Title: The Sanusiyya Movement: A Brief Overview

Introduction: The Sanusiyya movement, also known as the Sanusi order, is a

prominent Islamic revivalist movement that originated in the 19th century in
North Africa. Founded by Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi, the movement gained
significant influence and spread across various regions, playing a crucial role in
shaping the social, political, and religious landscape of the time. This article
aims to provide a simplified understanding of the Sanusiyya movement,
highlighting its main points and key aspects.
1. Historical Context: The Sanusiyya movement emerged during a period of
political and social upheaval in North Africa. It was founded in 1837 by
Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi, an Islamic scholar from Algeria. The movement
gained popularity due to its emphasis on religious purity, social justice, and
resistance against colonial powers.

2. Ideology and Beliefs: The Sanusiyya movement is rooted in the teachings of

Sunni Islam, particularly the Maliki school of thought. It emphasizes the
importance of adhering to the Quran and Sunnah, promoting a conservative
interpretation of Islamic principles. The movement advocates for the
establishment of an Islamic state based on Sharia law, with a focus on moral
and ethical values.

3. Spread and Influence: The Sanusiyya movement rapidly expanded across

North Africa, gaining followers and establishing a network of zawiyas
(religious centers) throughout the region. Its influence extended beyond
religious matters, encompassing education, trade, and governance. The
movement played a significant role in resisting European colonial powers,
particularly in Libya and Sudan.

4. Social and Educational Reforms: One of the key aspects of the Sanusiyya
movement was its emphasis on education. The movement established numerous
schools and educational institutions, providing both religious and secular
education to its followers. This focus on education helped empower individuals
and communities, fostering social and intellectual development.
5. Political Engagement: The Sanusiyya movement actively engaged in political
affairs, seeking to establish Islamic governance and resist colonial rule. It
played a pivotal role in various anti-colonial movements, including the Libyan
resistance against Italian colonization. The movement's leaders, known as the
Grand Sanusi, held significant political influence and were seen as spiritual and
political authorities.

6. Influence on Sufism: The Sanusiyya movement is sometimes linked to

Sufism, a mystical aspect of Islam. While the movement includes some Sufi
practices, it also focuses on a more organized and disciplined approach to
religious observance. The Sanusiyya order has its own special rituals and
practices that combine elements of Sufism with a conservative interpretation
of Islam.

7. Contemporary Relevance: Although the Sanusiyya movement experienced a

decline in the 20th century, it still holds significance in certain regions. The
movement continues to have followers and maintains its religious and
educational institutions. Additionally, the principles and teachings of the
Sanusiyya movement have influenced other Islamic revivalist movements and
continue to shape Islamic discourse in North Africa.

Conclusion: The Sanusiyya movement, founded by Muhammad ibn Ali al-

Sanusi, has played a significant role in the religious, social, and political history
of North Africa. Its emphasis on religious purity, social justice, and resistance
against colonial powers has shaped the region's cultural and intellectual
landscape. The movement's focus on education, political engagement, and its
unique blend of Sufi practices have contributed to its enduring influence. While
the Sanusiyya movement has experienced fluctuations in popularity, its legacy
continues to resonate in contemporary Islamic discourse.
The Sokoto Caliphate Movement

1. Background and Origins

Founding: The Sokoto Caliphate Movement emerged in the early 19th century
in what is now northern Nigeria. It was a response to perceived deviations from
Islamic teachings by local rulers.
Leader: Usman dan Fodio, a learned Islamic scholar and teacher, spearheaded
the movement. He sought to address social, political, and religious issues
prevalent in the Hausa kingdoms.
Aim: The primary goal was to reform Islam and establish an Islamic state based
on the principles of Sharia law.

2. Usman dan Fodio's Leadership

Early Life: Born in Gobir, Hausaland (present-day northern Nigeria) in 1754,
Usman dan Fodio was raised in a scholarly family and received a
comprehensive education in Islamic sciences and jurisprudence.
Reform Advocate: He became known for his criticism of the Hausa rulers'
corruption and their departure from what he perceived as authentic Islamic
practices.
Principles: Usman dan Fodio emphasized social justice, education, and the
application of Islamic teachings to everyday life.

3. Trigger and Ideological Basis

Critique of Rulers: Usman dan Fodio was critical of the ruling elites for their
neglect of Islamic principles and the mistreatment of the common people.
Call for Return to Islamic Values: His teachings stressed the need to return to
the fundamental teachings of Islam, advocating for a more devout and just
society.
Educational Focus: He emphasized education as a means to achieve moral and
societal reform, establishing educational centers to spread knowledge of Islamic
teachings and the Arabic language.
4. Key Principles and Goals
Tawhid (Unity of God): Usman dan Fodio stressed the importance of the
oneness of God in Islamic belief, rejecting practices that he considered
idolatrous.
Education Initiatives: He established schools, known as makaranta, which
taught Islamic studies, Arabic language, and Islamic jurisprudence.
Resistance Against Corruption: The movement aimed to oppose oppressive
and corrupt rulers, advocating for fair governance.
Islamic Governance: The ultimate goal was to create an Islamic state governed
by Sharia law, promoting justice and ethical conduct.

5. Establishment of the Caliphate

Growing Support: Usman dan Fodio's teachings gained significant support
among Hausa scholars and commoners who sought a return to a more authentic
practice of Islam.
Jihad: He led a jihad against the ruling elite, uniting diverse groups under the
banner of Islam, ultimately resulting in the defeat of the Hausa kingdoms.
Success: The Sokoto Caliphate was established in 1804, with Usman dan Fodio
becoming the first Sultan.

6. Structure of the Sokoto Caliphate

Leadership: Usman dan Fodio assumed the title of Sultan, and the Caliphate
was organized under his leadership.
Sharia-Based Governance: The Caliphate was governed by Sharia law, and its
legal system was based on Islamic jurisprudence.
Emirates: The empire was divided into emirates, each ruled by an emir who
adhered to Islamic principles and the Sultan's authority.
7. Legacy and Impact
Educational and Religious Center: The Sokoto Caliphate became a center for
Islamic scholarship and learning, attracting scholars and students from various
regions.
Unity Among Ethnic Groups: It promoted unity among different ethnic
groups, fostering a sense of common identity under Islam.
Economic Development: The Caliphate encouraged agriculture and trade,
contributing to economic growth in the region.
Cultural Influence: It left a lasting impact on the region's culture, politics, and
religious practices.

End of Dominance: The British ultimately defeated the Sokoto Caliphate in

1903, leading to its downfall.
Muhammad Abduh: A Visionary Islamic Scholar and
Reformer Introduction
Muhammad Abduh, born in 1849 in Egypt, was a prominent Islamic scholar and
reformer who played a significant role in shaping modern Islamic thought. His
ideas and teachings continue to inspire scholars and thinkers seeking to bridge
the gap between tradition and modernity within the Islamic world. His
contributions to Islamic reform, and his enduring legacy.
Early Life and Education:
 Muhammad Abduh was born in the Nile Delta region of Egypt to a
family of modest means.
 He received his early education in a traditional Islamic school, where he
studied the Quran, Hadith (sayings of the Prophet Muhammad), and
Islamic jurisprudence.
 Abduh's passion for knowledge led him to pursue further studies at Al-
Azhar University in Cairo, one of the most prestigious centers of Islamic
learning.
Abduh's Intellectual Journey:
 During his time at Al-Azhar, Abduh was exposed to various intellectual
currents and began questioning traditional interpretations of Islam.
 He was deeply influenced by the ideas of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, a
prominent Islamic reformer, who advocated for the revival of Islamic
civilization through a synthesis of Islamic teachings and modern
knowledge.
Reforming Islamic Thought:
 Abduh believed in the importance of reconciling Islamic teachings with
the advancements of the modern world.
 He emphasized the need for Muslims to engage with science, reason, and
progress while remaining true to their faith.
 Abduh believed that just following old ways without thinking stopped
Islamic societies from growing. He said we should think more and use
reason to understand things better.
Ijtihad: Independent Reasoning in Islamic Law:
 One of Abduh's key contributions was his emphasis on the concept of
"ijtihad," which refers to the use of independent reasoning to interpret
Islamic law.
  He believed that Muslims should not blindly follow traditional
interpretations but should instead critically analyze and adapt Islamic
teachings to address contemporary challenges.
 Abduh argued that ijtihad was essential for the revival of Islamic thought
and the development of a dynamic and progressive Muslim society.
Women's Empowerment:
 Abduh was a strong advocate for women's rights and their participation in
society.
 He believed that women should have access to education and be given
equal opportunities to contribute to their communities.
 Abduh's progressive views on women's empowerment were ahead of his
time and continue to inspire efforts towards gender equality within
Islamic societies.
Religious Tolerance and Interfaith Dialogue:
 Abduh promoted the idea of religious tolerance and dialogue between
different faiths.
 He believed that Islam should be open to learning from other religions
and that peaceful coexistence among different religious communities was
essential for societal harmony.
 Abduh's teachings on religious tolerance have had a lasting impact on
interfaith dialogue and understanding within the Islamic world.
Legacy and Influence:
 Muhammad Abduh's ideas had a profound impact on Islamic reform
movements in the 20th century.
 His emphasis on ijtihad, women's empowerment, and religious tolerance
resonated with many scholars and activists seeking to reconcile Islamic
teachings with the challenges of the modern world. Abduh's teachings
continue to inspire ongoing efforts towards progressive interpretations of
Islam and the promotion of social justice within Muslim-majority
societies.
Works of Muhammad Abduh:
1. "The Theology of Unity" (Tafsir al-Tawhid)
2. "The Quranic Schools" (Risalat al-Tarbiyah)
3. "The Questions of Religion and Society" (Maqalat fi al-Din wa al-Mujtama)
4. "Islam and Christianity in the Modern Age" (Al-Islam wa al-Insaniyah fi al-Asr al-
Hadith)
5. "The Theology of Unity of Religion" (Risalat al-Tawhid al-Dini)
Muhammad Rashid Rida

Introduction

Rashid Rida (1865–1935), a prominent Islamic scholar and political

thinker of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, made significant
contributions to Islamic political philosophy. His ideas were
instrumental in shaping modern Islamic political thought and
continue to influence contemporary debates in the Muslim world.

Rashid Rida: His Life

 Rashid Rida was born in Lebanon during a time of political

and intellectual ferment in the Ottoman Empire, which
encompassed his homeland.
 His early life was marked by exposure to traditional Islamic
scholarship, particularly through his father, a respected
religious scholar.
 This upbringing deeply influenced Rida’s reverence for Islamic
tradition and his commitment to reforming it in response to
the challenges of the modern world.

Later in life, Rida travelled to Egypt and became associated with the
renowned reformer Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and the reformist
movement known as the Salafiyya. This association played a pivotal
role in shaping his political philosophy, as he was exposed to ideas of
Islamic revivalism and the need for political and social reform
within the Muslim world.
Rasid Rida: His Time

 Rida lived during a time when the Muslim world was grappling
with the challenges posed by European colonialism, political
fragmentation, and the decline of Islamic political influence.
 The Ottoman Empire, which had long been the centre of the
Islamic world, was in decline, and its territories were being
carved up by Western powers.
 Rida witnessed the disintegration of the Ottoman Caliphate
and the emergence of nationalist movements in various
Muslim-majority regions.

These historical circumstances profoundly influenced Rida’s

political thought. He recognized the need for Muslims to address the
political and social challenges of their time while remaining faithful
to their religious heritage. Rida’s engagement with Western ideas,
particularly European political thought, also played a role in his
attempt to reconcile modernity and Islam.

Rasid Rida: Core Ideas of His Political Philosophy

1. Islamic Revivalism: Rida advocated for a revival of Islamic

values, emphasizing the importance of returning to the original
teachings of Islam to address the challenges of modernity.

2. Pan-Islamism: Rida supported the idea of Muslim unity and

cooperation on both a political and intellectual level. He believed
 that Muslims should unite to protect their interests and preserve
their cultural and religious identities.

3. Constitutionalism: Rida argued for the adoption of

constitutional governance within Muslim-majority countries. He
believed that constitutional systems, based on Islamic principles,
could provide a framework for a just and accountable
government.

4. Social Justice: Rida emphasized the importance of social

justice in Islamic governance. He believed that rulers had a duty
to address the economic and social needs of their populations.

5. Reinterpretation of Islamic Jurisprudence: Rida called

for a reinterpretation of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) to make it
more relevant to contemporary issues. He believed that Islamic
law should adapt to changing circumstances.

6. Opposition to Colonialism: Rida was a vocal critic of

European colonialism in the Muslim world. He saw colonialism
as a threat to Muslim sovereignty and independence.

Rashid Rida: Critique of His Political Philosophy

 Some people didn't agree with Rida's strict approach to

following the Quran and Hadith. They worried it might make
Islamic rules inflexible for today.
 Some people says Rida supported modern ways of governing,
but it didn't always match his main beliefs. This made his ideas
a bit confusing for some people.
 Furthermore, Rida’s pan-Islamic vision faced challenges in
practice, as the Muslim world remained politically divided
along national lines. Some criticized his attempts to unite
Muslims as unrealistic and idealistic given the complex
geopolitical realities of the time.

Rashid Rida: His Impact and Legacy

 Rashid Rida's ideas really mattered in shaping how people

think about Islam today. He talked a lot about bringing back
true Islamic values and making sure that governments are fair.
His journal, "Al-Manar," was super important in spreading
these ideas and making people think differently about Islam.
 His ideas about going back to the real values of Islam and
mixing them with modern ways of running countries helped
change how people see Islam in the world today. His thoughts
still affect how people try to make Islamic societies fairer and
how they connect Islam with modern life.

Works of Rashid Rida

1. Tafsir al-Manar (The Commentary of al-Manar)

2. Al-Khilafah al-Kubra (The Great Caliphate)

3. Al-Islam wa Usul al-Hukm (Islam and the Principles of Governance)

4. Al-Jihad fil Islam (Jihad in Islam)

5. Al-Wahhabiyah: Nash'atuha wa Khulafa'uhum wa Dawruhum fil-Hadarah al-

Islamiyah (Wahhabism: Its Rise, Representatives, and Role in Islamic

Civilization)
Qasim Amin
Qasim Amin is a pioneering Egyptian thinker, writer, and jurist, left an
indelible mark on the social and political landscape of Egypt and the wider Arab
world during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His contributions to
women's rights, modernity, and reform remain influential and thought-
provoking to this day.

Early Life and Background:

 Qasim Amin was born on December 1, 1863, in Alexandria, Egypt,
during a time of significant social and political change in the region.
 His father, Muhammad Amin, was a prominent lawyer and judge,
providing Qasim with a privileged upbringing and access to education.
He studied law at the French law school in Cairo, acquiring a deep
understanding of both Western legal systems and traditional Islamic
jurisprudence.

Education:
 He came from an influential family and received a traditional Islamic
education.
 Later, he pursued higher studies in Law in Egypt and France, earning a
degree in Law from the University of Montpellier in France in 1888.

Career and Political Involvement:

 Qasim Amin did a lot of different things in his life. He worked as a judge
and also wrote for newspapers.
 He noticed differences between Western and Islamic laws while working
as a judge, which made him want to change laws to be more fair.
 He also cared about politics and wanted Egypt to be more independent
from British rule. He talked a lot about making Egypt more modern. His
work in politics was connected to what he wrote and did to make society
better.
Family Life and Legacy:
 Qasim Amin's life was fascinating both in and out of his work. He
married into a well-known family and had two daughters.

 He believed in giving his daughters a good education and wanted them to

be independent, which was unusual back then.

 Even though some people didn’t like his ideas about women's rights,
many intellectuals and people wanting change supported him. His
thoughts paved the way for later movements fighting for women's rights
in the Arab world.

 His ideas about fairness and a better society still influence talks about
equality and progress in the Middle East and other places today.

Works and Beliefs:

 Amin's most influential work, published in 1899, "The Liberation of
Women," was ground breaking for its time. In this book, he argued
passionately for the education and emancipation of women, advocating
for their equal rights in education, marriage, and society.
 He challenged traditional Islamic interpretations that restricted women's
freedoms and called for a re-evaluation of societal norms that hindered
women's progress.
He critiqued traditional interpretations of Islam that oppressed women,
emphasizing the need for reinterpretation and adaptation of Islamic teachings to
align with modern values. Amin believed that women's liberation was
fundamental to the progress of Egyptian society, echoing broader calls for social
reform and modernization in the Arab world.
Advocacy and Movements:
1. Women's Rights Activism:
Qasim Amin didn’t just write about women's rights, he also talked about it in
public. He took part in debates and gave speeches, trying to change the opinions
of people who didn’t think women should have equal rights.
2. Modernization and Reform
He also wanted Egypt to change and become more modern. He thought the only
way to make progress was by giving women more power and education. He
believed that if women were treated better, society as a whole would get better
too.
Abdur Rahman Al Kawakibi
Early life and Background
 Abdurrahman ibn Ahmad Al-Kawakibi was born in 1855 in Aleppo,
Syria.
 His father was a respected scholar and judge in the Aleppo city. When
Abdurrahman was young, his mother passed away, and he was taken
care of by his aunt in Antioch for a few years.
 His aunt knew both Turkish and Arabic and had some education, which
was rare at that time.
 When he was nine, he returned to Aleppo and attended the Kawakibiyah
school, which was run by his father. At the school, he learned Arabic,
Turkish, Persian, and received a religious education. Abdurrahman
excelled in his studies and became known for his knowledge of the
Arabic language.
 Al-Kawakibi's ideas were diverse, and he was seen as a proponent of
Pan-Arabism, Pan-Islamism, revolutionism, socialism, Islamism,
secularism, and pragmatism. He had a broad vision and was known for
his original thinking and bold interpretations of Islamic law.

Career as Editor
 As a young man, Al-Kawakibi had a strong interest in literature and
politics. At the age of twenty, he started working as a journalist. He
became the editor of Aleppo's official newspaper called Al-Furat from
1875 to 1877. He also edited a well-known reformist journal called al-
Manar, which was started by Rashid Rida, another influential Islamic
scholar.
 When he was twenty-two, Al-Kawakibi, along with his friend Hasim al-
Attar, started his own literary journal called al-Sahba in 1878.
 This journal strongly opposed the Turkish administration and criticized
the despots and dictators of the time, including the new Vali of Aleppo,
Jamil Pasha. However, due to Al-Kawakibi's outspoken political views,
the journal was shut down by the local Ottoman Government after only
15 issues.
 He later started another journal called al-Itidal in 1879, but it faced the
same fate and was also closed down criticized the rulers of his time.
However, his journals were shut down by the government because of his
outspokenness.
Career as a Politician
 After working as an editor, Al-Kawakibi entered politics and held various
positions in the Ottoman civil service in Aleppo.
 After He served in high posts in the city's administration under the
Tanzimat reforms.
 Despite his opposition to the Ottoman Empire, he wanted to serve the
Arab population and took initiatives to protect them from corrupt
authorities.
 Al-Kawakibi and other Aleppans complained about the Vali (governor) to
the central government in Istanbul, but their complaints were ignored.
 When Istanbul sent a representative to investigate, Al-Kawakibi and his
followers were imprisoned for false complaints.
 After his release from prison, his popularity grew, and he became the
mayor of Aleppo in 1892.
His Struggle in Egypt
 Al-Kawakibi arrived in Egypt in 1898 during the rule of Khedive
Abbas Hilmi.
 He received a warm welcome from other Islamic intellectuals residing
in Egypt.
 In Egypt, he met Rashid Rida, another Islamic scholar and advocate for
Arab independence.
 Al-Kawakibi was influenced by the teachings of Jamal al-Din al-
Afghani and Muhammad Abduh.
 He incorporated Al-Afghani's theories into Pan-Islamic Arabic
solidarity.
 Al-Kawakibi and Rashid Rida discussed ideas of Pan-Arabism and
Quranic interpretations.
 Al-Kawakibi believed that Arabs should represent Islam, not the
Ottomans.
 Rida believed that blind-following (taqlid) was the reason for the
downfall of Muslims.
 They both advocated for the revival of independent Islamic thinking
(ijtihad).
 During his time in Egypt, Al-Kawakibi socialized with Syrian and
Egyptian reformist colleagues, published books and articles, and
traveled throughout the Muslim world.
 He has been praised by Arab and Muslim writers as a pioneer of Arab
nationalism, an enlightened Islamic reformer, and a promoter of causes
such as democracy, liberalism, socialism, and secularism.
Criticism
 Some people criticized Al-Kawakibi for being a proponent of socialism.

 According to author Charles Tripp, Al-Kawakibi advocated for the idea

of "Islamic socialism."

 Islamic socialism suggests that the Quran allows for the redistribution
of wealth, but this viewpoint is disputed by many Muslim scholars.

 Another criticism was that Al-Kawakibi marginalized Islam and

downplayed its importance in one's life.

 This criticism stemmed from his belief that Caliphs should not have
political power but should serve as spiritual guides.

 However, it seems that this criticism was unfounded as Al-Kawakibi

was actually a very religious man, evident in his writings and actions .

Legacy
 Al-Kawakibi's message and legacy influenced Pan-Arab nationalists like
Gamal Abdel Nasser, even though he himself was not a Pan-Arab
nationalist.
 He believed in Arab unity and solidarity, emphasizing the founding of
Islam in Arab lands as a reason for the entire Muslim world to unite
under the Arabs.
 Many Islamic and Arab reformists have been influenced by Al-
Kawakibi's ideas.
 The Kawaakibi Foundation is named after him, and his great-grandson,
Salam Kawakibi, is a Paris-based intellectual and director of the Arab
Centre for Research and Policy Studies.
 Al-Kawakibi's essays on despotism have been published in French, co-
authored by Salam Kawakibi.
 Alongside the Syrian Islamic cleric Sayyid Rashid Rida, Al-Kawakibi
remains influential in pan-Arab circles for their strong criticisms of
Abdul Hamid II and the autocratic rule of the Ottomans.
Works

1. "Umm al-Qura" (The Mother of Cities): This book explores the historical
and cultural significance of Mecca, the birthplace of Islam.

2. "Tabai al-Istibdad wa-Masari al-Isti'bad" (The Characteristics of

Despotism and the Path to Reform): In this influential work, Al-Kawakibi
criticizes despotic rule and advocates for political and social reforms in the
Arab world.

3. "Al-Muwajahah al-Islamiyah" (Islamic Resistance): This book discusses

the concept of Islamic resistance against oppressive regimes and foreign
domination.

4. "Al-Ummah al-Islamiyah" (The Islamic Nation): Al-Kawakibi explores

the idea of the Islamic nation and the importance of unity among Muslims.

5. "Al-Masalah al-Wataniyah fi al-Islam" (The National Question in Islam):

This work delves into the concept of nationalism within the framework of
Islam and addresses the challenges and opportunities it presents.

6. "Al-Muhajirun wa al-Mustaqbirun" (The Emigrants and the Despots):

Al-Kawakibi examines the relationship between emigrants and despots,
focusing on the struggles faced by those who leave their homeland due to
political or social reasons.
 Ali Abd-al- Raziq
 Ali Abd al-Raziq was an Egyptian scholar born in 1888 known for
his significant contributions to Islamic political thought. His
ground breaking work, "Islam and the Foundations of
Governance," challenged conventional notions of the Islamic state
and the role of religion in politics.

1. Background:
 Ali Abd al-Raziq lived during a transformative period in Egypt,
marked by the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of
nationalist movements.
 He was deeply influenced by the changing socio-political
landscape and the intellectual ferment of the early 20th century.

2. Key Ideas:
Separation of Religion and State:
 Al-Raziq argued against the traditional Islamic view that the state
should be founded on religious principles.
 He believed that Islam was primarily a spiritual and moral
guidance system rather than a blueprint for governance.
 According to him, the Prophet Muhammad did not establish a
theocratic state but rather a community centered on religious
principles.

Secularism in Islam:
 He advocated for the separation of religious authority from
political authority.
 Al-Raziq proposed that the state should be based on democratic
principles and that governance should not be influenced by
religious authorities.
  He emphasized the importance of a secular state where citizens of
different faiths could coexist peacefully without religious
interference in governance.
Individual Freedom and Citizenship:
 Al-Raziq highlighted the importance of individual freedom and
citizenship rights in an Islamic state.
 He believed that individuals should have the freedom to practice
their religion without state interference.
 He argued for equal rights and opportunities for all citizens,
irrespective of their religious beliefs.

3. Impact and Controversy:

 Al-Raziq's ideas sparked considerable debate and controversy
within the Islamic world.
 Traditionalists and conservative scholars vehemently opposed his
views, considering them a departure from orthodox Islamic
thought.
 However, his work also inspired reformists and thinkers who
sought to reinterpret Islamic teachings in the context of modernity
and democratic governance.

4. Legacy:
 Despite facing criticism during his time, Ali Abd al-Raziq's ideas
continue to be influential in discussions about the relationship
between religion and politics in the Islamic world.
 His advocacy for a secular state and the separation of religious
authority from political governance remains relevant in
contemporary discussions on democracy and Islam.
Works:
"Islam and the Foundations of Governance" (original title: "Islam wa
Usul al-Hukm")
 Ahmad Kasrawi
 Early life:
 Ahmad Kasravi was born in Tabriz, Iran, in 1890 to a middle-class
family.
 He received his early education in traditional Islamic schools, where he
showed a keen interest in religion and philosophy.
 Education:
 In his early twenties, Kasravi became disillusioned with traditional
Islamic teachings and began to study modern Western thought.
 He was particularly influenced by the work of European philosophers
such as Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu.
 Career:
 Kasravi began his career as a teacher and journalist.
 In the early 1920s, he founded a religious reform movement that
advocated for a return to the original teachings of Islam and rejected the
authority of Shi'a clergy.
 He was a prolific writer and published over 70 books and articles on a
wide range of topics, including religion, politics, history, and social
reform.
 Travel:
 Kasravi traveled extensively throughout Iran and the Middle East,
spreading his ideas and engaging in debates with religious scholars.
 He also visited Europe and met with Western intellectuals.
 Works:
 Kasravi's most famous work is Azari or the Ancient Language of
Azerbaijan, which argues that the Azerbaijani language is a dialect of
Persian and not a separate Turkic language.
 He also wrote extensively on the history of Iran, including the History of
the Iranian Constitutional Revolution.
 His religious writings, such as The Scum of the Tabrizis, are highly
critical of Shi'a Islam and Sufism.
 Legacy: Kasravi was a controversial figure during his lifetime and remains so
today. He is admired by some for his critical thinking and his commitment to
social reform, but he is also criticized by others for his attacks on Islam. His
ideas have had a significant impact on Iranian intellectual thought and continue
to be debated today.