Evaluation of Natural Radioactivity and Hazard Indices in The Soil Collected From The Residential College Areas of University Malaya, Malaysia

EVALUATION OF NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY AND HAZARD
INDICES IN THE SOIL COLLECTED FROM THE RESIDENTIAL

COLLEGE AREAS OF UNIVERSITY MALAYA, MALAYSIA
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OKEREAFOR CASMIR NNEJI
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA
KUALA LUMPUR
2017
EVALUATION OF NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY AND
HAZARD INDICES IN THE SOIL COLLECTED FROM
THE RESIDENTIAL COLLEGE AREAS OF UNIVERSITY
MALAYA, MALAYSIA
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OKEREAFOR CASMIR NNEJI
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DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

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FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

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THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY

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(MATERIALS SCIENCE)
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE
KUALA LUMPUR
2017
ORIGINAL LITERARY WORK DECLARATION
Name of Candidate: OKEREAFOR CASMIR NNEJI

I.C/Passport No: A04711270
Matric No: SGG140001
Name of Degree: MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY (MATERIAL SCIENCE)
Title of Dissertation: Evaluation of Natural Radioactivity and Hazard Indices in the Soil
collected from the Residential College areas of University Malaya,
Malaysia
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Field of Study: Experimental Physics (Radiation)
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I do solemnly and sincerely declare that:
(1) I am the sole author/writer of this Work;
(2) This Work is original; M
(3) Any use of any work in which copyright exists was done by way of fair dealing and
for permitted purposes and any excerpt or extract from, or reference to or
reproduction of any copyright work has been disclosed expressly and sufficiently
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and the title of the Work and its authorship have been acknowledged in this Work;
(4) I do not have any actual knowledge nor do I ought reasonably to know that the
making of this work constitutes an infringement of any copyright work;
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(5) I hereby assign all and every rights in the copyright to this Work to the University of
Malaya (“UM”), who henceforth shall be owner of the copyright in this Work and
that any reproduction or use in any form or by any means whatsoever is prohibited
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without the written consent of UM having been first had and obtained;
(6) I am fully aware that if in the course of making this Work I have infringed any
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copyright whether intentionally or otherwise, I may be subject to legal action or any

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other action as may be determined by UM.
Candidate’s Signature Date:

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Subscribed and solemnly declared before,
Witness’s Signature Date:
Name: MAYEEN UDDIN KHANDAKER

Designation: ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
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ABSTRACT
Realizing the heterogeneous distribution of naturally occurring radioactive materials
(NORM) in all earth born media, it is important to assess their concentrations in
residential hostels environment to control the occupants’ health from radiation
exposure. In connection with this, soil samples collected from all residential colleges of
University of Malaya were assessed to obtain the concentrations of NORM by using
HPGe gamma-ray spectrometry. The activity concentrations of 226-Ra ranged from
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42.16 to 61.27 Bq/kg, 232-Th ranged from 52.89 to 81.80 Bq/kg and 40-K ranged from
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73.07 to 306.43 Bq/kg. Radium-226, Thorium-232 and Potassium-40 have average
activity concentration of 52.31±2.40 Bq/kg, 68.42±1.92Bq/kg and 224.58±2.28Bq/kg
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respectively. The results show that the average concentrations of the primordial
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radionuclides were lower than Malaysia average values. But 232-Th and 226-Ra are
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higher than the world average while 40-K is lower compared with values giving in
UNSCEAR 2000. The dose rate and radiological indices were obtained and compared
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with worldwide recommended values

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ABSTRAK
Atas kesedaran mengenai taburan heterogen bahan radioatif terwujud semulajadi
(NORM) pada semua media bawakan bumi, adalah penting penilaian ketumpatan bahan
tersebut di persekitaran asrama penginapan Universiti Malaya dikaji bagi menjamin
kesihatan penghuni. Berkaitan ini, sampel tanah dipungut dari semua kawasan asrama
penginapan di Universiti Malaya untuk penilaian NORM menggunakan spectrometer
sinar gamma HPGe. Ketumpatan aktiviti dari 42.16 ke 61.27 Bq/kg bagi 226-Ra, 52.89
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ke 81.80 Bq/kg bagi 232-Th dan 73.07 ke 306.43 Bq/kg bagi 40-K
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didapati. Ketumpatan aktiviti 52.31±2.40 Bq/kg, 68.42±1.92Bq/kg and
224.58±2.28Bq/kg diukur bagi 226-Ra, 232-Th dan 40-K masing-masing. Hasil
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pengukuran mendapati nilai ketumpatan purata radionuih rendahlid kuno adalah lebih
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rendah dari nilai purata. Negara Malaysia. Walaubagaimana pun nilai bagi 232-Th dan
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226-Ra adalah lebih tinggi dari purata dunia, manakala nilai bagi 40-K adalah lebih
rendah, berpandukan UNSCEAR 2000. Kadar dos dan indeks radiologi didapati dari
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hasil pengukuran dan dibandingkan dengan nilai yang anjurkan sedunia.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This dissertation is dedicated to my beloved wife, Sarah Nneji and wonderful

children (Obiageri Nneji, Chinonye Nneji and Ihechukwu Nneji). They really sacrificed
and encouraged me in the study and writing of this dissertation. My wife's
understanding and encouragement kept me working when I wanted to give up.
My special thanks and appreciation goes to Prof. Dr. Mayeen Uddin Khandaker, my
ideal supervisor. His sage advice, insightful criticisms, and patient encouragement aided
me so much. I would also like to thank Prof Yusoff Bin Mohd Amin whose support of
this project was greatly needed and deeply appreciated.
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I would like to thank my mom and my brothers and sister for supporting me
spiritually throughout this study and my life in general
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I must acknowledge as well the many friends, colleagues, fellow students and
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teachers, especially Dr. Matthew Tikpangi Kolo, who assisted, advised, and supported
my research and writing efforts.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ............................................................................................................................iii
Abstrak ............................................................................................................................. iv
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... v
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. vi
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... x
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1
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1.1 Soil and Radionuclides ............................................................................................ 1
1.2 Radioactivity ............................................................................................................ 1
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1.3 NORM and TENORM ............................................................................................. 2
1.3.1
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Cosmogenic radionuclides and radiation.................................................... 3
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1.3.2 Primordial (Terrestrial) Radionuclides ....................................................... 5
1.3.2.1 Radioactivity decay series ........................................................... 6

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1.3.2.2 Potassium-40 (40K) .................................................................... 13

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1.4 Man-made (Artificial) Sources of Radiation ......................................................... 13

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1.5 Radionuclides transfer in the environment ............................................................ 14

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1.6 Biological effect of ionizing radiation ................................................................... 16

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1.7 Classification of radiation effect on biological system.......................................... 17
1.7.1 Stochastic effects ...................................................................................... 17

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1.7.2 Deterministic effects ................................................................................. 18
1.8 Justification/research significant. .......................................................................... 19
1.9 Aims and objectives ............................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................... 21
2.1 Atoms and radiation ............................................................................................... 21
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2.2 Radioactive half life ............................................................................................... 22
2.3 Activity .................................................................................................................. 23
2.4 Radioactive equilibrium......................................................................................... 24
2.5 Types of radiation .................................................................................................. 25
2.5.1 Alpha ( ) particles.................................................................................... 26
2.5.2 Beta ( ) particle ........................................................................................ 26
2.5.3 Gamma ( ) radiation ................................................................................. 27
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2.5.4 Differences between Alpha, beta and gamma .......................................... 27
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2.5.5 Characteristics of alpha beta and gamma rays ......................................... 28
2.6 Spontaneous fission ............................................................................................... 28
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2.7 Intensity ................................................................................................................. 29
2.8
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Interaction of gamma rays with matter .................................................................. 29
2.8.1 Photoelectric effect ................................................................................... 30

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2.8.2 Compton effect ......................................................................................... 31
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2.8.3 Pair production ......................................................................................... 33

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2.9 Review of existing knowledge .............................................................................. 34

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CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................ 37
3.1 Radiation detection techniques .............................................................................. 37

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3.2 Gamma ray spectroscopy....................................................................................... 37

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3.2.1 High purity germanium detector (HPGe) ................................................. 38
3.2.2 Preamplifier .............................................................................................. 39
3.2.3 Main amplifier .......................................................................................... 39
3.2.4 Multi-channel analyser (MCA) ................................................................ 40
3.3 Detector resolution................................................................................................. 40
3.4 Calibration of the detector ..................................................................................... 41
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3.4.1 Energy calibration .................................................................................... 41
3.4.2 Efficiency calibration ............................................................................... 42
3.4.3 Determination of minimum detectable activity ........................................ 43
3.4.4 Background counting ............................................................................... 44
3.5 Area of Study ......................................................................................................... 44
3.6 Sample Sampling ................................................................................................... 45
3.7 Sample preparation ................................................................................................ 48
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CHAPTER 4: MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS ................................................. 50
4.1 Measurement of 226 Ra, 232Th and 40K radioactivities ........................................... 50
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4.2 Activity concentration ........................................................................................... 51
4.3 M
Hazard indices ....................................................................................................... 52
4.3.1 Radium equivalent activity ....................................................................... 52

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4.3.2 Absorbed dose rate (DR) ........................................................................... 53
4.3.3 Annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE) ............................................... 54

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4.3.4 Annual gonadal dose equivalent (AGDE) ................................................ 55

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4.3.5 Activity utilization index (AUI) ............................................................... 56

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4.3.6 External and Internal hazard indices (Hex and Hin) .................................. 57
4.3.7 Representative gamma index (Iγr)............................................................. 58

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4.3.8 Excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) ......................................................... 59

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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ....................................................................................... 72

226 232 40
5.1 Radioactivity levels of Ra, Th and K in the residential college areas of
University of Malaya ............................................................................................. 72
5.2 Radium equivalent Index ....................................................................................... 74
5.3 Absorbed dose rate ................................................................................................ 74
5.4 Annual effective dose equivalent........................................................................... 74
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5.5 Annual gonadal dose equivalent ............................................................................ 75
5.6 Activity utilization index ....................................................................................... 75
5.7 External hazard indices (Hex) ................................................................................. 75
5.8 Internal hazard indices (Hin) .................................................................................. 76
5.9 Representative gamma index ................................................................................. 76
5.10 Excess lifetime cancer risk .................................................................................... 76
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ..................................................................................... 77
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6.1 Limitation and suggestion for further studies ........................................................ 78
References ....................................................................................................................... 79
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Thorium 232 decay series. ............................................................................... 7
Figure 1.2 The uranium-238 decay series. ........................................................................ 9
Figure 1.3 Actinium decay series.. .................................................................................. 11
Figure 1.4 Neptunium decay series. ................................................................................ 12
Figure 1.5 Routes of human exposure to sources of natural and man made ................... 15
Figure 3.1 Diagram of Gamma Spectrometer Experimental setup ................................. 38
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Figure 3.2 Detection efficiency curve of the detector ..................................................... 43
Figure 3.3 Location of University Malaya (N3 7’15’’E101 39’23’’) Kuala
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Lumpur, Malaysia ........................................................................................................... 47
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Figure 3.4 Collection of samples at the sample sites ...................................................... 48
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Figure 3.5 Photos of samples preparation (oven drying, weighing and storage) ............ 49
Figure 4.1 Photo of P-type Coaxial ORTEC, GEM-25 high purity germanium
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Gamma ray detector with the MCA and gamma vision PC ............................................ 51
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Average radiation dose from natural sources (UNSCEAR 2000) .................... 5
Table 1.2 Average radioactive decay series (Tait, 1980)…...…………………………...6
Table 1.3 Thorium decay series with half-life…………………………………………...7
Table 1.4 Natural abundance of uranium isotopes……………………………………....8
Table 1.5 Uranium -238 decay series with half-life .......................................................... 9
Table 1.6 Uranium-235 (Actinium) decay series with half-life. ..................................... 10
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Table 1.1 Neptunium decay series with half-life……………………………………….12
Table 2.1 Characteristics of alpha beta and gamma rays ................................................ 28
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Table 3.1 Energy calibration ........................................................................................... 42
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Table 3.2 Radionuclide, Energy and Detection efficiency ............................................. 43
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Table 3.3 Sampling sites coordinates. ............................................................................. 45
Table 4.1 Mean of activity concentration for 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in the soil
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samples from residential college areas of University of Malaya .................................... 52

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Table 4.2 Mean of radium equivalent activity for 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in the
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Soil samples from residential college areas of University of Malaya. ............................ 53

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Table 4.3 Mean of absorbed dose rate values in the soil samples from
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Residential college areas of University of Malaya. ........................................................ 54

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Table 4.4 Mean of annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE) values in the soil
samples from residential college areas of University of Malaya. ................................... 55
Table 4.5 Mean of annual gonadal dose equivalent (AGDE) values in the soil
Samples from residential college areas of University of Malaya. .................................. 56
Table 4.6 Mean of activity utilization index (AUI) in the soil samples from
residential college areas of University of Malaya. .......................................................... 57
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Table 4.7 Mean of external and internal hazard indices values in the soil samples
from residential college areas of University of Malaya .................................................. 58
Table 4.8 Mean of representative gamma index indices values in the soil samples
from residential college areas of University of Malaya .................................................. 59
Table 4.9 Mean of excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) values in the soil samples
from residential college areas of University of Malaya. ................................................. 60
Table 4.10 summary of activity concentration and radiological hazard parameters in
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the soil samples from residential college areas of University of Malaya ....................... 61
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Soil and Radionuclides
Soil is typically a mixture of many substances like water, air, organic remains, clay,
particles of rock and inorganic materials. Organic remains are found as soil
components in a decay of living matters while the inorganic constituents exist in form
of minerals substances. Soil formation is based on addition, loss and transfer of
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materials either by natural means or human activities. Oxygen, silicon, aluminum,
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calcium and iron are the major uncontaminated components of soil (Manzoor et al.,
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2013) Soil serves as medium of transport for radionuclides through food chain which
depends on their chemical properties and the uptake process by the plants and animals.
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The radioactive elements in the soil provide large percentage of ionizing radiation from
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natural sources. And natural radiation is the largest contributor of external dose (80%)
to the world population which depends on the local geological characteristics and
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conditions of soils (UNSCEAR, 1993). The radioactivity in the soil is mainly from the
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238 235
naturally occurring radionuclides U (99.2745% of uranium), U (0.72% of
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uranium), Th (100% of thorium) and their decay products, and the primordial
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radionuclide 40K (0.0117 % of potassium) found in the earth crust (Rabesiranana et al.,
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2008). In the world average soil, potassium, uranium and thorium has mass fraction of
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14%, ~2µg g-1 and 9µg g-1 (Bowen, 1993). According to Rohit et al., (2009) natural
radioactive materials can reach unsafe radiological level under certain levels.
1.2 Radioactivity
X-ray discovered by Roentgen brought about a great enthusiasm in the scientific
circles. According to Bernard (1969), Becquerel reports that certain elements
particularly uranium, emit radiations that are similar to x-ray in 1896 initiated scientific
understanding of radioactivity. Later, Marie curie, investigating a mineral of uranium
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discovered that other elements such as thorium (Th), polonium (Po) and radium (Ra) are
also radioactive (Gasparini, 1984). Of all these elements, the primordial radionuclides
of Uranium (U), Thorium (Th) and isotope of potassium (K) are of significant
importance to the radiological status of the environment. This is because gamma
radiation emitted from these primordial radionuclides and their decay progeny is one the
main external source of radiation exposure to man. Radionuclides, radioactivity and
radiation have been an indispensable component of the globe since its creation. And all
living things existing in the world are exposed to radiation. The nucleus found at the
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centre of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. These protons and neutrons are held
together by strong nuclear force but some nuclei still appear to be unstable. The
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unstable atomic nuclei undergo radioactive decay (spontaneous nuclear transformation)
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to form more stable nuclei thereby emitting energy in the form of particles and
electromagnetic wave. The decomposition process is called radioactivity while energy

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and particles which are released during the process is called radiation. The sources of
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radioactivity are classified into two types natural and artificial.

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1.3 NORM and TENORM

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Radionuclides are classified based on their origin. The radioisotopes that contribute to
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natural radiation are called Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORMs) while
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technologically enhanced radionuclides are Technologically Enhanced Naturally

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Occurring Radioactive Materials (TENORMs).
Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM)
A nuclide which is radioactive in its natural physical state is referred as naturally
occurring radioactive material. NORMs are part of nature and it is found everywhere in
the globe. NORMs exist in man’s environment at different quantities/levels. And
humans are continually exposed to it through food, soil, solar and water. Therefore,
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everything in nature has some amount of natural radioactivity. Natural radiation are
classified into two categories namely; Extra-terrestrial radiation (cosmogenic
radionuclides, cosmic radiation etc) and terrestrial (primordial) radiation.
Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (TENORM)
Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (TENORMs) is
formed as a result of technology and human activities based on quest for economic
growth and development. Such activities includes oil and gas exploration, uranium and
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phosphate mining and milling, coal fired power plants, tobacco, air travel, metal ore
processing, manufacture of building materials and others, that could enhance and
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modify the concentration of NORMs, their environmental distribution and radiation
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exposure dose to human beings. Generally, some of the non-nuclear industrial processes
causes a considerable contribution to the radio-ecological pollution such as phosphate

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ore mining and phosphate fertilizers manufacture and agricultural application
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(UNSCEAR,1988) and they also contribute technologically. TENORM contributors
includes waste water treatment sludge, phosphate fertilizer and potash, phosphate
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industry waste, oil and gas production scale and sludge, paper and pulp industry, scrap
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metal release and recycling, coal ash, uranium overburden and mines spoils, geothermal
energy production waste, metal mining and production waste.

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1.3.1 Cosmogenic radionuclides and radiation
Cosmogenic radionuclides are natural radionuclides that are currently originated by
nuclear reaction when high energy cosmic radiation passes through the earth’s
atmosphere. The highly energetic cosmic ray particles collide with stable elements in
the atmosphere and in the ground. According to Alatise et al 2008, the entire geosphere,
the atmosphere and all parts of the earth that directly exchange materials with
atmosphere contains cosmogenic radionuclides with the major production being from
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the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric gases. These radionuclides are produced
through bombardment of the upper atmosphere by high energy heavy particles. The
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cosmogenic radionuclides comprise C, Na, 7Be and tritium. Only 14
C and tritium
contribute to any significant natural radiation exposure to the global population as
internal exposure through inhalation. The exposure from these sources is relatively low
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and uniform over the surface of the planet (Benneth, 1997). C is present in carbon di-
oxide in the air, in the terrestrial biosphere, and in bicarbonates in the ocean. This
radionuclide is produced in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic ray
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particles/energy with N. The neutron spectrum covers a wide energy range in the
lower atmosphere, from thermal to 100MeV (UNSCEAR, 1993).
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Cosmic radiation
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Cosmic radiation refers to both the primary energetic particles of extra-terrestrial
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origin and to secondary particles generated by the interaction of primary particles with
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the atmosphere. Cosmic rays radiation consists of 85% protons, 14% alpha particles and
about 1% nuclei of atomic number between 4 and 26 (James, 1996). These particles are
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highly penetrating and have high energies. The annual external dose rates from cosmic
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rays depend slightly on latitude and strongly on altitude. Biehl et al., (1949) studied the
effects of geomagnetic latitudes on the total cosmic rays and found that the ratio of
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latitude effects at low geomagnetic latitudes to those at higher latitudes is roughly

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65:100. Annual effective dose from cosmic ray radiation around the world is estimated
between the ranges of 0.26 to 2.00 mSv/year. The table 1.1 below shows natural sources
of average radiation dose worldwide.
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Table 1.1 Average radiation dose from natural sources (UNSCEAR 2000)
Worldwide average Typical

Source
annual effective dose (mSv) range (mSv)
External exposure
Cosmic rays 0.4 0.3 - 1.0
Terrestrial gamma rays 0.5 0.3 – 0.6
Internal exposure
Inhalation(mainly radon) 1.2 0.2 – 10b
Ingestion (food, drinking water) 0.3 0.2 – 0.8
Total 2.4 1 − 10
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1.3.2 Primordial (Terrestrial) Radionuclides
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Primordial radionuclides are the radionuclides found in the earth’s crust. They
originated with other (stable) nuclei in the course of cosmic nucleogenesis by

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thermonuclear reactions in the core of a star, which then exploded as a supernova and
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enriched the nucleus cloud from which the sun and the solar system were formed about
4.5×109 years ago. Radiation from primordial sources constitutes about 85% of the
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natural background radiation exposure received by individuals in the environment

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(IAEA, 1996, Obed et al., 2005). About 70 out of 340 naturally occurring nuclides on
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the earth are radioactive therefore humans are continually exposed to radiation due to
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natural radioactivity in the terrestrial environment (Olomo, 2006). The specific activity
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levels of terrestrial sources of radiation are related to the composition of each

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lithological area and to the content of the rock from which the soils originated (Akhtar,
2004 and Tahir, 2005). These radionuclides when ingested or inhaled enter the human
body and are distributed among body organs according to the metabolism of the
element involved. The organs normally exhibit varying sensitivities to the radiation and
thus, varying doses and risks result from their consumption or inhalation.
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1.3.2.1 Radioactivity decay series
These are radionuclides that are headed by parent radionuclides that decay in
sequence to other radionuclides with different half live and decay modes, and finally
end to stable isotopes (NCRP,1992). There are four naturally occurring radioactive
decay series (Table 1.2). These include Thorium (232Th), Uranium (238U), Neptunium
(237Np) and Actinium (235U). These radionuclides do not decay to stable isotope in one
step, but give rise to decay series. And not all nuclides of the series emit gamma
radiations (Firestone, 1998). The members of natural radioactive series are genetically
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related by alpha decay (Ghoshal, 2005).
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Table 1.2 Natural radioactive decay series (Tait,1980)
Name of series Type

M Stable end product
Parent
radionuclide
Half-live
(years)
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208 232
Thorium 4n Pb Th 1.3x1010
209 237
Neptunium 4n+1 Bi Np 2.20x106
206 238
Uranium 4n+2 Pb U 4.47x109
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207 235
Actinium 4n+3 Pb U 7.1x108
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(a) Thorium (Th) (4n) series

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Thorium-232 occurs naturally with atomic number 90 and has half life of 1.4×1010
years significantly longer than the age of the earth. It has a long decay series that
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contains important radionuclides such as radium-228 and radon-220. Radium-228, a

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beta emitter is a direct descendant of thorium-232, with half life of 5.75 years enters the
body mainly through food. The isotope of Radon-220 that appears in the decay series of
thorium has a half life time of 55.6 seconds which is too short for significant escape.
Thorium-232 undergoes ten steps, six alpha and four beta decay steps with possible 346
gamma ray emissions before becoming a stable isotope, 208Pb as shown in figure 1.1and
table 1.3 in page 7. Thorium is essentially insoluble. Therefore, concentration of this
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radionuclide in biological material is almost negligible. This radionuclide also is not
mobile in the environment. The highest concentrations of thorium in the body have
found predominantly in the pulmonary lymph nodes and lungs. The presence of high
concentrations in this area of the body indicates that infiltration occurs mainly as a
result of inhalation of soil and dust particles (NCRP, 1992).
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Figure 1.1 Thorium 232 decay series. (Nancy Walton (Modified 2016).
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Table 1.3 Thorium decay series with half-life

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Nuclide Mode of decay Half-life

232
Th α 1.4x1010
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228
Ra β 5.8 years
228
Ac β 6.1 hours
U
228
Th α 1.9 years
224
Ra α 3.7 days
220
Rn α 55.6 seconds
216
Po α 0.15 seconds
212
Pb β 10.6 hours
212
Bi 36% α and 64% β 60.5 minutes
212
Po α 3.0x10-7 seconds
208
TI β 3.1 minutes
208
Pb stable stable
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(b) Uranium (U) (4n+2) series
Uranium has atomic number of 92 and three naturally occurring isotopes namely;
234 235 238
U, U and U as show in table 1.4 in page 8 which already undergo radioactive
decay by emission of alpha particle accompanied by weak gamma radiation. The
uranium isotopes are all radioactive and their decays produce a number of secondary
radioactive elements that continue to decay until they reach stable nuclei. Of the three
235 238
isotopes of uranium, U and U are the most important radionuclides of primary
origin in the earth’s crust. Uranium-238 has a half life of 4.47×109. 238
U (Uranium-
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radium) series takes about 14-16 steps to reach Pb, with possible 458 gamma rays as
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shown in figure 1.2 and table 1.5 in page 9. The decay products of U include
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important radionuclides such as radium-226, and radon-222. The release of radiation
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during the decay process raises health concerns. Humans could be exposed to uranium
through food and water ingestion or inhaling of contaminated air.

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Table 1.4 Natural abundance of uranium isotopes

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238 235 234

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Isotopes U U U
Natural Abundance (%) 99.27 0.72 0.0055
4.47×109 7×108 2.46×105
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Half-life (years)
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Table 1.5 Uranium -238 decay series with half-life
Proton Molecular Mode of

Isotope Symbol Half-life
number weight decay
Uranium 238 U 92 238 α 4.5x109years
Thorium 234 Th 90 234 β 24 days
Proactinium 234 Pa 91 234 β 1.2 minutes
Uranium 234 U 92 234 α 2.5x105 years
Thorium 230 Th 90 230 α 8x104 years
Radium 226 Ra 88 226 α 1620 years
Radon 222 Rn 86 222 α 38 days
Polonium 218 Po 84 218 α 3.1 minutes
Lead 214 Pb 82 214 β 27 minutes
Bismuth 214 Bi 83 214 β 20 minutes
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Polonium 214 Po 84 214 α 1.6x10-4 secs
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Lead 210 Pb 82 210 β 19 years
Bismuth 210 Bi 83 210 β 5 days
Polonium 210 Po 84 210 α 138 days
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Lead 206 Pb 82 206 - Stable
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Figure 1.2 The uranium-238 decay series. (Chloe Reynolds (n.d) )
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(c) Actinium (4n+3) series
235
Actinium series is a daughter of Uranium-235. The decay of U (Uranium to
207
Actinium) series goes through 11- 14 radionuclides to Pb as shown in figure 1.3 and
table 1.6 below.
Table 1.6 Uranium-235 (Actinium) decay series with half-life.
Proton Nucleon Mode of

Isotope Symbol Half life
number number decay
Uranium U 92 235 α 704 yrs
a
Thorium Th 90 231 β 25.5 hrs
Protactinium Pa 91 231 α 32,760 yrs
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Actinium Ac 89 227 α, β 21.7 yrs
Francium Fr 87 223 α,β 21.8 mins
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Thorium Th 90 227 α 18.7 days
Radium Ra 88 223 α 11.4 days
Radon Rn 86 219 α 4 secs
Astatine
Bismuth
At
Bi
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85
83
219
215
α, β
β
56 secs
7.7 mins
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Polonium Po 84 215 β 1.8 mins
Astatine At 85 215 α 0.1 min
Lead Pb 82 211 β 36.1 mins
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Bismuth Bi 83 211 α, β 2.1 mins

Polonium Po 84 211 α 0.5 secs
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Thallium TI 81 207 β 4.7 mins

Lead Pb 82 207 Stable Stable
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Figure 1.3 Actinium decay series. (Chloe Reynolds (n.d) ).

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(d) Neptunium (237Np) (4n+1) series

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Neptunium has atomic number of 93. It is a radioactive series that was brought to
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237
light after the synthesis of trans uranium element. It takes 12 steps from Np to
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bismuth 209 which is a stable nuclei as shown in figure 1.4 and table 1.7 in page 12.
The series contains some important radionuclides like uranium, thorium, actinium,
radium, radon, etc.
11
Table 1.7 Neptunium decay series with half-life
Nucleon Mode of
Isotope Symbol Proton number Half life
number decay
Neptunium Np 237 93 α 2.14x10 years
Protactinium Pa 233 92 β 27 days
Uranium U 233 91 α 159200 years
Thorium Th 225 90 α 7304 years
Radium Ra 225 88 β 15 days
Actinium Ac 225 89 α 10 days
Francium Fr 221 87 α 5 minutes
Astatine At 217 85 α 32 seconds
Bismuth Bi 213 83 α, β 46 minutes
Polonium Po 213 84 α 4.2x10-6 minutes
a
Thallium Ti 81 209 β 2.2 minutes
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Lead Pb 82 209 β 3.25 minutes
Bismuth Bi 83 209 stable 1.9x109 years
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Figure 1.4 Neptunium decay series. (Chloe Reynolds (n.d)
12
1.3.2.2 Potassium-40 (40K)
Potassium-40 has been found to be the most significant primordial radionuclide of
terrestrial origin. It is so important in terms of dose associated with naturally occurring
radionuclides. Potassium is found in large amount throughout nature. It is the seventh
most abundant element in the crust of the earth and the sixth most abundant element in
solutions in the oceans (Argonne National Laboratory, EVS 2005). It has a half-life of
1.3x109 years. It is a both beta and gamma emitter. The main decay modes of 40K are β-
40 40
decay to stable Ca and electron capture to an excited state of Ar, emitting 89% of
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40
1.314 MeV of β- particles most of the time (Kathren, 1998). Ar decays to its ground
sate by the emission of a gamma ray of 1.461 MeV which happens in 10.67% of all
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decays. This photon value makes it easy to identify and quantify potassium-40 by
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gamma ray spectroscopy. It is an excellent calibration point because of the presence of
potassium in essentially all environmental sample (Alatise et al, 2008).

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1.4 Man-made (Artificial) Sources of Radiation

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Artificial radioactivity is a radioactivity that is generated through human activities

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which varies with time and location. The technological advancement and research in
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environment produces more radiation sources other than natural sources. The sources of
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man-made radiation includes; nuclear power plants (for energy production and nuclear
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weapons for warfare) and reprocessing facilities, radiation generating devices such as x-
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rays machine for medical diagnosis and therapy, nuclear accelerators for the study of
nuclear transmutations and sources used for industrial and agricultural applications
(UNSCEAR, 1988). The environment gets contaminated through transport, routine
release, accidents, loss and disposal or misuse of radioactive materials. A typical
example is the major nuclear accident at Chernobyl-4 nuclear power installation in 1986
when huge amounts of various radionuclides escaped into the atmosphere (Olomo,
2006). Radiation used in medicine for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes
13
especially the management of cancer in humans make a significant contribution to
man’s exposure (Paschal, 2006).
Man- made sources of radiation can only affect a small size of the population at any
time under controlled management. Some common consumer products enhanced man’s
exposure, like the luminous watches and clock which contains 3H, 147
Pm or 226
Ra as
activating agent (UNEP, 1991; NCRP, 1977). Television sets produce x-rays, but
modern television sets have designed to produce negligible amounts when used
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correctly and serviced appropriately (Larmash, 1983). Also, smoke detectors contain
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alpha emitting sources such as Americium-241. Some porcelain dentures and eyes
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glasses which contain uranium and thorium (NCRP, 1977), also enhanced exposure.
Starters for fluorescent tube lights and electrical appliances contain sealed radionuclides
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although they do not cause any hazard unless they are broken (NCRP, 1977), X-rays
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machines used for screening travellers (Mettler and Sinclair, 1990), cigarette smoke and
tobacco which contain Pb-210 and Po-210 (Larmash, 1983; NCRP, 1977, Paschal,
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2006) and combustible fuels as well as building materials which could be mixed with
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uranium, thorium and potassium containing waste etc (NCRP, 1977). All these radiation
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sources could contaminate the human body through irradiation, inhalation and ingestion
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leading to varying doses of radiation to man (Pascal, 2006; NCRP, 1977).

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1.5 Radionuclides transfer in the environment

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The level of radiation dose to man can be increased due to the radionuclides in the
environment. Man is either exposed to radiation by external or internal means. External
exposure is a direct exposure of man from the environment while internal exposure is an
exposure taken up by man through various mean such as inhalation of contaminated
dust, ingestion of dirt and dust, inhalation of radon diffusing from material and skin
contamination (see figure 1.5). Radioactive materials can be released into air or directly
14
into water or soil. When they are released in air, they can travel some distance,
depending on some factors like wind speed and direction and altitude of the release. The
products of airborne releases can be transported to humans by several ways. Man can
directly inhale them or the materials will finally deposit themselves on the ground,
where they will find their ways into plant and animal life, as a result of that into the
food chain. Deposition of airborne contaminants into water can reach humans either by
direct ingestion or through the food chain. Likewise, depositions on the soil and water
find their way into the food chain through plant and animal life. Rain water runoff can
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carry soil into oceans, rivers, lakes and streams, thereby transporting any soil (sediment)
contamination to the water. Additionally, radioactive materials can leach into porous
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soils and into ground water (Doendara, 2007). Apart from all these ways, radionuclides
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in the aquatic environment could cause external exposure via the use of riverbed sand
(sediments) as building materials. It is a well-known knowledge that sediments from

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rivers, lakes and beaches are used as materials for construction of buildings (Xinwei and
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Xiaolan, 2006).
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Figure 1.5 Routes of human exposure to sources of natural and man made
(www.google.com/search?q=Routes+of+human+exposure+to+sources+of+natural+and
+man+made).
15
1.6 Biological effect of ionizing radiation
Ionizing radiation is a form of energy which transfers enough energy above the
threshold energy to cause ionization. The subsequent health effects when radiation
interacts with any biological entity are due to physical and chemical changes that came
as a result of ionization. The basic building blocks of human body are the cells that
form tissues and organs. Living tissues are very sensitive to change and the ionization
can alter to damage them. A unit cell in human body consists of nucleus, which is
surrounded by about 70% colourless fluid called cytoplasm that contains variety of
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compounds such as salts, fats, carbohydrates, amino acids and proteins. A cell is injured
when exposed to radiation which eventually interacts with other non-irradiated cells and
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thereby causing damage to the entire biological entity. The injury incurred as a result of
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exposure to ionizing radiation may lead to molecular changes and formation of
chemical species or radicals (H+ and OH_) which have deleterious effects on the
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chromosomes materials of the cells. The H+ and OH- attack Deoxyribonucleic acids
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(DNA) causing the breakage of the molecules and the rupturing of the molecular bonds.
The breakage of the DNA molecules ends up to the sudden random change in genetic
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code, and as a consequence causes genetic mutation. Such mutated cells may be
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repaired in a process called DNA degeneracy. Mutated cells that are not properly
repaired may die through apoptosis or survive as viable but transferred from a parent to
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an offspring (Muller 1927). The effects of radiation exposure of human (multi-cellular

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organism) cells are complicated. The water content in the cell experiences ionization
and excitation within 10-16 seconds when radiation transfers energy to a biological
medium. The resulting ions interact with other water molecules and cause a number of
new products like H+ and OH- and strong oxidizing agent H2O2 ( hydrogen peroxide).
The nature and extent of damage caused by ionizing radiation depends on the amount of
exposure, the frequency of exposure, types of radiation, radio-sensitivity of the cell and
16
the penetrating power of radiation to which an individual is exposed. Low doses of
radiation over a long time can cause various types of cancer, such as thyroid, breast,
lung cancer and leukemia. Shahid in 2012 reported the biological effect of ionizing
radiation as shown in figure 1.6
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Figure 1.6 Biological effects of ionizing radiation
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1.7 Classification of radiation effect on biological system

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Radiation effect on biological systems can be classified using different criteria. It is
classified recently into two categories (stochastic and deterministic effects) based on
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presence and absence of a threshold radiation dose to produce the effect. When
radiation effects occur with a threshold level of dose it is said to be deterministic

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effects, while the radiation effects occur without a threshold level is known as
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stochastic.
1.7.1 Stochastic effects
Stochastic effects include malignant and hereditary diseases for which the
probability of an effect occurring rather than its severity is considered to be directly
proportional to the effective dose level. In stochastic effects, any radiation dose no
matter how small is capable of initiating an effect. Genetic mutations are examples that
17
can result from stochastic effects. A gene mutation occurs when Deoxyribonucleic Acid
(DNA) is altered. In 1927, Muller discovered the mutagenic properties of ionizing
radiation and reported that radiation can cause alteration to the genetic information
contain in a germ cell. Genetic mutation caused by radiation exposure can be transferred
from a parent to an offspring. If the mutant gamete is successfully fertilized and the
zygote (fertilized ovum) developed into a life offspring, then the mutation is carried into
the progeny. Radiogenic cancer is a stochastic effect of ionizing radiation and the risk
of incurring cancer from radiation exposure depends on factors like; the dose
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administered over time, the age, sex and genetic background of the exposed person. In
recent times, cancer has assumed greater importance in the health agenda throughout
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the world and it has been observed that exposure to ionizing radiation increases the risk
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of incurring cancers (Farai et al., 2000, Brenner et al., 2003).
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1.7.2 Deterministic effects
Deterministic effects of radiation is predictable and its severity is an inevitable

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consequences of exceeding a given threshold radiation dose. In other words, the severity
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of the deterministic effect is a function of radiation dose. Examples of deterministic

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effects are non-malignant skin damage (erythema), and hematological effects (changes
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in the composition of the blood). Somatic effect is deterministic and may be observed
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when an individual is irradiated. The damage due to somatic effect is only limited to the
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exposed individual, and in essence the individual suffers and die with the damage.
Somatic effects may take a longer time to develop and become evident after ionizing
radiation had been administered either acutely or over an extended period. This is
referred to as delayed somatic effect. Another delayed somatic effect is cataract which
affects the opacity of the lens of the eye. A radiogenic cataract is a deterministic effect
because there is practical threshold of ionizing radiation dose below which cataract is
18
not produced or manifested; and its severity, when it occurs, is related to the magnitude
of the radiation dose and the time over which it is administered (Nobuyuki et al 2014).
1.8 Justification/research significant.
All the habitat of the globe has presence of radioactive materials (radionuclides).
Therefore, the earth is a source of natural radiation. Natural radiation is mostly due to
the activity level of primordial radioactive materials such as Uranium-238, Thorium-
232 and their daughters, in addition potassium-40 that is naturally present in the earth
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crust. Man has always been exposed to natural radiation emerging from within and
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outside the earth surface. It is a common knowledge that the irradiation due to ionizing
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radiations from natural sources happens because of the primordial radioactive elements
in the soil and rocks, cosmic rays gaining access into the earth’s atmosphere from outer
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space and the internal exposure from radioactive elements through food, water and air.
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Natural radioactivity is widespread in the earth’s environment and it exists in various
geological formations in soil, plants, rocks, water and air (Surinder et al., (2005).
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Human activities may cause increment of natural radioactivity level in an environment.

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In certain situations, natural radioactive materials can attain dangerous radiological

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levels. It is therefore necessary to measure the natural radioactivity in the residential

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hostels environment to control the occupants’ health from radiation exposure. And have
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a baseline for future changes in the environmental radioactivity due to human activity.
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1.9 Aims and objectives
The aim of this research is to evaluate natural radioactivity and hazard indices in the
soil collected from the residential college areas of University of Malaya, Malaysia. The
objectives of the study are as follows:
232 228 40
1. To evaluate the activity concentrations of natural radionuclides U, Ra and K
in the surface soil samples collected from different areas of UM using High-purity
Germanium (HPGe) detectors system.
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2. To calculate radiation levels and associated gamma-absorbed dose rates by members
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of the public
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3. To determine the areas in terms of radiological implication associated with studied
radionuclides.
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4. To evaluate the radiological threats on members of the public utilizing the
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environment.
5. To develop research dexterity on NORMs investigation and measurement.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Atoms and radiation
All matter is made up of atoms and their effective diameters are about 3x10-10m
(Abraham 1986). Nearly all the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus which is
centrally placed within the atom. The nucleus of an atom contains protons which carry a
positive electric charge and neutrons which carry no charge at all. They are held
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together by a strong nuclear force. Each atom contains equal number of protons and
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electrons and is therefore electrically neutral. The number of electrons in the atom and
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hence the number of protons in the nucleus called the atomic number, Z gives an
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element its unique properties. Since the protons and neutrons have almost the same
mass and are much heavier than electrons, most of all atom’s mass is concentrated in
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the nucleus, thus the total number of protons added to neutrons is referred to as the mass
number, A of the particular atom. Thus, the mass number minus the proton number
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gives the neutron number, N; that is N = A-Z. Although many nuclides are stable, most
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are not, the stability of nuclei is determined mainly by the neutron to proton ratio ( ) of
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a nuclide. For light nuclei, neutron to proton ratio, = 1 while for heavy nuclei, neutron
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to proton ratio, = 1.5. This is the ideal situation for stability of a nucleus.
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Radioactivity is a natural and spontaneous process that occurs when unstable nuclei of
an element emit or radiate excess energy in the form of particles or waves. The particles
are called ionizing radiation because they have the ability to ionize or change the
physical and chemical structure of an atom they pass through. In some cases, one or
more isotopes of an element are radioactive, are referred as radionuclides.
Radionuclides are unstable elements which undergo radioactive decay, by emitting
radiation in the form of alpha or beta particles and gamma rays. They undergo
21
spontaneous nuclear transformation which results in the formation of new elements.
These spontaneous transformations of a nucleus is called radioactivity and the excess
energy emitted is a form of ionizing radiation. The capacity of radioactive emissions to
cause ionization of molecules is the basis for health hazards and provides the means by
which radiation can be detected and evaluated. A radionuclide can be identified by the
characteristics of the radiation it emits. These characteristics include the rate of decay or
half-life of the radionuclide and the type of energy of radiation emitted.
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2.2 Radioactive half life
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The rate at which particles are disintegrated is expressed by the half-life of the
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radionuclide. The half-life, T1/2 is the period of time it takes for an unstable atom to
decay to half its initial value. The half-life is related to the decay constant by T1/2 =
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. As a radionuclide decays, it becomes an isotope of an element, which can be
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deduced as follows:
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If a number of nuclei, N is given at a time, t is proportional to the number of

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radioactive atoms, dN in time, dt, then:

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∝N ( 2.1)
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Introducing the disintegration (decay) constant λ which has a characteristics value

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for every radionuclide and minus sign because of the fact that number of radioactive
nuclei decreases with time, equation (2.1) can be rewritten as:
=- N (2.2)
To find N as a function of time t, we arrange equation 2.2 as:
(2.3)
22
Integrating both sides of the above equation,
(2.4)
Which gives;
) = - λ(t-to) (2.5)
where No is the number of radionuclides in a sample at some arbitrary initial time to.
a
Since to = 0, the equation above become
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(2.6)
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The above equation can be written as exponential form as:
t
N = Noe- (2.7)
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N is the quantity of radionuclides that remain after and has not yet decay after a time t.
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Equation (2.6) is the radioactive decay law.

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Since At = Nt (2.8)
t
A = Aoe- (2.9)
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where the activity A, of a radionuclide is the total number of decay per second; Ao is the
activity at a time t = 0.
2.3 Activity
One of the most important quantities associated with a sample of radioactive material
is its activity. Activity is the rate at which the nuclei within the sample undergo
disintegration and can be expressed in terms of the numbers of disintegration per
23
seconds (dps). The Becquerel (Bq) is the S.I unit and is equivalent to 1dps. The
probability that a nucleus will decay in a certain time interval does not depend on the
age of the nucleus, the state of the chemical combination, temperature, pressure or the
presence of other atoms or nuclei but it is a property of the individual isolated nucleus.
The rate of radioactive decay from a sample of any radioactive substance must be
proportional only to the number of nuclei present, if radioactivity is a property of
isolated nuclei.
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2.4 Radioactive equilibrium
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Radioactive equilibrium or disequilibrium is an important consideration in all
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gamma ray spectrometric measurement. Gamma ray spectroscopy can be used to
determine the concentrations of uranium, thorium and potassium in the rock or soil
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samples because gamma rays of specific energies are associated with each
of
radioelement. By looking at the peak in the energy spectrum of gamma rays being
emitted by the source, the radioelement content of the source can be inferred. The
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method involves the counting of gamma ray photons with specified energies. The
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gamma ray count rate can then be related to the amount of parent by assuming there is a
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direct relation between the amount of daughter and parent. The assumption is valid
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when the radioactive decay series is in the state of secular equilibrium.

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Secular equilibrium is established in a radioactive series when the number of atoms

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of each daughter being produced in a series is equal to the number of atoms the
daughter’(s) parent lost by radioactive decay. The rate of loss by decay is proportional
to the amount of radioelement present.
24
where N1 is the amount of element 1 (parent) and 1 is the decay constant for element 1
(parent)
The rate of formation of daughter element is also given as
where N2 = amount of element 2 (daughter) and 2 = decay constant for element 2
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(daughter)
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In a radioactive series N1 is decaying into N2 at the above rate while at the same time
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N2 will decay with decay constant 2 into N3 and so on. For a parent with a relatively
long half-life, after a long period of time, the amount of any given daughter becomes
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constant. The rate of production from its parent becomes equal with its rate of decay.
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The series is then said to be in the state of secular equilibrium and it requires that;
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When this condition is obtained, it is possible to determine the amount of the parent
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of the decay series by measuring the radioactivity from any of the daughter elements. i.e
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activity of the parent is equal to the activity of the daughter. It is important to know the
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length of time required for a secular equilibrium to be established in a case of soil and
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rock samples, which are crushed and sealed for laboratory analysis using gamma ray
spectrometry.
2.5 Types of radiation
The instability of the atomic nucleus in certain atoms makes their nuclei to
experience as spontaneous disintegration by emission of energy and particles. The
emission of various types of radiation is an atomic property rather than a molecular or
25
bulk phenomenon, because the rate of emission does not depend on the state of
chemical composition of the radioactive element concerned. Also, it was found that
radioactive substances emits three (3) kinds of radiations; alpha particles (helium
nuclei), beta particles (electrons and positrons) and gamma radiations. These rays could
be distinguished from one another basically in two ways; the difference in the case with
which the rays could pass through matter and by the direction in which their path was
bent by the application of magnetic field ( Parasnis, 1986).
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2.5.1 Alpha ( ) particles.
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These helium (He) nuclei of two protons and two neutrons and a charge of +2,
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which can be stopped in its path by a thin sheet of paper. Alpha particles exist as a
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tightly bound entity within the nuclei and it is heavier than helium, which may be
ejected during disintegration and expressed as

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P+N
PX → P-2YP+N-4+ 2He4 ( emission) (2.13)
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where P, , X and Y are the number of protons, alpha particle, initial element and
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final element respectively.

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The above represents transition of element X to Y by alpha emission. The velocity of

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particle is rather small and the mechanism for the energy loss by α particles passing
through matter is by elastic-inelastic collision with atomic electron. The most

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significant feature of α particle is its discrete energy and such energy is used to identify
the specific nuclide that emits it.
2.5.2 Beta ( ) particle
These are electrons with a charge of -1. They are ejected when a neutron splits into a
position (β+) and an electron (β-) as represented by the equation below;
26
P+N
PX → P+1YP+N-4+ e- (2.14)
where P, N X, Y and e- are number of proton, number of neutron, initial element,
final element and ejected electron respectively.
The proton stays in the nucleus and the electron is ejected in certain radioactive
disintegration. The result of transmutation is that there will be a gain in charge +1 with
no change in mass. The penetrating power of β particle is about 100 times that of α
particle but can be stopped by few millimeters of aluminum foil.
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2.5.3 Gamma ( ) radiation
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These are not discrete particles but pure electromagnetic radiation of the same kind
like x-rays, light and radio waves but of shorter wavelength. The gamma-ray photons
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are of high energy. They have much more penetrating power compared with beta-
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particles. Sizeable thick lead (Pb) is required to stop gamma rays. Their emission does
not affect the charge and mass of the nucleus but only a decrease in its energy content.
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In most cases, the emission of gamma rays is a secondary consequence of either an

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alpha decay or beta decay.

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2.5.4 Differences between Alpha, beta and gamma
Alpha and beta particles lose their energy in passing through matter collision,
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ionization etc. they are brought to a virtual stop within certain distance, which is called
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their range. The range of alpha particle is only a few centimeters or about 30µm in
denser particles, while a thin sheet of lead or a few centimeters of sand will stop beta
particles. The intensity of gamma rays traversing matter decreases exponentially with
distance, so that we cannot speak of a definite range in the case.
27
2.5.5 Characteristics of alpha beta and gamma rays
Table 2.1 Characteristics of alpha beta and gamma rays
Characteristic Alpha Beta Gamma

1 electron – High High frequency photon (e-m
Emission of 2 P+2N
kinetic energy rad.)
a
Uranium -
Changes from Radium - Polonium unchange
Plutonium
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Charge (C) 2 -1 0
Mass (kg) 4 5.41x10-4 0
9
Speed (km/s) 15000 3x10 300,000
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% of speed of
5% Approx. 100% 100
light
-3
Kinetic energy 5.0x10 MeV – 1
5 0.1 MeV - < 10MeV
(MeV)
Low- has
large mass and
M MeV
Moderate- average Very high- No mass, no

Penetration can be easily mass and charge can be charge and can be stopped only
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power stopped by a stop by metal with little by a large thick cement, steel or
thin sheet of mm thickness. lead.
paper
Very-
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Ionization Average (Low

high(large Low ( no charge)
power charge)
charge)
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2.6 Spontaneous fission

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Some heavy radio-nuclei can decompose through spontaneous fission. It is like

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neutron-induced fission which occurs in reactors, but the difference is that at the starting
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point of this fission process, neutron is not important. Heavy nucleus undergo through
this kind of radioactive decay by splitting into two lighter nuclei releasing many
neutrons. For example;
(2.15)
The determination of spontaneous fission products is not consistent like alpha and
beta decay, but the distribution is in statistical form.
28
2.7 Intensity
Radiation intensity is the amount of energy that goes through a known area which is
at right angle to the direction of radiation travel at a given time unit. The strength of
radioactive sources is not easy to be measured using its activity. The detector makes it
easier and convenient to measure the intensity of gamma ray or X-ray sources. The
intensity of a source is measured by sampling the number of photons emitted from the
source at a given time, which is directly related to the number of disintegrations at the
same given time (activity).
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2.8 Interaction of gamma rays with matter
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The earth contains many radionuclides that decay and emit charged particles such as
alpha, beta radiations and neutral particle like gamma radiations. To calculate the
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radioactivity in the soil, we need to focus on detecting the emissions of charged and
of
neutral particles from the decaying radionuclides. The emitted particles are easily
observed when they interact with the matter through the excitation and ionization
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effects they cause in the matter. The methods in which these effects are used for
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radiation detection depend on the mode of interaction, type and energy of radiation.
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Therefore, a good knowledge of the response of a specific type of detector must be

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based on the familiarity of fundamental mechanism by which radiation interacts and

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lose their energies in matter since the main objective in radiation spectrometry is to
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measure the energy distribution of the incident radiation. Gamma ray photon is
uncharged and creates no direct ionization or excitation of the material they pass
through. Therefore, the detection of gamma ray hang on causing the gamma-ray photon
to undergo an interaction that transfer all or part of the photon energy (hv) to electron in
the absorbing material.
29
Absorption of gamma rays in matter occurs by mechanisms that are completely
different from the absorption of charged particles. There are many modes of interaction
but only three mechanisms (Photoelectric effect, Compton scattering and pair
production) are important in radiation measurement.
2.8.1 Photoelectric effect
The experience of ejecting electrons from an atom after the absorption of light
photon is called photoelectric effect. Here, the incident gamma rays interact (collide)
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with atomic electron in the absorber matter and transfer all of its energy to the electron.
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The atom gets ionized if the absorbed energy is enough to release the electron from its
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atomic shell. The kinetic energy of the emerging electron equals to the total energy of
the photon minus its binding energy.

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K.Ee = E - EB (2.16)
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where K.Ee , E , and EB are kinetic energy of the photoelectron, energy of incident
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photon and binding energy of the electron respectively.

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Photoelectric emission occurs when energy of incident photon ( Eγ ) is greater or

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equal to the binding energy of the electron (EB) in the material. The tightly bound shells
like K- shell always have vacancy due to the photoelectrons production. The immediate
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filling of the vacancy by electrons from the higher shells leads to the production of X-
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ray characteristics. As stated by Tait (1980) and James (1995), Photoelectric effect has a
cross section written as;
p.e = δ Eγ 7/2ρZ5 (2.17)
where, , ρ and Z are the constant, density of the absorbing material and the atomic
number of the absorbing material respectively.
30
At lower frequencies, light is incapable of ejecting electrons, thus the critical
frequency for light to eject an electron is called the threshold frequency. It is evident
from equation (2.16) above that photoelectric effect is more for materials at low photon
energies (<0.1 MeV) and photons are absorbed more strongly in high atomic number
(Z) materials. i.e, the absorption due to the photoelectric effect decreases sharply with
increasing gamma ray energy but increases rapidly with increasing absorbing material’s
atomic number. Example, lead (Pb) used in gamma ray spectroscopy shields the
detector from gamma rays.
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2.8.2 Compton effect
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The interaction takes place between the incident gamma ray photon with energy (0.1-
10 MeV) and an electron in the absorbing materials. Here, the photon undergoes elastic
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scattering with a free or loosely bound electron in the outmost atomic shell. After
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transferring some portions of its energy to the electron, the energy of the photon reduces
from hv to hv’ with also a change in frequency and wavelength (λ to λ’). Some part of
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the original photon remains as lower energy which may undergo a further photoelectric
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or Compton interaction but in a different direction from the parent photon. The energy
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of the electron scattered at different angle is written as hv-hv’. The energy hv-hv’ that is
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deposited in the material in the interaction can be calculated by applying the law of
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conservation of energy and momentum. The change in wavelength of the photon

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according to Briks (1964) and Tait (1980) is
∆ λ = λ’- λ = [1-cos ] (2.18)
where ∆ λ, λ’, λ, , h and are the change in wavelength, wavelength of the scattered
photon, wavelength of the incident photo, the initial mass of the electron, the plank’s
constant and the angel of scatter of photon respectively.
31
The energy of the scattered gamma ray, E’ γ in terms of the scattering angle ϴ is
given by;
E’ γ = (2.19)
Kinetic energy of the electron as K.Ee
K.Ee = E γ - E’ γ (2.20)
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Thus,
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K.Ee = (2.21)
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where m0 is the initial mass and m0c2 is the initial energy of the electron. Taking from
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equation 2.6, the minimum value of K.Ee is zero when = 0. And the maximum value
called Compton edge, Ec corresponds to a head- on collision in which the photon is

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scattered backwards, is when = 180

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The maximum energy value is obtained as;

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Ec = [ (2.22)
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Note, the probability of Compton scattering per atom of the absorber depends on the
number of electrons available as scattering agent, and therefore increases linearly with
atomic number (Z) and decreases with increasing energy. Thus, Compton scattering
makes only a small contribution to absorption of high energy photons.
32
2.8.3 Pair production
In pair production, a photon of sufficient energy materializes into an electron and a
positron. The energy equation of the process is written as;
hv = Ee +Ep +2moc2 (2.23)
Energy greater than 1.022MeV may be absorbed entirely and be replaced by an
electron-positron pair. Pair production is predominately confined to high energy gamma
rays. The process occurs in the field of a nucleus of the absorbing material. Because the
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positron will be subsequently annihilated after slowing down in the absorbing medium,
two annihilation photons are normally produced as a secondary product of the
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interaction.
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Unlike the other two photon interactions, pair production has a cross section σpp
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which increases, although slowly with photon Eᵧ and the interaction tends to be
dominant at high energies.

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The cross section is given by:

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σpp = cZ2 (2.24)

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c = constant.
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The net effect of the above three interactions is an exponential attenuation in the
intensity of a beam of gamma rays passing through a thickness t of an absorbing
material. This is described by the equation
I = Io (2.25)
where Io is the initial intensity at t = 0 and σ is the linear absorption co-efficient due to
all the effects.
33
2.9 Review of existing knowledge
The existence of natural radioactivity in the soil and rock has long been recognized.
It has been found that uranium-238, thorium 232 and potassium are present in the earth
crust in parts per million (ppm) levels. There has been rapid increase in human
population. Human activities can increase the natural radioactivity of the surface soil
through waste dumping that contain radioactive material and opening of the earth crust
thereby exposing substances naturally buried in the soil. According to (UNSCEAR,
2000), mining of all kinds affect the environment adversely, this made mining one of
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the major sources that enhance the natural radioactivity level of the environment.
Gamma radiation emitted from primordial radionuclides and their progeny is one of the
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main external sources of radiation exposure to the human. Terrestrial radioactivity, and
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associated external exposure due to gamma radiation depend primarily on the
geological formation and soil type of the location; and these factors greatly influence
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the dose distribution from natural radiation.
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Since natural radiation is the largest contributor of external dose to the world
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population, measurement of gamma radiation dose from natural sources is of particular

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232 226 40
importance. The concentration of Th, Ra and K vary widely depending on the
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location. In addition, soil acts as a source of transfers of radionuclides through the food
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chain depending on their chemical properties and the uptake process by the roots to
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plants and animals; hence it is the basic indicator of radiological status of the
environment. These radionuclides take part in several biogeochemical processes that
determine their mobility and availability for biological uptake. The major potential
hazard from natural radiation is from external exposure either by direct exposure to the
soil or as they enter in many building materials. [UNSCEAR, 1993; Beir VII, 2006;
UNSCEAR, 2000; Klein, C.K and Hurlbut, C.S., 1985; Jabbar, A., et al., 2010; Mandic,
L.J., et al., 2010]
34
Nowadays, studies on health effects due to ionizing radiations have produced
substantial evidences that exposures to high level of radiation can cause illness or even
death. Despite a well known effect of cancer, scientists have long known that ionizing
radiations with high doses may cause mental retardations in children’s mother exposed
to radiations during pregnancy period. Radium and its ultimate parent uranium in the
ground lead to the production of radon a radioactive gas. The inhalation of radon
progenies at a high level may cause an increase of lung cancer (UNSCEAR, 1993).
a
In an earlier work done by Ravisankar et al 2012, on activity concentration of natural
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radionuclides that are in different locations of Yelagiri hills shows that thorium-232 is
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1.19 times higher than world median value. And the spatial distribution and lifetime
cancer risk due to gamma radioactivity in the same Yelagiri hills in India by
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Chandrasekaran A., et al 2014 reported Th/U concentration to be 5.074 and U/Th ratio
of
0.43 which are higher that the global ratio of 3.5 and 0.26 respectively. In their further
work on natural gamma radiation in beach sediments of north east coast of Tamilandu,
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India 2014, they reported that average concentration of natural radionuclides, all
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calculated radiological parameters and hazard indices except external hazard index are
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higher than the recommended level. Therefore the sediments of this beach pose
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significant threat to the people utilizing it.

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As cited in an overview on measurement of natural radioactivity in Malaysia by

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Nisar et al 2015, one of the major health problems in Malaysia is cancer (Stomach,
breast, lungs, liver, leukaemia and thyroid). Medically, it been certified that the fourth
leading cause of death is cancer. Taking from the progress and development that has
been achieved in Malaysia, cancer has become a very serious health concern. The result
of a study done in 1994 in Penang, Malaysia showed that the age standardized incidence
rate was 119.3 per 100,000 for all types of cancers. From 2004-2008, about 9692 cases
35
were identified in Penang, Malaysia. Sequel to the above, a study was carried out by
Almayahi et al in 2012 and reported in his conclusion that high concentration of natural
radioactivity and 226Ra/238U disequilibrium are the main cause of cancer in Penang
(Almayahi et al 2012a). Therefore, it is important to know the natural radioactivity of
every environment and monitor the radiation hazards that may appear to the inhabitants
due to the use of soil; which happen to be the aim of the present study.
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36
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Radiation detection techniques
The general principle involved in radiation detection is the interaction of radiation
with matter which produces ionization and electronic excitation. The radiation either
gives off some or all its energy to the medium of the detector by either ionizing it
directly or causing emission of charged particles which later produces ionization of the
medium.
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Ionizing radiation can be measured through the physical and chemical effects of its
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interaction with matter. Field and laboratory methods are based mainly on the ionizing
properties of radiation and the use of instruments that convert the radiation to electrical
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signals. Ionization chambers, proportional counters, Geiger-Muller tubes, scintillation
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counters, semiconductor detectors (for instance HPGe), thermoluminescence detector
and various mechanical and chemical track detectors are used to monitor and quantify
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alpha, beta, gamma and neutron radiation in the environment.

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3.2 Gamma ray spectroscopy

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Gamma ray spectrometer is a powerful technique which identifies and quantifies
specific energy photons (gamma rays), in environment and geological samples thereby
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quantitating specific radionuclides. It utilizes the direct proportionality between the

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energy of an incoming gamma ray and the pulse amplitude at the output of the detector.
The interaction between the gamma rays from the sample and the detector atoms are
amplified and converted into a voltage pulse proportional to the photon energy. Then,
the pulse amplitudes are analysed, and the output of the spectrometer is an energy
spectrum of detected radiation. Since individual radionuclides emit specific gamma
37
energies, the spectrum can be used to identify and quantify specific radionuclide that
releases the radiation.
Gamma ray spectrometer consists of a detector, preamplifier, pulse-height analyser
system, data readout capability and shield sample enclosure. The pulse height analyser
consists of a linear amplifier, an analog to digital converter (ADC), memory storage and
logic control mechanism which allows the storage of data in various modes and displays
or recall. The amplitude gain stabilization in gamma ray spectrometers helps to the
a
effect of energy spectrum drift
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Main Multi-channel
Detector Preamplifier
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amplifier analyzer
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High voltage
Display
of
supply
unit
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Figure 3.1 Diagram of Gamma Spectrometer Experimental setup

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3.2.1 High purity germanium detector (HPGe)

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HPGe is a semiconductor detector with high purity germanium. It approximately has
the properties of theoretical true intrinsic semiconductor material and < 10 10 atoms/cm3
impurity. High purity germanium is capable of yielding up to 10mm depletion layer
with 1000 volts of reserve bias. The germanium detector diode has the ability to endure
high reverse bias voltage at crystal temperature.
38
The detector used in this experiment is a P-type Coaxial ORTEC, GEM-25 high
purity germanium gamma ray detector which has 57.5mm crystal diameter and 51.5mm
thickness, shielded with a cylindrical shaped lead which helps to minimize background
radiation intrusion with the measured spectrum. The operating voltage of this detector is
set at +2800V. The HPGe detector is cooled with Ortec X-Cooler II. The detector
element absorbs the energy from incident gamma ray and produces a current pulse
whose integral is proportional to the absorbed energy. According to Mayeen et al 2012,
these types of detector present a more uniform, efficient cross-section of the active
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detector volume to the samples that are counted at a short distance from the detector.
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3.2.2 Preamplifier
The preamplifier is the first element in a signal- processing chain. It converts the
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ionization charge developed in the detector during each absorbed nuclear event to a step
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function output pulse whose amplitude is proportional to the total charge accumulated
in that particular event. The preamplifier is located very close to detector to achieve
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good performance. This will reduce the attenuation of the output signal in a way that
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maximizes the electronic signal to the noise ratio, hence amplifying the signal before
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additional noise or signal distortion can occur.

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3.2.3 Main amplifier

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The primary function of the amplifier is shaping of the pulse from the preamplifier.
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The amplifier enlarges the amplitude of the pulse coming from the preamplifier into
adequate amplitude that can be easily and accurately measured. It shapes and filters the
pulse to improve the signal–to noise ratio. It also prevents overlapping. The amplifier
must be non-overloading, which means that it must amplify equally well at high count
rates as it does at low count rates.
39
3.2.4 Multi-channel analyser (MCA)
The multi channel analyser does a great job in this experiment. It performs the
function of pulse height analysis. The operation of multi channel analyser is basically
on the principle of converting analog to digital. The analogy to digital converter (ADC)
in MCA measures and sorts out the incoming pulses according to their amplitudes
(Paschal, 2006). The output is then stored in the computer-type memory, which has
many addressable locations and the number of channels into which recorded spectrum
can be divided. The channels storage is done in counts per seconds. The output
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information is either displayed as data to be analysed or final result form in real time.
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3.3 Detector resolution
The energy resolution of a detector is a measure of its ability to differentiate between

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two gamma rays that vary with very little energies difference. The width of a peak is
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determined by the resolution of the detector. The measure of the detector resolution is
given by the sharpness of the photo peak. The energy resolution (R) is defined as full
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width of the photopeak at half maximum amplitude (FWHM) divided by its energy (E)
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corresponding to the highest point in the photopeak of a reference radioisotope

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expressed as a percentage.
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i.e
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(3.1)
where is the full width at half maximum amplitude.
The resolution of the detector used in this study was 28.2% and 1.67keV FWHM
energy resolution at 1.33 MeV (60Co). This an excellent resolution to distinguish the
gamma ray energies considered during this experiment
40
3.4 Calibration of the detector
The calibration of the detector is a very important aspect of gamma ray spectroscopy
for radioactivity measurements. This is to ensure that the gamma ray spectra are
accurately interpreted in terms of energy and specific activity. An essential requirement
for the measurement of gamma emitters is the exact identity of photopeaks present in a
spectrum produced by the detector system. The procedure for identifying the
radionuclides within a spectrum relies upon methods which match the energies of the
principal gamma rays emitted by known radionuclides.
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3.4.1 Energy calibration
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The energy calibration was done so to establish a relationship between peak position
in the spectrum and the corresponding gamma ray energy. The height of each pulse
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output from a photomultiplier tube and hence the channel corresponding to it is directly
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proportional to the initial gamma energy producing the pulse. The calibration process
involved different gamma emitter sources of known energies, these includes Cobalt-60
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(1173.22 keV,1332.492keV) Americium-241(59.541 keV), Cadmium-109 (88.040

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keV), Cobalt-57(122.061 keV,136.474 keV), Mercury-203 (279.195 keV), Strontium 85

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(514.007keV), Cesium-137 (661.657keV), Yttrium-88 (898.042keV,1836.063keV),and

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Tin-113 (391.698keV). The gamma emitter sources were exposed to the HPGe detector
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and gamma spectra were obtained under suitable counting time. The gamma source and
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their corresponding energies are shown in table 3.1
41
Table 3.1 Energy calibration
Source Energy (keV)

60
Co 1173.22 and 1332.492
241
Am 59.54
109
Cd 88.04
57
Co 122.061 and136.474
203
Hg 279.195
113
Sn 391.698
85
Sr 514.007
137
Cs 661.657
88
Y 898.042 and 1836.063
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3.4.2 Efficiency calibration
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In gamma ray spectrometry, the peak in the spectrum is related to the amount of
radioactivity it represents. This requires the absolute full-energy peak efficiency. This
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gives a relationship between the peak area and the number of gamma rays emitted by
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the source. The efficiency was determined by using Ra-226 source only with energy
range 186.211 to 1764.491 keV. It was ensured that the calibration standard reference
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sample represented the soil samples to be counted. The counting was done for 1 hour to
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determine the detector efficiency. The detection efficiency was determined for each of
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the gamma energies under investigation in this study and their values are tabulated in
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table 3.2. The dependence of the detection efficiency on the gamma ray energy is shown
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in figure 3.2 in page 43

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42
Table 3.2 Radionuclide, Energy and Detection efficiency
Radionuclide Energy (keV) Detection efficiency
Pb-214 295.22 0.0188271
Pb-214 351.93 0.0170268
Bi-214 609.32 0.0124387
Bi-214 1120.29 0.0087799
Ac228 338.32 0.0174153
Ac228 911.20 0.0098811
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Ac228 968.97 0.0095398
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TI-208 583.18 0.0127546
K-40 1460.82 0.0075432
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0.035
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0.03
0.025 y = 0.4872x-0.572
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0.02
Efficiency (cps/Bq)
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0.015
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0.01
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0.005
0
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0 500 1000 1500 2000

Energy (KeV)
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Figure 3.2 Detection efficiency curve of the detector
3.4.3 Determination of minimum detectable activity
The minimum detectable activity (MDA) of a measuring system describes its
operating capacity without the influence of any sample. The detectable limit is
expressed in Bq/kg, which is required to estimate the minimum detectable activity
43
concentration in a sample at 95% confidence level, using equation 3.1 (Khandaker et al,
2012)
(3.2)
where Kα, NB, M, η (E) and Pγ are the statistical coverage factor equivalent to 1.645, the
background count (cps), the sample mass (kg), the photo-peak efﬁciency, the
probability of gamma emission and the counting time(s) respectively.
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With the measurement system used in this study, the minimum detectable activity
(MDA) for the targeted radionuclides was calculated to be 0.60Bq/kg, 0.70Bq/kg and
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2.40Bq/kg for Radium-226, Thorium-232, and potassium-40 respectively. Any activity
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concentration values below these numbers are taken in this study as below detection
limit (BDL) of the detector.

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3.4.4 Background counting

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Background radiation are the radiations that arise due to the presence of natural
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radionuclides in the environment, cosmic rays entering the atmosphere, radionuclides

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present in the building materials used in building the laboratory, electronic noise and
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other sources.
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In this work, the environmental background was reduced with the help of the
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cylindrical shaped lead that shielded the detector. The background radiation was
automatically deducted from the acquired spectrum by the machine.
3.5 Area of Study
University of Malaya, Malaysia is a multidisciplinary university with 17 faculties
and research centres which covers the whole spectrum of learning from Arts, Science,
Humanities, Engineering and Medicine. The university dates back 1957 and the first
44
choice of Malaysia’s top students with international students population from more than
80 different countries. University of Malaya is seized 750 acre (309 hectare) with 12
residential colleges and strategically located (N3 7’15’’E101 39’23’’) within the heart
of Kuala Lumpur which makes it attractive and advantageous for her international
academic staff, students and visitors. The population of University of Malaya as at
February 2016 was 17580 students and 7245 staff.
3.6 Sample Sampling
a
Thirty six (36) soil samples were randomly collected from the twelve (12) residential
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college areas (samples from three sampling sites of each college) of University of
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Malaya, Malaysia, at a depth of 0-5 cm using hand auger as shown in figure 3.4 in page
48. The sampling sites (hostel, car park and recreational areas) were chosen due to
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dense human activities in the areas The soil sample from each sampling site were
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thoroughly mixed together to provide a representative sample for the site. Thereafter,
about 1kg of the composite sample were packed in a polythene bag and labeled with a
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sample identity using a coding that reflects both the area name, college and sample
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matrix. Then the collected soil samples were taken to the laboratory for preparation and
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spectroscopic analysis of the targeted radionuclides. The distance between each

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sampling site in a college was about 200-300 metres. The map showing the locations
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where the soil samples were collected across University of Malaya (UM) is shown in
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figure 3.3. The location of each sampling point was taken by means of a Global
Positioning System as recorded in table 3.3
Table 3.3 Sampling sites coordinates.
Colleges in University Sample code Location coordinates

of Malaya
1 C1C N03 07’ 01’’ E 101 39’ 30’’
“ C1H N03 07’ 01’’ E 101 39’ 33’’
45
“ C1R N03 07’ 03’’ E 101 39’ 35’’
2 C2C N03 07’ 05’’ E 101 39’ 27’’
“ C2H N03 07’ 04’’ E 101 39’ 28’’
“ C2R N03 07’ 04’’ E 101 39’ 26’’
3 C3C N03 07’ 27’’ E 101 39’ 2’’
“ C3H N03 07’ 25’’ E 101 39’ 1’’
“ C3R N03 07’ 24’’ E 101 39’ 3’’
4 C4C N03 07’ 31’’ E 101 38’ 58’’
“ C4H N03 07’ 29’’ E 101 39’ 0’’
“ C4R N03 07’ 29’’ E 101 39’ 0’’
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5 C5C N03 07’ 37’’ E 101 39’ 29’’
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“ C5H N03 07’ 40’’ E 101 39’ 30’’
“ C5R N03 07’ 38’’ E 101 39’ 33’’
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6 C6C N03 06’ 55’ E 101 39’ 18’’
“ C6H N03 06’ 54’’ E 101 39’ 16’’
7
C6R
C7C
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N03 06’ 53’ E 101 39’ 20’’
N03 07’ 30’’ E 101 39’ 0’’

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“ C7H N03 07’ 34’’ E 101 39’ 2’’
“ C7R N03 07’ 33’’ E 101 39’ 3’’

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8 C8C N03 07’ 48’’ E 101 38’ 59’’
“ C8H N03 07’ 49’’ E 101 38’ 56’’

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“ C8R N03 07’ 47’’ E 101 38’ 55’’

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9 C9C N03 07’ 14’’ E 101 38’ 41’’

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“ C9H N03 07’ 17’’ E 101 38’ 45’’
“ C9R N03 07’ 17’’ E 101 38’ 42’’

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10 C10C N03 07’ 50’’ E 101 39’ 2’’
“ C10H N03 07’ 54’’ E 101 39’ 2’’

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“ C10R N03 07’ 51’’ E 101 39’ 0’’
11 C11C N03 07’ 44’ E 101 39’ 39’’
“ C11H N03 07’ 48’’ E 101 39’ 38’’
“ C11R N03 07’ 42’’ E 101 39’ 40’’
12 C12C N03 07’ 33’’ E 101 39’ 38’’
“ C12H N03 07’ 14’’ E 101 38’ 41’’
“ C12R N03 07’ 17’’ E 101 38’ 45’’
46
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Figure 3.3 Location of University Malaya (N3 7’15’’E101 39’23’’) Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
47
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Figure 3.4 Collection of samples at the sample sites
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3.7 Sample preparation
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In order to remove excess moisture, the soil samples were air dried in the laboratory
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at room temperature for 24 hours. They were further dried in the oven at 45-600 degree
Celsius. The dried soil samples were pulverized to fine powder and sieved with a 1mm
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mesh sieve to achieve homogeneity. Then 500g of the homogenized soil sample were
transferred into uncontaminated empty polyethylene plastic marinelli beakers; sealed,

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labeled and kept for a period of four (4) weeks to achieve secular radioactive
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equilibrium between short lived members of radium and thorium series as shown in
figure 3.5 in page 49.
48
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Figure 3.5 Photos of samples preparation (oven drying, weighing and storage)
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49
CHAPTER 4: MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS
4.1 Measurement of 226 Ra, 232Th and 40K radioactivities
A gamma spectrometry system consisting of a P-type Coaxial ORTEC, GEM-25
high purity germanium gamma ray detector connected to an ADCM data acquisition
system, coupled with PCAII multichannel analyser and gamma vision computer system
was used for analysis in this study. The detector has a good resolution of about 28.2% at
energy of 1.33 MeV. This is sufficient enough to distinguish the gamma energies of
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interest in this study.
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Each of the samples were placed in the detector and measured for a period of 86400
214
seconds (24hrs). Then, the activity concentration of daughter radionuclides Pb
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(determined from its 295.22 keV and 351.93 keV gamma ray peak) and 214
Bi
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(determined from its 609.32keV and 1120.29 keV gamma ray peak) were used to
226 228
calculate the Ra in the soil sample. While Ac (determined from its 338.32keV,
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208
911.20keV and 968.97keV gamma ray peak) and TI (determined from its 583.18keV
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232 40
gamma ray peak) were taken as indicators of Th, K was determined by measuring
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40
the 1460.82keV gamma rays emitted during the decay of K. The photo of P-type
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Coaxial ORTEC, GEM-25 high purity germanium gamma ray detector is shown in
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figure 4.1.
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50
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Figure 4.1 Photo of P-type Coaxial ORTEC, GEM-25 high purity germanium gamma
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ray detector with the MCA and gamma vision PC
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4.2 Activity concentration

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The radioactive source is described by its activity, which is the number of nuclear
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disintegration per unit of time. The activity concentration of each radionuclide is

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calculated using the below as expressed by Khandaker et al. 2012;

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Ac (Bq/kg) = (4.1)
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where Ac (Bq/kg), CPS, εγ, Iγ and W are specific activity, net counts per second for
each sample investigated, the detector photo-peak efficiency at respective gamma-ray
peak, the corresponding gamma-ray intensity and the mass of sample in gram
respectively.
51
226 232 40
The mean activity concentration for Ra, Th and K in the soil samples from
residential college areas of University of Malaya are presented in table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Mean of activity concentration for 226Ra, 232Th and 40

K in the soil samples
from residential college areas of University of Malaya
226 232 40
College Ra (Bq/kg) Th (Bq/kg) K (Bq/kg)
C1 54.60±2.50 57.87±2.55 306.43±4.77
C2 61.27±2.35 78.44±1.60 180.19±2.14
C3 42.16±2.86 55.24±2.38 131.50±2.48
C4 54.33±2.69 80.27±1.95 237.43±1.92
C5 53.41±1.88 64.85±1.54 152.99±1.40
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C6 50.38±1.89 69.58±1.48 212.55±1.32
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C7 43.41±2.15 65.45±1.70 303.82±1.21
C8 57.7±2.24 78.16±1.48 270.09±1.42
C9 53.5±2.81 81.8±1.93 294.55±1.59
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C10 54.09±2.67 52.89±2.58 262.41±1.76
C11 42.73±2.65 57.13±2.03 270.18±1.24
C12
Mean
60.15±2.05
52.31±2.40
M 79.4±1.75
68.42±1.92
73.07±4.91
224.58±2.28
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Note: Total mean is the value of the average of the concentrations of particular
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radionuclides in all the colleges.

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4.3 Hazard indices

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226 232 40
In order to represent the activity concentrations of Ra, Th and K by a single
quantity, radiation hazards associated with them must be taken into consideration,
ni
which includes radium equivalent activity (Raeq), Absorbed dose rate (DR), Annual
U
effective dose equivalent (AEDE), Annual gonadal dose equivalent (AGDE), Activity
utilization index (AUI), External and Internal hazard indices (Hex and Hin),
Representative gamma index (Iγr), Excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR)
4.3.1 Radium equivalent activity
According to Agbalagba and Onoja 2011; Dabayneh et al. 2008, radium equivalent
232 226
activity (Raeq) it has been assumed that 259 Bq/kg of Th or 370 Bq/kg of Ra or
52
40
4810 Bq/kg of K produces the same gamma-ray dose. Radium equivalent index is
measured in becquerel per kilogram (Bq/kg). It is mathematically defined by;
Raeq = CRa + 1.43CTh + 0.77CK (UNSCEAR, 2000) (4.2)
where Raeq is the radium equivalent activity and CRa, CTh and CK are the measured
specific activity concentration of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K respectively.
a
ay
226 232 40
The radium equivalent activity for Ra, Th and K in the soil samples from
residential college areas of University of Malaya is shown in table 4.2.
al
Table 4.2 Mean of radium equivalent activity for 226Ra, 232Th and
M 40
K in the soil
samples from residential college areas of University of Malaya.
of
College Raeq (Bq/kg)
C1 160.95
C2 187.31
ty
C3 131.28
C4 187.4
si
C5 157.93
C6 166.25
r
C7 160.4
ve
C8 190.27
C9 193.15
C10 149.93
ni
C11 145.23
C12 179.32
U
Total Mean 167.45
4.3.2 Absorbed dose rate (DR)

226 232
The activity concentrations of Ra, Th and 40K calculated only shows the levels
of the radionuclides present in the soil sample but do not represent the effect of such
levels on bio-system. Therefore, to assess the radiation risk to a bio-system, absorbed
dose rate should be calculated. The absorbed dose rates (DR) of gamma radiations in air
53
226 232 40
at 1 m above the ground due to the concentrations of Ra, Th and K was
calculated using the equation (UNSCEAR, 2008);
DR (nGy/h) = 0:462 CRa + 0:604CTh + 0:0417CK (4.3)
DR is the absorbed dose and CRa, CTh and CK are the measured specific activity
concentration of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K respectively.
The absorbed dose rate is measured in nanogray per hour and the calculated values
a
are presented in table 4.3.
ay
Table 4.3 Mean of absorbed dose rate values in the soil samples from residential
college areas of University of Malaya.
al
College DR (nGy/h)
C1
C2
C3
M 72.96
83.2
58.33
of
C4 83.48
C5 70.22
C6 74.17
C7 72.26
ty
C8 85.13
C9 86.41
si
C10 67.88
C11 65.51
r
C12 78.79
ve
Total Mean 74.86

ni
4.3.3 Annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE)

U
Reference to UNSCEAR 2000, determination of biological hazard due to individual
exposure to radiation, gray is converted to Sievert with 0.7 SvGy-1 used as conversation
factor for the biological effectiveness of the dose causing damage in human tissue and
the occupancy factor of 0.2 that specifies the proportion of the total time spent outdoors
and indoors. It is estimated that an individual spends an average of 80 % of his time
indoor. The annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE) in outdoor air is measured in
54
millisievert per year (mSvy-1) and the formula for its calculation as stated by
UNSCEAR 2000 was;
AEDE (mSvy-1) = DR (nGyh-1) x 8760hyr-1 x 0.7 x Sv/Gy x 0.2x10-6 mSvy-1/Sv
. (4.4)
The calculated values of Annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE) is show in table
4.4
Table 4.4 Mean of annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE) values in the soil samples
from residential college areas of University of Malaya.
a
College AEDE (mSvy-1)
ay
C1 0.09
C2 0.1
C3 0.07
al
C4 0.1
C5 0.08
C6
C7
M 0.09
0.09
C8 0.1
of
C9 0.1
C10 0.08
C11 0.08
ty
C12 0.1
Total Mean 0.09
r si
4.3.4 Annual gonadal dose equivalent (AGDE)

ve
In Ravisankar et al., 2014, annual gonadal dose equivalent (AGDE) is seen as the
ni
degree of genetic importance of yearly dose equivalent received by the population

U
reproductive organs (gonads). Moreover, active bone marrow and bone surface cells
were seen as organs of interest UNSCEAR (1988).
Using the formula stated by (Chandrasekaran et al., 2014; Ravisankar et al., 2014),
232 226
annual gonadal dose equivalent (AGDE), due to the specific activities of Th, Ra
and 40K was estimated as
AGDE (μSvy-1) = 3:09CRa + 4:18CTh + 0:314CK (4.5)
55
Where AGDE is the annual gonadal dose equivalent and CRa, CTh and CK are the
226 232 40
measured specific activity concentration of Ra, Th, and K respectively. The
annual gonadal dose equivalent measured in microsievert per year (μSvy-1) and its mean
values obtained in this study are reported in table 4.5 below.
Table 4.5 Mean of annual gonadal dose equivalent (AGDE) values in the soil samples
from residential college areas of University of Malaya.
College AGDE (μSvy-1)

C1 506.83
a
C2 573.78
C3 402.47
ay
C4 577.96
C5 484.15
C6 513.26
al
C7 503.12
C8 589.81
C9
C10
M 599.73
470.62
C11 455.68
of
C12 540.7
Total Mean 518.18
ty
si
4.3.5 Activity utilization index (AUI)
The activity utilization index (AUI) is the dose rates in air from different
r
ve
combination of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K (natural radionuclides) in soil samples. The formula
prescribed by ( Ravisankar et al., 2014) can be used to calculated AUI;

ni
U
AUI = [ ] + [ ] + [ ] (4.6)
226 232
where CRa, CTh and CK are the measured specific activity concentration of Ra, Th,
40
and K respectively and fTh (0.604), fK (0.041) and fU (0.462) are the individual
fractional contributions to the total gamma radiation dose rate from the actual
radioactivity level these radionuclides (Chandrasekaran et al., 2014). NEA-
56
OECD(1979) recorded that Typical activities per unit mass of primordial radionuclides
in soils are 50 Bq/kg for 232Th , 50 Bq/kg for 226Ra and 500 Bq/kg for 40K.
The calculated mean value of activity utilization index (AUI) in the soil samples
from residential college areas of University of Malaya is tabulated in table 4.6.
Table 4.6 Mean of activity utilization index (AUI) in the soil samples from residential
college areas of University of Malaya.
College AUI
a
C1 1.23
C2 1.53
ay
C3 1.07
C4 1.49
C5 1.29
al
C6 1.32
C7 1.22
C8
C9
M 1.5
1.51
C10 1.16
of
C11 1.11
C12 1.52
Total Mean 1.33
ty
si
4.3.6 External and Internal hazard indices (Hex and Hin)

r
In radiological health evaluation surveys, external hazard index is measured to

ve
estimate the radiological hazard caused by external exposure to gamma radiation from
ni
the soil samples. As stated by UNSCEAR (2000), external hazard index (Hex) can be
U
calculated with the equation;
Hex = (4.7)
Furthermore, radiations from radon and its short-lived daughter radionuclides present
radiological hazard to the respiratory organ. UNSCEAR (2000), equation computed
internal radiation exposure (Hin) as;
57
Hin = (4.8)
226 232
40
and K respectively. The radiation hazard is considered insignificant when the
calculated values of Hex and Hin are less than unity. Table 4.7 shows the Hex and Hin
values in the studied soil samples.
Table 4.7 Mean of external and internal hazard indices values in the soil samples from
residential college areas of University of Malaya
a
College Hex ≤ 1 Hin ≤ 1
ay
C1 0.43 0.58
C2 0.51 0.67
al
C3 0.35 0.47
C4 0.51 0.65
C5 0.43 0.57
C6
C7
M 0.45
0.43
0.59
0.55
C8 0.51 0.67
of
C9 0.52 0.67
C10 0.4 0.55
C11 0.39 0.51
ty
C12 0.48 0.65

Mean 0.45 0.59
r si
ve
4.3.7 Representative gamma index (Iγr)

226
It is important to take a look at the concentrations of Ra, 232Th and 40K in relation
ni
to gamma radiation hazards. The representative gamma index (Iγr) estimates the
U
radiation hazard of gamma rays due to the individual radioactivity levels of the targeted
primordial radionuclides in the soil samples. (Iγr) can be computed using the equation
given by (NEA-OECD1979; Ravisankar et al., 2014)
Iγr = (4.9)
58
226 232
and 40K respectively. The representative gamma index of this study is reported in table
4.8
Table 4.8 Mean of representative gamma index indices values in the soil samples from
residential college areas of University of Malaya
College Iγr ≤ 1
C1 1.15
C2 1.31
C3 0.92
C4 1.32
a
C5 1.11
C6 1.17
ay
C7 1.15
C8 1.35
al
C9 1.37
C10 1.06
C11 1.04
C12
M
Total Mean
1.24
1.18
of
4.3.8 Excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR)

ty
The significance of exposure from natural radioactivity in soil and the possible
si
health risk especially cancer, has gained global attention. Some regulatory bodies make
r
use of quantitative risk assessment process to determine excess cancer risk over a
ve
lifetime (ELCR). Two of these bodies are United Nations Scientific Committee on the
ni
Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) and Committee on the Biological Effects of

U
Ionizing Radiation (BEIR) Both organizations agreed that their risk estimates should be
reduced for a low dose exposures protracted over several months or years to account for
a reduced effectiveness of the cell damage mechanism (Brian et al., 1995).
Therefore, there is need to determine the excess cancer risk over a lifetime (ELCR).
The probability of developing cancer over a lifetime at a given exposure level can be
calculated mathematically. It is quantified as a value representing the number of extra
59
cancers expected in a given population exposure to carcinogen (effective cancer causing
radionuclides, substances or radiations) at a stated dose. As stated in Ravisankar et al.,
(2014) excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) can be estimated using the following formula
ELCR = AEDE + DL + RF (4.10)
where AEDE, DL, and RF are annual effective dose equivalent, average lifetime
duration (70 years) and risk factor (0.05 Sv−1). i.e fatal cancer risk per Sievert
respectively.
a
ay
The excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) of this study is reported in table 4.9
al
Table 4.9 Mean of excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) values in the soil samples from
residential college areas of University of Malaya.
M
College ELCR (x10-3)
C1 0.31
C2 0.35
of
C3 0.25
C4 0.35
C5 0.3
ty
C6 0.31
C7 0.31
si
C8 0.36
C9 0.37
r
C10 0.29
ve
C11 0.28
C12 0.33
ni
Total Mean 0.32

U
Table 4.10 below is the summary of activity concentration and radiological hazard
parameters in the soil samples from residential college areas of University of Malaya.
60
Table 4.10 summary of activity concentration and radiological hazard parameters in the soil samples from residential college areas of University of
a
Malaya
ay
College Activity concentrations Dose Hazard indices (≤ 1)
(Bq kg-1)
al
226 232 40
Ra Th K Raeq DR (nGyh-1) AEDE (mSvy-1) AGDE AUI Hex Hin Iγr ELCR (x10-3)
(µSv y-1)
M
C1 54.6 57.87 306.43 160.95 72.96 0.09 506.83 1.23 0.43 0.58 1.15 0.31
C2 61.27 78.44 180.19 187.31 83.2 0.1 573.78 1.53 0.51 0.67 1.31 0.35
C3 42.16 55.24 131.5 131.28 58.33 0.07 402.47 1.07 0.35 0.47 0.92 0.25
of
C4 54.33 80.27 237.43 187.4 83.48 0.1 577.96 1.49 0.51 0.65 1.32 0.35
C5 53.41 64.85 152.99 157.93 70.22 0.08 484.15 1.29 0.43 0.57 1.11 0.3
C6 50.38 69.58 212.55 166.25 74.17 0.09 513.26 1.32 0.45 0.59 1.17 0.31
ty
C7 43.41 65.45 303.82 160.4 72.26 0.09 503.12 1.22 0.43 0.55 1.15 0.31
C8 57.7 78.16 270.09 190.27 85.13 0.1 589.81 1.5 0.51 0.67 1.35 0.36
C9 53.5 81.8 294.55
i
193.15 86.41 0.1 599.73 1.51 0.52 0.67 1.37 0.37
C10 54.09 52.89 262.41
rs
149.93 67.88 0.08 470.62 1.16 0.4 0.55 1.06 0.29
C11 42.73 57.13 270.18 145.23 65.51 0.08 455.68 1.11 0.39 0.51 1.04 0.28
ve
C12 60.15 79.4 73.07 179.32 78.79 0.1 540.7 1.52 0.48 0.65 1.24 0.33
Mean 52.31 68.42 224.58 167.45 74.86 0.09 518.18 1.33 0.45 0.59 1.18 0.32
ni
U
61
Table 4.11 shows a summary of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K activity concentration,
absorbed dose rates, annual gonadal dose equivalent and excess lifetime cancer risk in
different areas of Malaysia compared with the world values.
Table 4.11 Summary of activity concentration 226Ra, 232Th and 40K, absorbed dose
rates, annual gonadal dose equivalent and excess lifetime cancer risk in different areas
of Malaysia and world values.
Study area Activity concentrations Radiological dose and Reference

(Bq kg-1) risk
226 232 40
Ra Th K Raeq DR AGDE ELCR
(nGyh-1) (x10-3)
a
(µSv y-1)
Pontain 53 293 158.36 Muneer et al
37 69 237 0.344
ay
District 2013
UluTriram Abdulrahma
44 200 245 1
Johor n et al 2007
Melaka Sahrone et
183 225 0.915
al
State al 2005
Kinta
Lee et al
District 112 246 277 222 272 1.11
2009
Perak
Sungai
Kampung
196 628 475
M 458 562 2.29
Apriantoro
et al 2009
Khalik et al
Palong 500 614 2.5
2005
of
174.64 Abdel et al
Johor State 163 200 0.815
2001
Selama Ramli et al
178 353 296 273 335 1.36
District 2009b
ty
UM college 167.45 Present

52.31 68.42 224.58 74.86 518.18 0.32
Areas study
UNSCEAR
World 33 45 420 59 72 0.29
si
2000
r
ve
ni
U
71
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
The HPGe radiological analysis to measure/investigate the radioactivity
concentration and radiation hazard indices in the soil collected from the residential
college areas of University of Malaya, Malaysia, was well-designed, properly carried
out and results obtained. The results of the study are discussed under the following
subheadings;
a
226 232 40
5.1 Radioactivity levels of Ra, Th and K in the residential college areas
ay
of University of Malaya
al
Comparing the activity concentration values of the radionuclides in the twelve (12)
226
residential college areas of University of Malaya, (Table 4.1), Ra was highest at
M
college two (C2) with mean concentration value of 61.27±2.35 Bq/kg, followed by
of
colleges; C12, C8, C1, C4, C10, C9, C5, C7, C11 and lastly C3 with concentrations values of
60.15±2.05 Bq/kg, 57.7±2.24 Bq/kg, 54.60±2.50 Bq/kg, 54.33±2.69 Bq/kg, 54.09±2.67

ty
Bq/kg, 53.5±2.81 Bq/kg, 53.41±1.88 Bq/kg, 43.41±2.15 Bq/kg, 42.73±2.65 Bq/kg and
si
226
42.16±2.86 Bq/kg respectively. The high level of Ra recorded in C2, C12 and C8 may
r
be due to the clay nature of the soils and fertilizer applied for horticultural purposes.
ve
226
The total average concentration of Ra in all the twelve (12) residential colleges is
ni
226
52.31±2.40 Bq/kg. Average concentrations of Ra in all the colleges are higher than
U
the world average of 33 Bq/kg but lower than the Malaysian average value of 66 Bq/kg
(UNSCEAR, 2000; Muneer et al., 2013).

232
The mean activity concentration of Th in the twelve residential colleges varied
232
between 81.8±1.93 Bq/kg to 52.89±2.58 Bq/kg. The highest value of Th was
recorded in college nine (C9) and least value in college ten (C10). The total average
232
activity concentration of Th was 68.42±1.92 Bq/kg. The study showed that the mean
232
activity concentration values of Th in all the areas studied are higher than the world
72
average but lower than Malaysia average of 82 Bq/kg. The range of average activity
40
concentration of K was 306.43±4.77 Bq/kg to 73.07±4.91 Bq/kg with total mean
activity concentration of all the colleges at 224.58±2.28 Bq/kg. Colleges one (C1) and
40
twelve (C12) had the highest and lowest values of K activities respectively. The
average radioactivity level of 40K in this study was seen lower than the world average of
420 Bq/kg and Malaysia average of 310 Bq/kg. The high values in the average
226
concentration of Ra, 232Th and 40K recorded in some colleges may be due fertilizer
applied for horticultural purposes. The loamy and clay nature of the soils may also
a
ay
affect the concentration of the radionuclides.
Comparing the result obtained from this study with results from other surveys in
al
Malaysia, as shown in table 4.11, it was observed that the values of 232Th, 226Ra and 40K
M
in this study were lower than values in most of the previous studies. UNSCEAR (2000),
reported crustal concentrations of areas with normal background radiation levels around
of
238 232 40
the world as 16-110Bq/kg for U, 11-64 Bq/kg for Th and 140-820Bq/kg for K.
ty
Therefore, the activity concentrations of the three radionuclides obtained in this study
were consistent with world range and the soil can be classified under area of normal
si
background radiation.
r
ve
The radioactivity levels of natural radionuclides in the area of this study were in
agreement with the global trend on the distribution of natural radionuclides in soil. The
ni
variations observed in different colleges could be attributed to geological characteristics

U
and conditions of the soil of the study area. Besides these natural factors, human
activities such as agricultural practices (horticulture) in which fertilizers are applied to
improve the soil nutrients for plant growth had been known to be a contributor to the
variations of activity concentrations of natural radionuclides.
73
5.2 Radium equivalent Index
Examining table 4.2, the highest mean value of activity was recorded at college nine
(C9) 193.15Bq/kg while the least mean value was observed in college three (C3) with
131.28 Bq/kg. The overall mean value of radium equivalent activity in all the twelve
(12) residential college areas of University Malaya was found to be 167.45 Bq/kg.
Report from (Sam & Abbas, 2001; Shiva Prasad et al., 2008) stated that the use of
materials whose radium equivalent concentration exceeds 370 Bq/kg is discouraged in
order to avoid radiation hazards. The radium equivalent of 370 Bq/kg corresponds to the
a
ay
dose limit of 1mSv for the general public. As it is evident in table 4.3, none of the
colleges had mean radium equivalent activity value that exceeds 370Bq/kg. Therefore,
al
soil from residential college areas of University of Malaya is safe from radiation
M
hazards since the radium equivalent is less than 370Bq/kg.
5.3 Absorbed dose rate

of
The average value of absorbed dose rates of gamma radiations in air at 1 m above the
ty
ground due to the concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K were found to be 72.96 nGy/h,
83.20 nGy/h, 58.33 nGy/h, 83.48 nGy/h,70.22 nGy/h, 74.17 nGy/h, 72.26 nGy/h, 85.13
si
nGy/h, 86.41 nGy/h, 67.88 nGy/h, 65.51 nGy/h, 78.79 nGy/h for colleges one to twelve
r
ve
respectively. The range of the mean gamma absorbed dose rate of all the college areas
was 86.41 nGy/h to 58.33 nGy/h with highest and lowest values recorded at C9 and C3
ni
respectively. The overall mean gamma absorbed dose rate from University Malaya
U
residential college area soil was 74.86 Bq/kg. This value is higher than the global
standard average value of 59 nGy/h but lower than maximum permissible value. The
value is lower than the Malaysian average of 92 nGy/h.
5.4 Annual effective dose equivalent
In table 4.4, the highest values of outdoor annual effective dose equivalent values
were recorded in C2 , C4, C8, C9, & C12 at 0.10 mSvy-1 and the least value reported in C3
74
at 0.07mSvy-1 soil samples from residential college areas of University of Malaya. The
calculated mean values of all the colleges ranged 0.07 to 0.1 mSvy-1 and the overall
mean was 0.09 mSvy-1 which is lower than the global average value of 0.45 mSvy-1 and
also less than the dose criterion limit of 1.0 mSvy-1. Since the result obtained from this
survey is less than the criterion limit, the soil from the area of study does not pose any
radiological hazard to the public utilizing the environment.
5.5 Annual gonadal dose equivalent
The mean values of Annual gonadal dose equivalent are presented in table 4.5.
a
ay
College nine (C9) and College three (C3) showed highest and lowest values in this study
with 599.73 μSvy-1 and 402.47 μSvy-1 respectively. The overall mean value of annual
al
gonadal dose equivalent was 518.18 μSvy-1. This value was far higher than the
M
USCEAR value of 72 μSvy-1 reported as global average but within the range of
Malaysia values.
of
5.6 Activity utilization index
ty
Table 4.5 presented the mean values of the activity utilization index of residential
college area of University of Malaya. The values varied from 1.07 to 1.53 with the
si
highest value observed in college two (C2) and least in college three (C3). The overall
r
ve
average mean of all the colleges was 1.33. This value is above 1 which is the value of
AUI that corresponds to an annual effective dose safety limit. Although the mean value
ni
of AUI in this study was high but it is still below the maximum permissible limit.
U
5.7 External hazard indices (Hex)
From table 4.7, the overall average of the external hazard index calculated from the
twelve residential college areas of University of Malaya was 0.45, while individual
college values varies from 0.35 to 0.52. The highest value was observed in College nine
(C9) and least value in college three (C3). Since the world safe limit is put at 1,
75
therefore, the soil of University of Malaya college areas with 0.45 average values is safe
from radiation hazards.
5.8 Internal hazard indices (Hin)
Table 4.7 reported the highest values of internal hazard indices at colleges; two (C2),
eight (C8) and nine (C9) with values of 0.67. The least values was college three (C3)
with 0.47 and the overall mean value of all the colleges was found to be 0.59. The
global recommended safe limit value for internal hazard indices was reported at 1 and
a
all the values from the colleges are lower.
ay
5.9 Representative gamma index
al
Considering all the values in table 4.8, the highest mean value of the representative
M
gamma index was found at college nine (C9) with 1.37 value and he least value was at
college three (C3) with 0.92. The total average value of representative gamma index for
of
University of Malaya residential college areas soil was calculated to be 1.18. The value
ty
was above the recommended unit value to keep the effective dose rate below or at
1.0mSvy-1.
r si
5.10 Excess lifetime cancer risk

ve
Making reference to table 4.9, the excess lifetime cancer risk values of University of
ni
Malaya residential college areas soil ranged from 0.25 x10-3 to 0.37x10-3. The highest
U
value was observed at college nine (C9) and least value at college three (C3). The total
value of excess lifetime cancer risk for University of Malaya residential college areas
soil was calculated as 0.32x10-3. The excess lifetime cancer risk for UM college areas
was a higher when compared with the world average value of 0.29 x10-3. The chances
of developing cancer over a lifetime by members of the public utilizing the environment
are 10.3%.
76
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
The activity concentrations of natural radionuclides radium-226, thorium-232 and
potassium-40 in the twelve (12) residential colleges of University of Malaya, Malaysia
have been measured using a gamma-ray spectrometer with high purity germanium
(HPGe) detector. The activity concentrations of the three radionuclides have been used
to calculate the radium equivalent activity, absorbed dose rate, annual effective dose
equivalent, annual gonadal dose equivalent, activity utilization index, external hazard
a
ay
index, internal hazard index, representative gamma index and excess lifetime cancer
risks to estimate the radiological implications on the occupants.
al
The following conclusions were made from the survey:
1. The mean activity concentration of

M 226
Ra, 232
Th and 40K were found to be
within the normal background level with UNSCEAR crustal concentration

of
range.
ty
2. The average value for each of the assessed radiological hazard parameter in the
areas was found to be below world safety limit set by UNSCEAR; therefore, the
si
areas have no harmful radiation effect associated with studied radionuclides.

r
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3. The calculated overall mean concentration ratio was 1.308 which is lower
ni
compared with the world’s ratio of 3.5. And the concentration ratio is 0.765
U
which is higher than the global average of 0.26.
4. The values of absorbed dose rate, annual gonadal dose equivalent, activity
utilization index, representative gamma index, and excess lifetime cancer risk
were higher than the world average values but were below the permissible limit.
5. Radium equivalent activity, annual effective dose equivalent, external and
internal hazard indices values were lower than the world’s values which shows
77
that the soil of residential college areas of University of Malaya, Malaysia pose
no potential health threat connected to natural radioactivity.
6. The occupants of the hostels are safe from radiological problems.
7. The results of this study provide a general background level for the area studied
and can be used as baseline data and guide for future evaluation and assessment
of radiological hazards to human health.
8. The analysis provides good experience and skills for naturally occurring
radioactivity measurement and monitoring.
a
ay
6.1 Limitation and suggestion for further studies
al
The major constraint encounter in this study was the frequent breaking down of the
detector. This limitation affected the expected time of completion of this research. With
M
the experiences gained from this survey, the following suggestions are recommended
of
for further study:
1. A formal notification should be given to hostels wardens and students to inform

ty
them about the survey, so to grantee the safety and integrity of the researcher.
si
2. More detailed research on natural radioactivity can be carried out in University

r
of Malaya hostels since an individual spend 80% of his time indoor.

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3. Regular assessment and monitoring of the studied area due to those

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radionuclides higher than world average.

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EVALUATION OF NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY AND HAZARD

INDICES IN THE SOIL COLLECTED FROM THE RESIDENTIAL

DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY

Name of Candidate: OKEREAFOR CASMIR NNEJI

copyright whether intentionally or otherwise, I may be subject to legal action or any

other action as may be determined by UM.

Candidate’s Signature Date:

Subscribed and solemnly declared before,

Witness’s Signature Date:

Name: MAYEEN UDDIN KHANDAKER

Realizing the heterogeneous distribution of naturally occurring radioactive materials

(NORM) in all earth born media, it is important to assess their concentrations in

residential hostels environment to control the occupants’ health from radiation

University of Malaya were assessed to obtain the concentrations of NORM by using

HPGe gamma-ray spectrometry. The activity concentrations of 226-Ra ranged from

activity concentration of 52.31±2.40 Bq/kg, 68.42±1.92Bq/kg and 224.58±2.28Bq/kg

with worldwide recommended values

Atas kesedaran mengenai taburan heterogen bahan radioatif terwujud semulajadi

tersebut di persekitaran asrama penginapan Universiti Malaya dikaji bagi menjamin

penginapan di Universiti Malaya untuk penilaian NORM menggunakan spectrometer

224.58±2.28Bq/kg diukur bagi 226-Ra, 232-Th dan 40-K masing-masing. Hasil

hasil pengukuran dan dibandingkan dengan nilai yang anjurkan sedunia.

This dissertation is dedicated to my beloved wife, Sarah Nneji and wonderful

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. vi

List of Figures ................................................................................................................... x

1.2 Radioactivity ............................................................................................................ 1

1.3.2.1 Radioactivity decay series ........................................................... 6

1.3.2.2 Potassium-40 (40K) .................................................................... 13

1.4 Man-made (Artificial) Sources of Radiation ......................................................... 13

1.5 Radionuclides transfer in the environment ............................................................ 14

1.6 Biological effect of ionizing radiation ................................................................... 16

1.7 Classification of radiation effect on biological system.......................................... 17

1.7.1 Stochastic effects ...................................................................................... 17

1.7.2 Deterministic effects ................................................................................. 18

1.8 Justification/research significant. .......................................................................... 19

1.9 Aims and objectives ............................................................................................... 20

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................... 21

2.1 Atoms and radiation ............................................................................................... 21

2.3 Activity .................................................................................................................. 23

2.4 Radioactive equilibrium......................................................................................... 24

2.5 Types of radiation .................................................................................................. 25

2.5.1 Alpha ( ) particles.................................................................................... 26

2.5.2 Beta ( ) particle ........................................................................................ 26

2.5.3 Gamma ( ) radiation ................................................................................. 27

2.6 Spontaneous fission ............................................................................................... 28

2.8.1 Photoelectric effect ................................................................................... 30

2.8.3 Pair production ......................................................................................... 33

2.9 Review of existing knowledge .............................................................................. 34

CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................ 37

3.1 Radiation detection techniques .............................................................................. 37

3.2 Gamma ray spectroscopy....................................................................................... 37

3.2.1 High purity germanium detector (HPGe) ................................................. 38

3.2.2 Preamplifier .............................................................................................. 39

3.2.3 Main amplifier .......................................................................................... 39

3.2.4 Multi-channel analyser (MCA) ................................................................ 40

3.3 Detector resolution................................................................................................. 40

3.4 Calibration of the detector ..................................................................................... 41