the idea of text as a
construct the meaning. His psychological
source of meaning is not a challenge to
involvement is also an important factor behind
Expressive Realism as the text itself is an
a reader’s quest to figure out the meaning. This
outcome of the author’s own creative process,
theory also failed in challenging the authority of
involving observation, organization and then
an author as a reader’s own miscalculation of
framing them into text.
the result of an event can be contradictory to
the actual outcome, as intended by the author.
Northrop Frye
And the signifying system of each living society realism reflects the word constructed in
of different time is different than the other. language.
Post-Saussurean Linguistics Conclusion

In Post-Saussurean Linguistics, language is Expressive Realism favours the projection of
classified as a system in which an individual reality but that reality is personal and is milited
produces the meaning. A child learns to to the people of a particular society and time
differentiate different concepts through only. It is difficult, if not impossible to approach
socially controlled signified (a signified in the realism as expressed by the author but a
linguistics means the actual thing a signifier is reader or a critic has to make himself aware of
referring to. For example, the signifier the language of the society in which the author
“smartphone” refers to a signified which is an lived while linking the historical, cultural and
electronic device with large touch screen which economic background of his society in his work
enables us to connect globally). This further being scrutinised.
proves the point that language, in an individual
already exists as a child is already provided with Sources and Suggested
a signifying system particular to that society.
Language not only contains signifying systems,
Readings
but also images, social behaviours, gestures.
1. https://literarydevices.net/realism/
But most importantly, language is the “most
(https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/23
practical way of communication”. Thus, Belsey
2. https://www.dartmouth.edu/~engl5vr/third.h
concludes,
3. http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/crit
From this post-Saussurean perspective, it is
practice-by-catherine-belsey.html
clear that the theory of literature as expressive
realism is no longer tangible, because, since
Extracting the Meaning out of a Text – Critical

Pracrise – Catherine Belsey
By Asad Imran
July 29, 2022
Introductory
Catherine Belsey’s Critical Practice is all about New Criticism
the extraction of the meaning out of a given
text. In this book, she does not tell a definite New Critics, a group consisting of Thomas
method for the extraction of meaning, but she Stearns Eliot, R. P. Warren, I. A. Richards, J. C.
explains theories being brought up through the Ransom and Cleanth Brooks, sought to liberate
different schools of thought which were set the text out of the influence of the author. They
against the Common Sense view of Literature claimed that the meaning of a work does not lie
like New Criticism and Reader Power. Belsey in the author, but in the text itself. Their version
was of the view that those theories were of criticism was limited to a close reading of the
trapped in their own problems of Common text and dissection of textual qualities like the
Sense. She further claims that it was Post- use of literary and structural devices. Belsey
Saussurean Linguistics which guided the rejected the practices of New Criticism as she
literary and practical criticism to find out the claimed that it was not correct to claim text as
meaning of a text, not in the author, text or the origin of meaning because the text is
reader but in the structure. written in a language and every language has its
own set of symbols which are used differently
Common Sense by different people. If the text was not
conveying the intended meaning, then the
The common sense view of literature actual meaning was stored in the mind of the
propounds that literature is a (true) reflection of author who wrote it. Thus, recognizing New
one’s everyday life. Literature is based on Criticism an extension of Common Sense.
universal concepts. This is the reason behind
the familiarity of the characters in a novel or a Reader Power Theory
play to a reader as the characters are drawn
from real life. Such literature is produced Reader Response Theory recognizes the reader
through the writers who take inspiration for as a source of the meaning of the text he reads.
their stories from the observation of their own According to the particular theory, a reader is
society. Thus, a writer’s age and his life play an an active agent who completes the meaning of
important role in deducting the meaning of his a text through his already acquired knowledge,
works. The interpretation of these works do not his emotions, his psyche and his day-to-day
require the knowledge of fancy theories as the observation. This theory was also rejected as a
events presented in them are already reader was vulnerable to the false
experienced by the readers. But it is worth interpretation of a text which would lead to a
noting that the Common Sense View of meaning contrary to what the author intended.
Literature is backed up by the theories of
Imitation, Humanism and Romanticism.
Structuralism
Expressive Realism is a critical practice based
on Common Sense.
Belsey asserts that the meaning of a work Methods for the Extraction
neither lies in the author, nor in the text or the
reader, but in the structure of social formation.
of Meaning
(This structure of social formation can be
Catherine Belsey has outlined two approaches
loosely termed as Structuralism). The Linguistic
to find out the meaning of a creative text.
Theory of Ferdinand de Saussure who divided
linguistic signs into Signifier and Signified
(learn more about them through this link). A
Analytical Criticism
Signifier is either a spoken or a written
This version of criticism or the process of the
symbol/image whereas a Signified is a concept
extraction of meaning involves the image of a
linked directly to the concerned Signifier. For
reader in the mind of a writer when he is
example, the image of “chair” is associated with
developing his work. Thus, the first critic is the
a small piece of furniture with four legs and a
writer himself and as the text travels to the
back that is used for people to sit on it. The
reader, he unconsciously becomes a critic too
formation of the connection between Signifier
as he tries to fill in the gaps of meanings left by
and Signified is not controllable and is
the author. But a writer also optimises his work
dependent on the culture of a specific time and
on the basis of the society he is targeting. Thus,
place.
for a common reader to assess the meaning out
Langue is a system of rules for a specific of a writer’s work, he has to make himself
acquainted with the psychology and activities
language. Whereas Parole is a person’s
of the writer as well as the prominent themes of
utilization of the rules specified by the Langue
a literary work. Common Sense and Classical
when he speaks or writes something. Similarly,
Realism are two notable movements
a society functions on a specific set of rules,
beliefs and customs which can be termed as the representing Analytical Criticism.
Langue of that society, and the thoughts and

views of an individual person, a Parole Evaluating Criticism
dependent on Langue. The unconscious
This kind of criticism prioritizes text over a
expression of an individual becomes a part of
the overall belief of a society which Belsey calls reader or a writer. It is based on the facts and
an ideology. This is the reason behind the content provided under text. The followers of
this critical technique do not hold the
rejection of the individual as a source of
importance of the personal life of an author or
meaning as the meaning is generated through
the image of a reader as they deem (the
the social formation. So, the quest of meaning
structure of) text as the only complete source
of a work should revolve around the social,
political and economic conditions of a society. of meaning. Catherine Belsey also seems to be
favouring this technique as she advocates the
dissection of a text over its lingual roots.
Conclusion Source
It is difficult to deny the significance of an 1. http://epicnotes1.blogspot.com/2017/05/crit

author, his text or the reader he is writing when practice-by-catherine-belsey.html
approaching for the meaning. Removal of one (https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/23
entity can result in a meaning which may lack
individual, cultural or lingual strain in it.

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Li

would end happily. In order to understand a

emotions. further divided the concept of imitation into

the two parts for a better comprehension of Medium of Imitation

imitative enterprise while the second half

Proper Plot Law of Probability and

A character is the one who moves the story of Spectacle

Moral Bent of Mind: The psychological

diction. further divided into Parode and Stasimon.

Diction Parode or Parodos

into outward actions. minor comic elements to their flagship

‘Action’ intense concentration in the form of the

Charges Levelled Against Poetry and Sidney’s

Poetry is not a Nurse of

Sidney’s Views on Contemporary Poetry and

Sidney gives his views on lyrical poetry and

Sidney asserts that English tragedies and Limitations

The ideal tragedy is an imitation of proved tragi-comedy a fruitful genre of English

Sources and Suggested objections-to-contemporary-drama.html

1. Literary Criticism – Current Notes – Page

Sidney as a Critic and His Contribution to

commentary on various forms of poetry and

Practical Criticism different genres of poetry, he seems very

general and poetry, in particular, puts him into a-detailed-account-of-the-contributions-

Sources and Suggested

Superiority of Poetry over Philosophy and

function. Philosophy is a branch of knowledge

Why is Poetry Superior over Conclusion

T. S. Eliot’s Concept of Tradition and

Eliot has, no doubt, revolutionized the poetic

Sources and Suggested 186

Poetic Process or Theory of Impersonality

opposition is felt in the said theory. The theory

vision to attain the sense of literary tradition

Eliot made English criticism look

Another remarkable contribution of Eliot to

His Influence on New Metaphysical Poets. His criticism had been a

Eliot openly rejects the enormous overflow of

TS Eliot’s Commentary on John Milton

Milton 2, Eliot admired the use of Blank Verse.

John Milton, who strived to “justify the ways of

Steps in Critical Practice – Catherine Belsey

Criticism and Common Sense

Belsey, then, adds Plato’s interpretation of the Expressive realism

Literary Criticism – Short Questions and Their

Poetry is the mother of lies. Declarative Text: Which declare a certain

2016 guide people to what “should be done” instead

or Epic poetry? in Q7 of 2017.

Already answered in Q4 of 2017 Q10: What is Belsey’s view about classical

Q5: Sidney says “comedy is not merely to realism?

Role of Ideology in Shaping of the Subject –

Furthermore, Catherine also links ideology

List of Important Long Questions of Literary

1. Influence of Eliot’s Theory Current Notes is pathetic. You are advised to

8. what is Belsey’s view about classical

O nol it is an ever-fixed mark and Epie poetry as given in Poetic

But bears it out even to the edge of doom. Long Questions

1f this be error and upon me prov’d, 1. What is Aristotle’s concept of an ideal

1. “The plot is the life and soul of tragedy

Our sincerest laughter the light of Aristotle’s Poetics