Unit - 1

 Ad-Hoc Network

An ad hoc network is one that is spontaneously formed when devices

connect and communicate with each other. The term ad hoc is a Latin

word that literally means "for this," implying improvised or impromptu.

Ad hoc networks are mostly wireless local area networks (LANs). The

devices communicate with each other directly instead of relying on a

base station or access points as in wireless LANs for data transfer co-ordination. Each device

participates in routing activity, by determining the route using the routing algorithm and

forwarding data to other devices via this route.

Classifications of Ad Hoc Networks

Ad hoc networks can be classified into several types depending upon the nature of their

applications. The most prominent ad hoc networks that are commonly incorporated are illustrated

in the diagram below −

  Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET)
 A MANET consists of a number of mobile devices that come together to form a network as

needed, without any support from any existing internet infrastructure or any other kind of

fixed stations.

 A MANET can be defined as an autonomous system of nodes or MSs(also serving as routers)

connected by wireless links, the union of which forms a communication network modeled in the

form of an arbitrary communication graph.

 MANETs are basically peer-to-peer, multi-hop wireless networks in which information packets

are transmitted in a store and forward manner from a source to an arbitrary destination, via

intermediate nodes as given in the figure:

 As nodes move, the connectivity may change based on relative locations of other nodes.

 The resulting change in the network topology known at the local level must be passed on to

other nodes so that old topology information can be updated.

For example, as MS2 in the figure changes its point of attachment from MS3 to MS4, other nodes that are

part of the network should use this new route to forward packets to MS2. In the figure, we assume that it

is not possible to have all nodes within each other's radio range. In case all nodes are closed within each

other's radio range, there are no routing issues to be addressed.

In figures raise another issue, that of symmetric and asymmetric (bidirectional) and asymmetric

(unidirectional) links. Consider symmetric links with associative radio range; for example, if MS1

is within radio range of MS3, then MS3 is also within radio range of MS1. The communication links

are symmetric. This assumption is not always valid because of differences in transmitting power

levels and the terrain. Routing in asymmetric networks is a relatively hard task. In certain cases,

it is possible to find routes that exclude asymmetric links, since it is cumbersome to find the

return path. The issue of efficiency is one of the several challenges encountered in a MANET.

The other issue is varying the mobility patterns of different nodes. Some other nodes are highly

mobile, while others are primarily stationary. It is difficult to predict a node's movement and

direction of movement and numerous studies have been performed to evaluate their performance

using different simulators.

 Characteristics of MANET –
Dynamic Topologies:

Network topology which is typically multihop may change randomly and rapidly with time, it can

form unidirectional or bi-directional links.

Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links:

Wireless links usually have lower reliability, efficiency, stability, and capacity as compared to a

wired network

Autonomous Behavior:

Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its autonomous behavior.

Energy Constrained Operation:

As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or other exhaustible means for their energy. Mobile

nodes are characterized by less memory, power, and lightweight features.

Limited Security:

Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A centralized firewall is absent due to

the distributed nature of the operation for security, routing, and host configuration.

Less Human Intervention:

They require minimum human intervention to configure the network, therefore they are

dynamically autonomous in nature.

Advantages of MANETs:

Flexibility: MANETs are highly flexible, as they can be easily deployed in various environments

and can be adapted to different applications and scenarios. This makes them ideal for use in
emergency situations or military operations, where there may not be a pre-existing network

infrastructure.

Scalability: MANETs can easily scale to accommodate a large number of nodes, making them

suitable for large-scale deployments. They can also handle dynamic changes in network topology,

such as the addition or removal of nodes.

Cost-effective: Since MANETs do not require any centralized infrastructure, they are often

more cost-effective than traditional wired or wireless networks. They can also be used to extend

the range of existing networks without the need for additional infrastructure.

Rapid Deployment: MANETs can be rapidly deployed in areas where infrastructure is not

available, such as disaster zones or rural areas.

Disadvantages:

Security: MANETs are vulnerable to security threats, such as attacks by malicious nodes,

eavesdropping, and data interception. Since the network is decentralized, there is no central

authority to ensure the security of the network.

Reliability: MANETs are less reliable than traditional networks, as they are subject to

interference, signal attenuation, and other environmental factors that can affect the quality of

the connection.

Bandwidth: Since MANETs rely on wireless communication, bandwidth can be limited. This can

lead to congestion and delays, particularly when multiple nodes are competing for the same

channel.

Routing: Routing in MANETs can be complex, particularly when dealing with dynamic network

topologies. This can result in inefficient routing and longer delays in data transmission.

Power Consumption: Since MANETs rely on battery-powered devices, power consumption can be

a significant issue. Nodes may need to conserve power to extend the life of the battery, which

can limit the amount of data that can be transmitted.

Improvement in MANET:

 Quality of Service (QoS): Researchers are working to improve the quality of service of

MANET by developing efficient routing protocols that provide better bandwidth,

throughput, and latency.

 Security: To ensure the security of the MANET, researchers are developing efficient

security mechanisms that provide encryption, authentication, and authorization facilities.

 Power management: To enhance the lifetime of MANET nodes, researchers are working

on developing efficient power management techniques that reduce the energy consumption

of nodes.

 Multimedia support: Researchers are working to provide multimedia support to MANET by

developing efficient routing protocols that can handle multimedia traffic efficiently.

 Standardization: To ensure the interoperability of different MANET devices, researchers

are working on developing standard protocols and interfaces that can be used by different

MANET devices.

 Applications of MANET

Some specific applications of ad hoc networks include industrial and commercial applications

involving cooperative mobile data exchange. There are many existing and future military

networking requirements for robust, IP-compliant data services within mobile wireless

communication networks, with many of these networks consist of highly dynamic autonomous

topology segments. Advanced features of Mobile ad hoc networks, including data rates compatible

with multimedia applications global roaming capability, and coordination with other network

structures are enabling new applications.

 o Defense applications: Many defense applications require on the fly communications set-

up, and ad hoc/sensor networks are excellent candidates for use in battlefield management.

o Crisis management applications: These arise, for example, as a result of natural disasters

in which the entire communication infrastructure is in disarray. Restoring communications

quickly is essential.

o Telemedicine: The paramedic assisting the victim of a traffic accident in a remote location

must access medical records (e.g. X-rays) and may need video conference assistance from

a surgeon for an emergency intervention. In fact, the paramedic may need to

instantaneously relay back to the hospital the victim's X-rays and other diagnostic tests

from the site of the accident.

o Tele-geoprocessing application: The combination of GPS, GIS (Geographical Information

Systems), and high-capacity wireless mobile systems enables a new type of application

referred to as tele- geo processing.

o Virtual Navigation: A remote database contains the graphical representation of building,

streets, and physical characteristics of a large metropolis. They may also "virtually" see

the internal layout of buildings, including an emergency rescue plan, or find possible points

of interest.

o Education via the internet: Educational opportunities available on the internet or remote

areas because of the economic infeasibility of providing expensive last-mile wire line

internet access in these areas to all subscribers.

o Vehicular area network: This a growing and very useful application of adhoc network in

providing emergency services and other information. This is equally effective in both urban

and rural setup. The basic and exchange necessary data that is beneficial in a given

situation.

 Issues and Challenges of MANET

Limited Bandwidth
The wireless networks have a limited bandwidth in comparison to the wired networks. Wireless

link has lower capacity as compare to infrastructure networks. The effect of fading, multiple

accesses, interference condition is very low in ADHOC networks in comparison to maximum radio

transmission rate.

Dynamic topology

Due to dynamic topology the nodes has less truest between them. I some settlement are found

between the nodes then it also make trust level questionable.

High Routing

In ADHOC networks due to dynamic topology some nodes changes their position which affects

the routing table.

Problem of Hidden terminal

The Collision of the packets are held due to the transmission of packets by those node which are

not in the direct transmission range of sender side but are in range of receiver side.

Security threats

New security challenges bring by Adhoc networks due to its wireless nature. In Adhoc networks

or wireless networks the trust management between the nodes leads to the numerous security

attacks.

Diffusion hole problem

The excess energy consumption is faced by the nodes which are present in the boundaries of the

holes. If the bypass holes are wish to omit then the packets are delivered along the hole

boundaries. This enlarges the hole due to consumption of very much of the nodes and its

boundaries.

 MANET routing Protocols

In Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET), nodes do not know the topology of their network, instead

they have to discover it by their own as the topology in the ad-hoc network is dynamic topology.
The basic rules is that a new node whenever enters into an ad-hoc network, must announce its

arrival and presence and should also listen to similar announcement broadcasts made by other

mobile nodes.

1. Pro-active routing protocols: These are also known as table-driven routing protocols. Each

mobile node maintains a separate routing table which contains the information of the routes

to all the possible destination mobile nodes. Since the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network

is dynamic, these routing tables are updated periodically as and when the network topology

changes. It has a limitation that it doesn’t work well for the large networks as the entries in

the routing table becomes too large since they need to maintain the route information to all

possible nodes.

Example: One real-life example of a proactive routing protocol is the Optimized Link State Routing
(OLSR) protocol. OLSR is commonly used in wireless mesh networks, which are used in various applications,

such as emergency response systems and smart city infrastructure.

In an emergency response system, for instance, OLSR can be used to quickly establish a wireless

network to support communication among first responders. The protocol can maintain up-to-date

information on the network topology and the best routes to reach nodes, which can be crucial in

situations where there may be limited connectivity and resources.

a. Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV):

Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) is a proactive routing protocol that is commonly

used in wireless ad hoc networks. In DSDV, each node maintains a routing table that contains the

shortest path to all other nodes in the network. Whenever a node moves or a link goes down, the

routing tables are updated to reflect the changes in the network topology.

A real-life example of DSDV in action would be a fleet of autonomous delivery drones

communicating with each other to deliver packages in a busy city. The drones would use DSDV to

determine the best path to reach their destination while avoiding other drones and obstacles. As

the drones move around and the network topology changes, the routing tables would be updated

to ensure that each drone can continue to communicate and navigate efficiently.

b. The Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP):

WRP is a hybrid routing protocol that combines both proactive and reactive routing approaches.

In WRP, nodes maintain a routing table that contains information about the network topology, and

updates are sent periodically to ensure that the routing table is up-to-date.

A real-life example of WRP in action would be a group of emergency responders in a disaster zone

communicating with each other through wireless devices. The responders could use WRP to share

real-time updates on their location and the location of victims, and to determine the best path to

reach the victims while avoiding any obstacles or dangerous areas. WRP would help to ensure that

the responders can communicate and navigate effectively in a challenging and dynamic

environment.

c. The Optimized Link State Routing Protocol(OLSR):

The Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR) is a proactive routing protocol that is commonly used

in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). OLSR is designed to optimize the routing process by using

multipoint relays (MPRs) to reduce the amount of flooding required in order to discover routes.

A real-life example of OLSR is in disaster response scenarios, where communication

infrastructure may be damaged or unavailable. Emergency response teams can use OLSR to

quickly set up a wireless network between their devices and establish communication without
relying on a pre-existing network infrastructure. This allows them to quickly coordinate their

efforts and respond more effectively to the disaster. OLSR's ability to optimize the routing

process and reduce network traffic is particularly useful in these situations where network

resources may be limited.

Advantage:

1. Faster routing: maintain a routing table for every node in the network

2. Low overhead: constantly update the routing tables, they have a low overhead in terms of
routing and data transmission.

3. Lower end-to-end delay: as the routing table is already established.

4. Better suited for larger networks: as they maintain a constant view of the network
topology and can quickly adapt to changes.

5. Efficient use of network resources: as they constantly maintain a routing table for all
nodes in the network.

Disadvantage:

1. Overhead: high overhead cost -> continuously update their routing tables, even if the
network topology remains unchanged.

2. Scalability: do not scale well for larger networks as the amount of routing table
information increases and can become unmanageable.

3. Delay: may have longer delay times due to the time required to update routing tables,

4. Network traffic: Pro-active routing protocols generate a significant amount of network

traffic due to the frequent exchange of routing information.

5. Limited adaptability: Pro-active routing protocols may not be able to adapt quickly to
changes in the network topology, making them less suitable for dynamic environments.

2. Reactive routing protocols: These are also known as on-demand routing protocol. In this type

of routing, the route is discovered only when it is required/needed. The process of route

discovery occurs by flooding the route request packets throughout the mobile network. It

consists of two major phases namely, route discovery and route maintenance.

a. Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR):

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) is an on-demand routing protocol for wireless ad-hoc networks.

It is a reactive protocol that establishes routes only when needed. DSR is based on the
 principle of source routing, where the sender of a packet determines the complete sequence

of nodes through which the packet should traverse.

Here's an example of how DSR works:

Suppose node A wants to send a packet to node D. Since it does not have a route to node D in

its routing table, node A initiates a route discovery process. It broadcasts a Route Request

(RREQ) packet containing the address of the destination node D. The RREQ packet is flooded

through the network and reaches all the nodes within the range of node A. Each node that

receives the RREQ packet caches the address of the source node A and retransmits the RREQ

packet to its neighboring nodes, until the packet reaches the destination node D.

Once node D receives the RREQ packet, it sends a Route Reply (RREP) packet back to node A.

The RREP packet contains the sequence of nodes that the packet should traverse to reach the

destination node D. Each intermediate node between node A and node D caches the sequence

of nodes in the routing table for future use.

When node A receives the RREP packet, it stores the sequence of nodes in its routing table

and starts sending data packets to node D using the same sequence of nodes. If there is a link

failure or a node failure, the DSR protocol initiates a route discovery process again to find an

alternative route.

Overall, DSR is a popular routing protocol in ad-hoc networks because it is simple, scalable,

and efficient in terms of bandwidth usage. However, it can suffer from high overhead due to

the route discovery process and can be vulnerable to attacks such as packet dropping and node

impersonation.

It consists of two phases:

Route Discovery: This phase determines the most optimal path for the transmission of

data packets between the source and the destination mobile nodes.

Route Maintenance: This phase performs the maintenance work of the route as the

topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic in nature and hence, there are many cases of

link breakage resulting in the network failure between the mobile nodes.
b. Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol (AODV): Ad-Hoc On Demand Distance Vector
(AODV) is a reactive routing protocol commonly used in wireless ad hoc networks. AODV works by

establishing a route between two nodes only when there is a demand for communication between them.

Here's an example of how AODV works:

Suppose there is a group of mobile devices in a wireless ad hoc network, and two devices, A and

B, want to communicate with each other. Device A broadcasts a route request (RREQ) message

to all of its neighboring devices to find a route to device B. The RREQ message contains the

source and destination addresses and a unique sequence number.

When a device receives the RREQ message, it checks if it has a route to the destination. If it

does, it sends a route reply (RREP) message back to the source device A. If it does not have a

route to the destination, it broadcasts the RREQ message to all of its neighboring devices.

When the RREQ message reaches device B, it sends a RREP message back to device A. The RREP

message contains the destination address, source address, and the sequence number. The RREP

message is then forwarded back to device A through the established route.

If the route between devices A and B is not used for a certain period of time, it is removed from

the routing table. If device A wants to communicate with device B again, it sends another RREQ

message to find a new route.

AODV is a widely used protocol in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), which are commonly used

in military operations, disaster response, and search and rescue missions. AODV is preferred in

MANETs because it reduces the overhead of maintaining a routing table, which can become very

large in large-scale networks.

Advantage

 More scalable than pro-active protocols.

 More efficient use of network resources.

 Lower control overhead.

 Better suited for larger networks and dynamic topologies.

  Routes are only established when needed, reducing routing table size.

 Better ability to adapt to changes in network topology.

 Faster route discovery process.

 Less susceptible to network congestion.

Disadvantage

 Delayed route discovery: require route discovery, which can result in longer delays in finding
a route to the destination node.

 Increased overhead: Reactive protocols generate a large amount of control traffic in the
network during route discovery and maintenance, leading to increased overhead.

 Route maintenance: requires frequent route discoveries and maintenance, which can cause
high energy consumption in mobile devices.

3. Hybrid Routing protocol: It basically combines the advantages of both, reactive and pro-

active routing protocols. These protocols are adaptive in nature and adapts according to the zone

and position of the source and destination mobile nodes. One of the most popular hybrid routing

protocol is Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP).

The whole network is divided into different zones and then the position of source and destination

mobile node is observed. If the source and destination mobile nodes are present in the same zone,

then proactive routing is used for the transmission of the data packets between them. And if the
source and destination mobile nodes are present in different zones, then reactive routing is used

for the transmission of the data packets between them.

Advantage:

1. Efficient use of network resources: Hybrid routing protocol uses proactive routing within

a predefined area or zone and reactive routing outside the zone. This approach helps to

conserve network resources and reduce traffic.

2. Scalability: The hybrid protocol allows for the creation of multiple zones in a network, each

with its own proactive protocol. This feature enables the network to scale more effectively

and handle a larger number of nodes.

3. Faster response time: when a node needs to find a new route, as the route discovery

process is triggered only when necessary.

4. Adaptability: making it more flexible and dynamic in nature.

5. Security: as it does not broadcast routing information to the entire network, -> reducing

the risk of unauthorized access or attacks.

Disadvantage:

1. Complexity: due to the combination of both types of routing.

2. Overhead: can lead to increased overhead due to the need for maintaining both routing

tables.

3. Delay: it relies on discovering routes on-demand.

4. Scalability: Hybrid routing protocols may face scalability issues as the network grows

larger due to the need for maintaining both pro-active and reactive components.
Characteristics of MANET Routing Protocol:

To avoid the problems with routing in MANET, routing protocols should have following

characteristics:

 It should be widely distributed.

 It must be localized.
 Because of nodes mobility, it should be adjustable to frequent change in topology.
 It must be free of impermeable routes.
 The convergence of routes must be fast.
 Each node in the network should be required to store information about the network’s
stable local topology.
 It should be able to provide high-quality service.

TAXANOMY OF MANET

Routing Protocol Definition:

 A routing protocol is a set of rules and procedures that govern how data packets are

transmitted between different nodes in a network.

 A routing protocol is used to determine the optimal path for data transmission from a

source node to a destination node based on various factors such as network topology,

network traffic, and network performance.

 Routing protocols are commonly used in large-scale networks such as the Internet, where

data needs to be transmitted across multiple nodes before reaching its destination.
 TYPES

1. Topology Based Routing Protocols: already written

2. position based routing protocols

Position-based routing protocols are a type of wireless ad hoc network routing protocol that

uses the geographical location of nodes to route data packets. In position-based routing

protocols, nodes maintain their position information using GPS, or other positioning

technologies, and use this information to make routing decisions.

a. Geographic Routing Protocol (GRP):

A Geographic Routing Protocol is a type of routing protocol used in wireless networks to

forward packets based on the geographic location of the destination node. This protocol works
by dividing the network area into a grid or a set of zones, and nodes are assigned a unique
address based on their location within the grid or zone.

When a node wants to send a packet to a destination node, it first determines the location of
the destination node and then forwards the packet to the nearest neighbor node that is closer
to the destination node. This process continues until the packet reaches the destination node.

One example of a Geographic Routing Protocol is the Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing
(GPSR) protocol, which is used in wireless sensor networks. GPSR uses the location information
of nodes to forward packets in a greedy manner towards the destination node.

b. Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility (DREAM)

The Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility (DREAM) is a type of routing protocol used in
mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) to forward packets based on the distance and mobility of the nodes.
This protocol works by considering both the distance between nodes and their mobility when forwarding
packets.

When a node wants to send a packet to a destination node, it first determines the distance and
direction to the destination node. It then considers the mobility of neighboring nodes and selects the
one that is likely to remain in the vicinity of the destination node for the longest time. This process
continues until the packet reaches the destination node.

One example of a network that could use DREAM is a group of emergency responders in a
disaster area. As they move around the area, their devices would use DREAM to maintain reliable
communication by dynamically adapting to changes in the network topology caused by the responders'
mobility.
Advantages:

1. Efficient use of network resources

2. Increased reliability: reliability of data transmission by selecting more stable and

reliable paths based on location information.

3. Reduced interference: By using location information, avoid interference from nearby

networks and reduce the likelihood of collisions.

4. Better performance in certain scenarios: where nodes have a fixed location, such as
wireless sensor networks and vehicular ad hoc networks.

Disadvantages:

1. Vulnerability to attacks: Since the routing decisions are based on the location
information, attackers can easily manipulate the location information to misdirect the
traffic.

2. Overhead: require a lot of overhead to maintain location information, which can lead to
high energy consumption and increased network congestion.

3. Localization error: Positioning errors and inaccuracies in location estimation can lead to
routing errors and inefficient use of network resources.

3. Other Routing Protocols:

a. Signal Stability Routing

Signal Stability Routing (SSR) is a routing protocol used in wireless sensor networks to improve

the reliability of data transmission by prioritizing routes with higher link stability. In SSR, each

node measures the link quality between itself and its neighbors and assigns a metric based on

the stability of the link. Nodes with more stable links are preferred as forwarding nodes to

transmit data packets to the destination node.

For example, in an environmental monitoring system, sensors deployed in remote areas collect

data about temperature, humidity, and air quality. These sensors use SSR to forward data to a

base station for analysis. SSR ensures that the data is transmitted reliably over long distances,

even in challenging environments, and enables efficient use of the network resources by

selecting the most stable routes.

 b. Power Aware Routing:

Power Aware Routing (PAR) is a routing protocol used in wireless sensor networks that considers

the energy consumption of each node when forwarding packets. PAR aims to prolong the lifetime

of the network by minimizing the energy consumption of nodes and maintaining a balanced

energy level across the network.

For example, in a smart home automation system, various sensors and devices communicate with

each other wirelessly to control lighting, temperature, and other home appliances. PAR is used

to ensure that data is transmitted using the most energy-efficient routes, extending the

battery life of the devices and reducing the need for frequent battery replacements.

c. Associativity Based Routing

Associativity-Based Routing (ABR) is a type of routing protocol used in wireless networks that

takes into account the node's association with other nodes when forwarding packets. In ABR,

nodes with similar characteristics, such as transmission power and signal strength, are grouped

together and considered as an association group.

For example, in a vehicle-to-vehicle communication system, vehicles traveling in a similar

direction and at a similar speed are considered to be in the same association group. ABR is used

to forward messages between vehicles within the same association group, resulting in reduced

overhead and improved network performance.

ABR achieves this by creating a forwarding table that identifies the association group to which the

destination node belongs. When a node wants to send a packet, it first looks up the forwarding table and

selects a node within the same association group as the destination node. This approach reduces the number

of hops required to reach the destination, resulting in lower latency and improved network efficiency.

d. QoS Routing

Quality of Service (QoS) routing is a type of routing protocol used in computer networks that takes into

account the requirements of the network traffic in terms of bandwidth, delay, and packet loss. QoS

routing ensures that the network traffic is transmitted through the most appropriate path, based on its

QoS requirements.
For example, in a real-time multimedia streaming application, QoS routing is used to ensure

that the video and audio packets are transmitted through a path that can provide

sufficient bandwidth and low latency. QoS routing achieves this by selecting the path that

meets the QoS requirements of the traffic, such as low delay and high bandwidth, and

avoids paths that are congested or have high packet loss rates. This results in improved

quality and reliability of the multimedia streaming application.

 UNIT – 2

 Data Transmission

Data transmission is a means of transmitting digital or analogue data over a communication

medium to one or more devices. It allows the transmission and communication of devices in

different environments: point-to-point, point-to-multipoint, or multipoint-to-multipoint.

Data transmission can either be analogue or digital, but is mostly earmarked for sending and

receiving digital data. As such, data transmission is also referred to as digital transmission or

digital communications.

It works when a device aims to transmit a data object or file to one or multiple recipient

devices. The digital data comes from the source device in the form of digital bit streams. These

data streams are positioned over a communication medium for transmission to the destination

device. An outward signal can either be a baseband or a passband.

Aside from external communication, data transmission may be done internally, between different

parts of the same device. The sending of data to a processor from the random access memory

(RAM) or hard disk is a form of data transmission.

Types of Data Transmission

There are two types of data transmission in wireless ad hoc networks:

1. Unicast transmission/ Single Transmission:

o In this type of transmission, data is sent from one

node to another specific node.
o The source node initiates the transmission and
the destination node receives the data.
o Unicast transmission is useful for point-to-point
communication in which only two nodes are
involved.
o In this transmission, one bit flows at one clock pulse.
o In Serial Transmission, 8 bits are transferred at a time having a start and stop bit.
 2. Broadcast transmission/ parallel:

o In this type of transmission, data is

sent from one node to all the nodes
in the network.
o The source node sends the data to
all the nodes in its transmission
range without knowing the identity
of the nodes.
o All the nodes in the range receive
the data and can use it according to
their requirements.
o Broadcast transmission is useful for
sending data to multiple nodes in the network such as routing updates, group communication,
and information dissemination.
o Fastest

Comparison between Serial and Parallel Transmission

Basis for Comparison Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission

Definition Data flows in 2 directions, Data flows in multiple directions, 8
bit by bit bits (1 byte) at a time
Cost Economical Expensive
Number of bits transferred 1 bit 8 bits or 1 byte
per clock pulse
Speed Slow Fast
Applications Used for long-distance Used for short-distance
communication communication
Example Computer to computer Computer to printer

Transmission Modes

Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as a

communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur between

individual devices that are interconnected.

 1. Simplex Mode –

In Simplex mode, the communication is

unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of

the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can

only receive.

The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor

can only give the output.

Advantages:

 Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of communication.

 It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication channel.

 There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices,
which simplifies the communication process.

 Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or response is not

required, such as broadcasting or surveillance.

Disadvantages:

 Only one-way communication is possible.

 Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional communication.

2. Half-Duplex Mode –

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.

When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is

used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same time.

The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.

Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both

directions.

Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

Advantages:

 Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication, which is useful in situations

where devices need to send and receive data.

 It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex mode, as the channel can be

used for both transmission and reception.

 Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it only requires one

communication channel.

Disadvantages:

 Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as both devices cannot

transmit at the same time.

 There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can cause problems in some

applications.

3. Full-Duplex Mode –

In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex mode,

signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in another

direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:

 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending

and the other for receiving.

  Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The

capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.

Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a

telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Channel Capacity=2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay

Advantages:

 Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication, which is ideal for

real-time applications such as video conferencing or online gaming.

 It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can transmit and

receive data simultaneously.

 a high level of reliability and accuracy, as there is no need for error correction

Disadvantages:

 Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two communication channels.

 It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it requires two physically

separate transmission paths or a division of channel capacity.

  Broadcast Storm Problem

A Broadcast Storm is basically a situation when an abruptly large number of broadcast packets

in a very small amount of time. Due to the broadcast storm, the network quality degrades

significantly. It leads to broadcast and multicast traffic accumulation on a computer network.

This condition can lead to consume all the network, so, it will be unable to transfer normal

amount of traffic at that time. A Broadcast Packet that leads to such situation is often called

Chernobyl Packet.

Types of Broadcast Packets :

Mainly, there are 3 types of Broadcast Packets :

 Broadcast

 Multicast

 Unicast

A Broadcast packet uses Air as a medium to transfer the broadcast to any listener at the same

frequency. A broadcast packet uses the destination header in the following ways :

 ff-ff-ff-ff-ff-ff (Layer 2 broadcast)

 255.255.255.255 (Layer 3 broadcast)

Root Causes of a Broadcast Storm :

 When a user wants to connect to a specific hub of network but, by mistake, it gets

connected to another switch port. This will catch all the frames and keep them within the

loop. For Example – When the computer connects to port while being connected to

wireless network also, the network sets to bridging mode.

 Improper VLAN configuration settings can create a loop that finally leads to a broadcast

storm.

 Too big Broadcast Domain – If the Broadcast is too big, then the amount of traffic in a

domain is directly proportional to size of the broadcast domain, i.e. the number hosts in a

L2 VLAN or L3 subnet.

 Broadcast storms can occur when a broadcast or multicast packet is sent to all nodes in a

network, and some nodes forward the packet to all other nodes, causing a chain reaction

of packet forwarding.

 This can result in a large number of duplicate packets, which can quickly consume network

bandwidth and cause congestion.

 High Volume of requests for IP address via DHCP – DHCP is the most easiest way for

a networking host to get the IP address from a network controller. DHCP uses either

broadcast or unicast packets as their medium. For Example – when the network is back

online after a outage, all the members on that network try to obtain the IP address.

Steps to prevent a Broadcast Storm :

 Anti-virus Firewalls can be used to detect and remove malicious and intentionally induced

broadcast storms to disrupt the network.

 The more often ARP tables are cleared, the more often broadcast requests occur.

 Storm protocols and equivalent controlling techniques allow to limit the broadcast

packets.
  Disable broadcasts on Layer 3 devices. If a storm originated from the WAN, then

shutting off IP directed broadcasts will solve the issue.

 Splitting the broadcast domain will help in diverting the broadcast traffic. By creating a

new VLAN network, we can divert more than half of the traffic to the other network. It

will help in reducing the storms a lot.

 Regular maintenance of Switches ensure that they don’t face any hardware failure.

 Checking for loops in switches help to upstream the unmanaged switch. The unmanaged

switches in order to respond to the broadcasts sometimes flood the network with a lot of

unnecessary traffic.

BROADCASTING:

Broadcasting in computer network is a group communication, where a sender sends data to

receivers simultaneously. This is an all − to − all communication model where each sending device
transmits data to all other devices in the network domain.

The ways of operation of broadcasting may be −

 A high level operation in a program, like broadcasting in Message Passing Interface.

 A low level networking operation, like broadcasting on Ethernet.

Broadcasting is shown in the following figure −

Advantages of Broadcasting

 Broadcasting allows a single packet to be sent to multiple recipients simultaneously, which

can save time and reduce network traffic compared to sending individual packets to each

recipient.

 Broadcasting is useful for sending important network-wide announcements, such as

system updates or emergency alerts, to all nodes in a network.

 Broadcasting can be used for tasks such as network discovery, where a packet is sent to

all nodes in a network to identify and map network topology and devices.

 Broadcasting is an efficient way to distribute multicast traffic, where a packet is sent to

a specific group of nodes, instead of individual nodes, in a network.

 Broadcasting can simplify network management by allowing network administrators to

send configuration updates or network policies to all nodes in a network simultaneously.

 Broadcasting is a common feature in many network protocols, such as the Address

Resolution Protocol (ARP) and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).

Disadvantages of Broadcasting

1. Increased Network Traffic: Broadcasting sends packets to all nodes in a network, which

can increase the amount of traffic on the network. This can cause congestion and slow

down network performance.

2. Wasted Resources: Broadcasting can also waste resources, such as bandwidth and

processing power, by sending packets to nodes that don't need or use the information

being broadcasted.

3. Security Risks: Broadcasting can also be a security risk since it can potentially expose

sensitive information to unauthorized users or attackers who may intercept the

broadcasted packets.
 4. Inefficient Routing: Broadcast packets can also cause routing inefficiencies since they

are sent to all nodes in a network, including nodes that are not interested in the

information being broadcasted.

5. Network Partitioning: In some cases, broadcasting can also lead to network partitioning,

where certain segments of the network become isolated and unable to communicate with

the rest of the network.

Types of Broadcasting

1. Unicast Broadcasting:

Unicast broadcasting is a one-to-one communication method where a message is sent from

one sender to one receiver. It is commonly used in networks to send information to a

specific device or host, as opposed to broadcasting to all devices on a network segment.

Advantages:

 Targeted: Unicast broadcasting can be useful when a specific node needs to receive a packet

and other nodes do not.

 Efficient: Since unicast broadcasting sends a packet to

only one node, it does not generate as much network

traffic as other forms of broadcasting.

Disadvantages:

 Limited Reach: Unicast broadcasting only sends packets

to a single recipient, so it cannot be used to send information to multiple nodes

simultaneously.

 Unscalable: If many nodes need to receive the same information, unicast broadcasting may

not be a scalable solution as it requires sending packets individually to each node.

 2. Limited Broadcasting:

Limited broadcasting is a communication method where a message is sent from one sender to all

devices on a single network segment or LAN. It is a more efficient way to send information to

multiple devices on a LAN compared to unicast broadcasting, which would require sending a

separate packet to each device.

Advantages:

 Efficient: Limited broadcasting can be a more efficient way to send a packet to all nodes on
a LAN compared to unicast broadcasting, which would require sending a separate packet to
each node.

 Simplicity: Limited broadcasting is a simple and straightforward way to send information to

all nodes on a LAN.

Disadvantages:

 Security Risks: Since limited broadcasting sends packets to all nodes on a LAN, it can

potentially expose sensitive information to unauthorized users who may intercept the

packets.

 Network Congestion: If many packets are sent using limited broadcasting, it can cause

network congestion and slow down network performance.

 Limited Reach: Limited broadcasting only sends packets to nodes on a single LAN or network

segment, so it cannot be used to send information to nodes on other segments or networks.

3. directed broadcasting:

Directed broadcasting is a communication method where a message is sent from one sender to

all devices on a specific network segment or LAN, as well as to a specific IP address. It is a

targeted way to send information to multiple devices on a network segment, allowing for more

efficient communication.
 Advantages:

 Targeted: Directed broadcasting can be used to send packets to all nodes on a specific

network segment, as well as to a specific IP address, making it a targeted way to send

information.

 Efficient: Directed broadcasting can be a more efficient way to send packets to all nodes

on a network segment compared to unicast broadcasting, which would require sending a

separate packet to each node.

Disadvantages:

 Security Risks:

 Network Congestion:

 Limited Reach:

 Multicasting

Multicast is a method of group communication where

the sender sends data to multiple receivers or nodes

present in the network simultaneously. Multicasting is

a type of one-to-many and many-to-many

communication as it allows sender or senders to send

data packets to multiple receivers at once across LANs or WANs. This process helps in

minimizing the data frame of the network.

Multicasting works in similar to Broadcasting, but in Multicasting, the information is sent to the

targeted or specific members of the network. This task can be accomplished by transmitting

individual copies to each user or node present in the network, but sending individual copies to

each user is inefficient and might increase the network latency. To overcome these

shortcomings, multicasting allows a single transmission that can be split up among the multiple

users, consequently, this reduces the bandwidth of the signal.

Applications :

 Internet protocol (IP)

 Streaming Media

Advantages

1. Efficient use of network bandwidth

2. Simultaneous communication to multiple receivers

3. Low latency for real-time applications

4. Reduced network traffic and congestion

5. Scalability to support large groups of receivers

6. Improved reliability and robustness

7. Cost-effective solution for transmitting data to multiple destinations.

Disadvantages:

1. Complexity in network setup and management

2. Limited support in some networks or protocols

3. Potential for network congestion and reduced performance

4. Increased overhead for data transmission

5. Difficulty in ensuring data security and privacy

6. Lack of feedback or acknowledgement from receivers

7. Potential for unreliability in some network conditions.

 Multicasting over ADHOC
Multicasting TCP over ad hoc networks can be a challenging task due to the dynamic topology
and high mobility of these networks. In this answer, we will discuss the challenges and solutions
for multicasting TCP over ad hoc networks in detail.

Challenges:

1. Packet Loss: Ad hoc networks are prone to packet loss due to interference and mobility,
which can lead to degraded TCP performance.

2. Routing Overhead: Multicasting in ad hoc networks requires frequent updates of routing

information, which can result in high routing overhead and increased latency.

3. Congestion: If too many nodes simultaneously send packets, it can cause network
congestion and slow down network performance.

4. Quality of Service (QoS): Providing QoS guarantees for TCP over ad hoc networks is
challenging due to the unpredictable network conditions.

Solutions:

1. Cross-Layer Design: Using cross-layer design, where information is exchanged between

different layers of the protocol stack, can improve the performance of TCP over ad hoc
networks. This approach allows the network to take into account the changing network
conditions and adapt the routing, transport, and MAC layers accordingly.

2. Congestion Control: TCP uses congestion control mechanisms to avoid network congestion.
By using congestion control algorithms, the network can regulate the flow of packets and
prevent network congestion.

3. Error Control: In ad hoc networks, packet loss is a common problem. To address this
issue, error control mechanisms can be used, such as forward error correction and
retransmission.

4. Quality of Service (QoS): Providing QoS guarantees for TCP over ad hoc networks is
challenging due to the unpredictable network conditions. However, by using QoS-aware
routing and transport protocols, the network can prioritize traffic and provide better
service to high-priority applications.

In conclusion, multicasting TCP over ad hoc networks is a challenging task due to the dynamic
nature of these networks. However, by using cross-layer design, congestion control, error control,
and QoS mechanisms, the performance of TCP over ad hoc networks can be improved, and reliable
and efficient multicast communication can be achieved.
 Geocasting
Geocasting is a method of data communication that targets specific geographic regions. It

allows data to be delivered only to a select group of recipients who are within a defined

geographic boundary, instead of broadcasting to all users. This approach reduces network

traffic and improves the efficiency of data transmission in certain applications, such as

location-based services or emergency response systems.

The advantages of geocasting include:

1. More efficient use of network resources by targeting specific geographic regions

2. Reduced network traffic and congestion

3. Increased privacy and security by limiting access to certain geographic areas

4. Improved reliability by reducing the risk of data loss due to network congestion or
overload

5. Enhanced scalability and flexibility for location-based services

6. Reduced power consumption and longer battery life for mobile devices.

The disadvantages of geocasting include:

1. Limited scalability in very large geographic regions

2. Increased complexity in network setup and management

3. Potential for network congestion and reduced performance in certain conditions

4. Dependence on accurate location information for effective delivery

5. Difficulty in ensuring data security and privacy

6. Limited support in some network protocols and systems

7. Reduced effectiveness in areas with limited or unreliable network coverage.

GeocastingTCP over Ad Hoc

GeocastingTCP over Ad Hoc is a communication protocol that utilizes geocasting for efficient

data transmission over mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It transmits data packets to specific

geographical areas, reducing the number of transmissions and increasing network efficiency.
However, there are challenges in implementing the protocol, including routing efficiency,

scalability, and security, which require effective solutions.

Challenges + solutions
1. Scalability: Researchers have proposed hierarchical geocasting schemes that use a multi-

level tree structure to reduce the number of nodes involved in communication. This can

improve scalability by limiting the number of nodes that need to be contacted.

2. Mobility: Solutions have been proposed that use location prediction and tracking

techniques to maintain stable geocast groups even in the presence of node mobility.

3. Limited bandwidth: Techniques such as multicast scheduling and prioritization can be

used to manage bandwidth and ensure that geocasting does not affect the performance

of other applications.

4. Network topology: Researchers have proposed using techniques such as geographic

routing and directional antennas to establish and maintain geocast routes even in complex

and dynamic networks.

5. Energy efficiency: Various energy-efficient protocols have been proposed that use

techniques such as duty cycling and opportunistic routing to reduce energy consumption

during geocasting.

6. Security: Solutions such as secure multicast and encryption can be used to ensure secure

communication in geocast-based applications.

 TCP Protocol

TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. It is a transport layer protocol that facilitates

the transmission of packets from source to destination. It is a connection-oriented protocol

that means it establishes the connection prior to the communication that occurs between the

computing devices in a network. This protocol is used with an IP protocol, so together, they are

referred to as a TCP/IP.
The main functionality of the TCP is to take the data from the application layer. Then it divides

the data into a several packets, provides numbering to these packets, and finally transmits

these packets to the destination.

The TCP, on the other side, will reassemble the packets and transmits them to the application

layer. As we know that TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, so the connection will remain

established until the communication is not completed between the sender and the receiver.

Features of TCP protocol

The following are the features of a TCP protocol:

o Transport Layer Protocol

TCP is a transport layer protocol as it is used in transmitting the data from the sender to the

receiver.

o Reliable

TCP is a reliable protocol as it follows the flow and error control mechanism. It also supports

the acknowledgment mechanism, which checks the state and sound arrival of the data. In the

acknowledgment mechanism, the receiver sends either positive or negative acknowledgment to

the sender so that the sender can get to know whether the data packet has been received or

needs to resend.

o Order of the data is maintained

This protocol ensures that the data reaches the intended receiver in the same order in which it

is sent. It orders and numbers each segment so that the TCP layer on the destination side can

reassemble them based on their ordering.

o Connection-oriented

It is a connection-oriented service that means the data exchange occurs only after the

connection establishment. When the data transfer is completed, then the connection will get

terminated.
 o Full duplex

It is a full-duplex means that the data can transfer in both directions at the same time.

o Stream-oriented

TCP is a stream-oriented protocol as it allows the sender to send the data in the form of a

stream of bytes and also allows the receiver to accept the data in the form of a stream of

bytes. TCP creates an environment in which both the sender and receiver are connected by an

imaginary tube known as a virtual circuit. This virtual circuit carries the stream of bytes across

the internet.

Need for Transport Control Protocol

In the layered architecture of a network model, the whole task is divided into smaller tasks.

Each task is assigned to a particular layer that processes the task. In the TCP/IP model, five

layers are application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer, and physical layer.

The transport layer has a critical role in providing end-to-end communication to the directly

application processes. It creates 65,000 ports so that the multiple applications can be accessed

at the same time. It takes the data from the upper layer, and it divides the data into smaller

packets and then transmits them to the network layer.

Working of TCP
In TCP, the connection is established by using three-way handshaking. The client sends the

segment with its sequence number. The server, in return, sends its segment with its own

sequence number as well as the acknowledgement sequence, which is one more than the client

sequence number. When the client receives the acknowledgment of its segment, then it sends

the acknowledgment to the server. In this way, the connection is established between the client

and the server.

Advantages of TCP

o It provides a connection-oriented reliable service, which means that it guarantees the

delivery of data packets. If the data packet is lost across the network, then the TCP will

resend the lost packets.

o It provides a flow control mechanism using a sliding window protocol.

o It provides error detection by using checksum and error control by using Go Back or ARP

protocol.

o It eliminates the congestion by using a network congestion avoidance algorithm that

includes various schemes such as additive increase/multiplicative decrease (AIMD), slow

start, and congestion window.

Disadvantage of TCP
It increases a large amount of overhead as each segment gets its own TCP header, so

fragmentation by the router increases the overhead.

TCP Header Format

o Source port: It defines the port of the application, which is sending the data. So, this

field contains the source port address, which is 16 bits.

o Destination port: It defines the port of the application on the receiving side. So, this

field contains the destination port address, which is 16 bits.

o Sequence number: This field contains the sequence number of data bytes in a particular

session.

o Acknowledgment number: When the ACK flag is set, then this contains the next

sequence number of the data byte and works as an acknowledgment for the previous data

received. For example, if the receiver receives the segment number 'x', then it responds

'x+1' as an acknowledgment number.

o HLEN: It specifies the length of the header indicated by the 4-byte words in the

header. The size of the header lies between 20 and 60 bytes. Therefore, the value of

this field would lie between 5 and 15.

o Reserved: It is a 4-bit field reserved for future use, and by default, all are set to zero.
o Flags

There are six control bits or flags:

1. URG: It represents an urgent pointer. If it is set, then the data is processed

urgently.

2. ACK: If the ACK is set to 0, then it means that the data packet does not contain

an acknowledgment.

3. PSH: If this field is set, then it requests the receiving device to push the data to

the receiving application without buffering it.

4. RST: If it is set, then it requests to restart a connection.

5. SYN: It is used to establish a connection between the hosts.

6. FIN: It is used to release a connection, and no further data exchange will happen.

o Window size

It is a 16-bit field. It contains the size of data that the receiver can accept. This field is

used for the flow control between the sender and receiver and also determines the

amount of buffer allocated by the receiver for a segment. The value of this field is

determined by the receiver.

o Checksum

It is a 16-bit field. This field is optional in UDP, but in the case of TCP/IP, this field is

mandatory.

o Urgent pointer

It is a pointer that points to the urgent data byte if the URG flag is set to 1. It defines a

value that will be added to the sequence number to get the sequence number of the last

urgent byte.
 o Options

It provides additional options. The optional field is represented in 32-bits. If this field

contains the data less than 32-bit, then padding is required to obtain the remaining bits.

challenges and Solutions for TCP over Ad hoc

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) over Ad hoc networks face several challenges that can lead

to significant performance degradation, including:

1. Unreliable wireless links: Ad hoc networks are usually deployed in harsh environments,

where wireless links are unreliable and prone to frequent link failures, packet losses, and

interference. This can result in TCP congestion control mechanisms that cannot properly

handle packet losses and retransmissions, leading to a decrease in network throughput.

2. Limited bandwidth: Ad hoc networks often have limited bandwidth resources, and TCP's

congestion control mechanism is designed to use all available bandwidth, leading to a

significant decrease in network performance.

3. Dynamic network topology: Ad hoc networks are characterized by their dynamic

topology, where nodes move arbitrarily and can join or leave the network at any time. This

results in frequent changes in network topology, which can cause routing and congestion

control problems for TCP.

Some of the solutions to these challenges include:

1. Reliable link layer protocols: Using reliable link layer protocols such as the IEEE 802.11

standard can help to reduce the impact of unreliable wireless links.

2. Congestion control mechanisms: Ad hoc networks require specific congestion control

mechanisms that are designed to operate in a resource-constrained environment. Some of

the proposed mechanisms include TCP Westwood, TCP Vegas, and TCP New Reno.
 3. Dynamic routing protocols: Ad hoc networks require dynamic routing protocols that can

adapt to changes in the network topology. Some of the proposed protocols include Ad hoc

On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR).

4. Multi-path routing: Multi-path routing can be used to improve the reliability and

efficiency of data delivery in ad hoc networks. This involves the use of multiple paths

between source and destination nodes to increase data delivery rates and reduce the

impact of link failures.

5. Quality of Service (QoS) support: QoS mechanisms can be used to provide better service

differentiation for different types of traffic and ensure that critical data is delivered

with higher priority.

TCP in MANETs

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a widely used protocol for data transmission in computer

networks. However, TCP faces several challenges when used in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

(MANETs). MANETs are wireless networks without a fixed infrastructure, where nodes

communicate with each other using radio waves. The challenges of using TCP in MANETs include:

1. Mobility: In MANETs, nodes can move around, leading to frequent topology changes.

These changes can cause problems in TCP such as increased delays and packet loss.

2. Limited bandwidth: MANETs have limited bandwidth compared to wired networks, which

can cause TCP congestion control algorithms to slow down data transfer unnecessarily.

3. Error-prone channels: Wireless channels can be noisy and have a high packet loss rate,

which can lead to TCP congestion control algorithms reacting to the loss by slowing down

the data transfer.

4. Battery constraints: Nodes in MANETs are usually battery-powered, so it is important to

minimize the energy consumption of TCP.

To address these challenges, several solutions have been proposed for using TCP in

MANETs, including:

1. TCP variants: Several TCP variants have been proposed for MANETs, including TCP-PR,

TCP-Vegas, and TCP-Sack.

2. Cross-layer design: Cross-layer design involves sharing information between layers of

the protocol stack to optimize performance. For example, sharing information about node

mobility with TCP can help it make better congestion control decisions.

3. Buffer management: Managing the buffer size of the nodes can help to reduce packet

loss and improve TCP performance.

4. Power-aware routing: Power-aware routing protocols can help to conserve battery power

in the nodes, allowing for longer network lifetime.

Overall, using TCP in MANETs requires careful consideration of the unique characteristics of

these networks, and the development of specific solutions to address the challenges they pose.
 UNIT – 3

 Wireless Sensor Network

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is deployed in

a large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used to monitor the system,

physical or environmental conditions.

Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages and monitors the

environment in a particular area. They are connected to the Base Station which acts as a

processing unit in the WSN System.

Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet to share data.

WSN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.

 Applications of WSN:

1. Environmental Monitoring: WSNs are used to monitor various environmental parameters

like temperature, humidity, air quality, water quality, soil moisture, and other

environmental parameters. The data collected by the WSNs is used for environmental

analysis and decision-making.

2. Healthcare Monitoring: WSNs are used to monitor the vital signs of patients like heart

rate, blood pressure, and other physiological parameters. This helps in the early

detection of any medical condition and improves the quality of healthcare.

3. Industrial Automation: WSNs are used to monitor and control various industrial

processes like temperature, pressure, and other parameters. This helps in improving the

efficiency of industrial processes and reducing downtime.

4. Agriculture: WSNs are used to monitor soil moisture, temperature, and other

environmental parameters in agriculture. This helps in the efficient use of water and

other resources and improves crop yield.

5. Military and Defense: WSNs are used for battlefield surveillance, target tracking, and

other military applications. WSNs can also be used for border security and other

defense-related applications.

6. Home Automation: WSNs can be used for home automation applications like controlling

lighting, temperature, and other appliances. This helps in improving the convenience and

energy efficiency of homes.

7. Structural Health Monitoring: WSNs can be used to monitor the health of structures

like bridges, dams, and buildings. This helps in early detection of any structural damage

and improves safety.

Challenges of WSN:

 Limited power and energy: WSNs are typically composed of battery-powered sensors

that have limited energy resources. This makes it challenging to ensure that the network

can function for

long periods of time without the need for frequent battery replacements.

 Limited processing and storage capabilities: Sensor nodes in a WSN are typically small

and have limited processing and storage capabilities. This makes it difficult to perform

complex tasks or store large amounts of data.

 Heterogeneity: WSNs often consist of a variety of different sensor types and nodes

with different capabilities. This makes it challenging to ensure that the network can

function effectively and

efficiently.
 Security: WSNs are vulnerable to various types of attacks, such as eavesdropping,

jamming, and spoofing. Ensuring the security of the network and the data it collects is a

major challenge.

 Scalability: WSNs often need to be able to support a large number of sensor nodes and

handle large amounts of data. Ensuring that the network can scale to meet these demands

is a significant

challenge.

 Interference: WSNs are often deployed in environments where there is a lot of

interference from other wireless devices. This can make it difficult to ensure reliable

communication between sensor nodes.

 Reliability: WSNs are often used in critical applications, such as monitoring the

environment or controlling industrial processes. Ensuring that the network is reliable and

able to function correctly in all conditions is a major challenge.

Components of WSN:

1. Sensors:

Sensors in WSN are used to capture the environmental variables and which is used for

data acquisition. Sensor signals are converted into electrical signals.

2. Radio Nodes:

It is used to receive the data produced by the Sensors and sends it to the WLAN access

point. It consists of a microcontroller, transceiver, external memory, and power source.

3. WLAN Access Point:

It receives the data which is sent by the Radio nodes wirelessly, generally through the

internet.

4. Evaluation Software:

The data received by the WLAN Access Point is processed by a software called as
 Evaluation Software for presenting the report to the users for further processing of the

data which can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.

 Advantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):

Low cost: WSNs consist of small, low-cost sensors that are easy to deploy, making them a cost-

effective solution for many applications.

Wireless communication: WSNs eliminate the need for wired connections, which can be costly

and difficult to install. Wireless communication also enables flexible deployment and

reconfiguration of the network.

Energy efficiency: WSNs use low-power devices and protocols to conserve energy, enabling

long-term operation without the need for frequent battery replacements.

Scalability: WSNs can be scaled up or down easily by adding or removing sensors, making them

suitable for a range of applications and environments.

Real-time monitoring: WSNs enable real-time monitoring of physical phenomena in the

environment, providing timely information for decision making and control.

 Disadvantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):

Limited range: The range of wireless communication in WSNs is limited, which can be a

challenge for large-scale deployments or in environments with obstacles that obstruct radio

signals.

Limited processing power: WSNs use low-power devices, which may have limited processing

power and memory, making it difficult to perform complex computations or support advanced

applications.

Data security: WSNs are vulnerable to security threats, such as eavesdropping, tampering, and

denial of service attacks, which can compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of

data.
Interference: Wireless communication in WSNs can be susceptible to interference from other

wireless devices or radio signals, which can degrade the quality of data transmission.

Deployment challenges: Deploying WSNs can be challenging due to the need for proper sensor

placement, power management, and network configuration, which can require significant time

and resources.

 Classification of sensor networks/ WSN

WSN definition

1. Static and Mobile WSN:

These networks are static WSNs because all of the sensor nodes in various applications can be

set without movement. In many applications, all sensor nodes are connected without moving,

resulting in static networks. Mobile sensor nodes, also known as mobile networks, are used in

many applications, including biological systems. Mobile sensor nodes are required in some

applications, particularly in biological systems. Animal monitoring is the best example of a mobile

network. This is referred to as a mobile network. Animal monitoring is a type of mobile network.

2. Deterministic and Nondeterministic WSN:

The sensor node position is calculated and fixed in deterministic wireless sensor networks. The

sensor node arrangement in a deterministic network can be fixed and calculated. Pre-planned

operation of this sensor node is only possible in a few applications.

Sensor node deployment is possible in a limited number of applications. Because of factors such

as harsh environments or hostile operating conditions, determining the position of sensor nodes

is not possible. Such networks are non-deterministic and necessitate a complex system.

3. Single Base Station and Multi Base Station WSN:

In single base station WSNs, only one base station is used, which is located near the sensor

node region. The base station can facilitate communication between sensor nodes. All nodes

communicate with this base station; in the case of multi-base station WSNs, more than one
base station is used, and a sensor node can transfer data to the closest base station. Multiple

base stations are used in a multi-base station network, and a sensor node is used to move data

toward a nearby base station.

4. Static Base Station and Mobile Base Station WSN:

Base stations, like sensor nodes, are either mobile or static. As with sensor nodes, WSN base

stations are frequently either static or mobile. A static base station has a fixed location, which

is usually near the sensing region.

The static type base station, as the name implies, maintains a stable position close to the

sensing area, whereas the mobile type base station moves in the sensor region to balance the

load on the sensor nodes. Because the load on sensor nodes is balanced, a mobile base station

WSN moves around the sensing region.

5. Single-hop and Multi-hop WSN:

The sensor nodes in single-hop WSNs are directly connected to the base station. The

arrangement of sensor nodes in a single-hop network can be done directly toward the base

station, whereas in a multi-hop network, both the cluster heads and peer nodes are used to

transmit data to reduce energy consumption. In the case of multi-hop WSNs, peer nodes and

cluster heads are used to relay information in order to reduce energy consumption.

6. Self Reconfigurable and Non- Self Configurable WSN:

Sensor networks cannot organize themselves in a network and consider a control unit to gather

data in non-Self Configurable WSNs. Many WSNs allow sensor nodes to organize and maintain

connections, as well as collaborate with other sensor nodes to complete tasks.

7. Homogeneous and Heterogeneous WSN:

In the case of homogeneous WSNs, all sensor nodes consume the same amount of energy, have

the same storage capabilities, and have the same computational power. In the case of

heterogeneous WSNs, some sensor nodes require more computational power and energy than

others, and the processing and communication tasks are distributed accordingly. In the case of
a heterogeneous network, some sensor nodes require more computational power and energy than

others. As a result, the processing and communication tasks are separated.

 Architecture of Sensor Network/ WSNs

There are 2 types of architecture used in WSN: Layered Network Architecture, and Clustered

Architecture. These are explained as following below.

1. Layered Network Architecture:

Layered network architecture refers to the organization of network components and their

functions into distinct layers or levels, where each layer is responsible for a specific set of

tasks. The most commonly used layered architecture is the OSI (Open Systems

Interconnection) model, which consists of seven layers. The layers in the OSI model are:

Physical Layer: This layer is responsible for transmitting raw bit streams over a physical

medium, such as copper wires or fiber optic cables. It defines the physical characteristics of

the network, such as voltage levels, cable types, and transmission rates.

Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for the reliable transmission of data between two

adjacent nodes on a network. It is responsible for error detection and correction, flow control,

and framing.

Network Layer: This layer is responsible for routing data

packets between nodes on a network. It determines the best

path for data to travel between source and destination nodes

and handles congestion control.

Transport Layer: This layer provides end-to-end data

transport services and is responsible for ensuring the reliable

delivery of data. It handles flow control, error recovery, and

congestion control.

Session Layer: This layer establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions between applications

running on different devices. It enables synchronization and checkpointing of data exchanges.

Presentation Layer: This layer is responsible for data representation and provides services for

data encryption and compression.

Application Layer: This layer provides network services to applications running on the network,

such as email, file transfer, and web browsing.

The layered architecture enables modular design and simplifies network management by

separating the functions of different layers. It also allows for easier interoperability between

different network components and facilitates the development of new network technologies and

protocols.

2. Clustered Network Architecture:

In Clustered Network Architecture, Sensor Nodes autonomously clubs into groups called

clusters. It is based on the Leach Protocol which makes use of clusters. Leach Protocol stands

for Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy.

Properties of Leach Protocol:

It is a 2-tier hierarchy clustering architecture.

It is a distributed algorithm for organizing the sensor nodes into groups called clusters.

The cluster head nodes in each of the autonomously formed clusters create the Time-division

multiple access (TDMA) schedules.

It makes use of the concept called Data Fusion which makes it energy efficient.
Clustered Network Architecture is a very useful sensor network because of the property of

Data Fusion. Inside each cluster, each node communicate with the cluster head to gather the

information. All the clusters which are formed share their gathered information to the base

station. The cluster formation and selection of cluster head inside each cluster is an

independent and autonomous distributed process.

Layered Network

 Physical Layer

 Physical Layer is the bottom-most layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI)

Model which is a physical and electrical representation of the system.

 It consists of various network components such as power plugs, connectors, receivers, cable

types, etc.

 Physical Layer sends data bits from one device(s) (like a computer) to another device(s).

Physical Layer defines the types of encoding (that is how the 0’s and 1’s are encoded in a

signal).

 Physical Layer is responsible for the communication of the unstructured raw data streams

over a physical medium.

 Functions Performed by Physical Layer :

1. Signal Generation: The physical layer generates the actual signals that are transmitted

over the communication channel. It encodes the digital signals into analog signals

suitable for transmission.

2. Signal Transmission: The physical layer transmits the signal over the communication

channel. It defines the transmission medium, transmission rate, and signal modulation

scheme.

3. Signal Reception: The physical layer receives the signals from the communication channel

and converts them into digital signals.

4. Signal Amplification: The physical layer amplifies the weak signals received from the

communication channel to make them usable by the receiver.

5. Signal Equalization: The physical layer equalizes the distorted signals to remove any

interference or noise that may have been introduced during transmission.

6. Signal Multiplexing: The physical layer is responsible for the multiplexing of signals,

which enables multiple signals to be transmitted over the same communication channel

simultaneously.

7. Bit Synchronization: The physical layer ensures that the transmitter and receiver are

synchronized at the bit level to ensure reliable data transmission.

8. Channel Coding and Decoding: The physical layer provides channel coding and decoding

techniques to detect and correct errors that occur during transmission.

9. Media Access Control: The physical layer also provides media access control, which

regulates the access to the communication channel by multiple users.

 Transmission Media :

1. Guided Media: It is also called wired media and it includes copper wires, coaxial cables,

and fiber optic cables. In guided media, signals are transmitted through a physical

medium. Copper wires are used for short-distance

communication while fiber optic cables are used for

long-distance communication because of their high

bandwidth and low attenuation.

1. Twisted Pair Cable

In Twisted Pair Cable, the wires are twisted to reduce cross talk and electrical

interference. It was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1881.

Advantages of Twisted Pair Cable

 Easier to install

 The wire pairs are quite useful, and inexpensive.

 The wire can be used for analog or digital transmission.

 Crosstalk is less, since the wires are twisted.

Disadvantages of Twisted Pair Cable

These wires easily pick noise signal. This can be annoying, since it leads to high error rate, on
line length extending 100 metres.

Here are the two types of Twisted Pair Cable,

 2. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable is a group of wrapped and insulated wire line. They

transmit data at higher rates. Coax has a central core conductor. The

conductor is made of copper wire surrounded by PVC insulation. This

insulation is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, which is

enclosed in a PVC insulation sheath. Also, it is completely covered by

a plastic cover.

The outer conductor acts as a shield against noise.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cable is used in cable television.

 It offers much higher bandwidth.

 It is preferred for long distance telephone lines as well.

 Provides better shield when compared with Twisted Pair cable.

 It offers data transmission without any distortion.

 Expect quite higher noise immunity from coaxial cable.

Here are the two types of Coaxial cable,

Baseband Coaxial Cable

LAN generally uses Baseband Coaxial cable. It is the 50 ohm coaxial cable used for digital

transmission. The cable comes with a power of transmitting a single signal at quite high

speed. It transmits a single signal at a time.

Broadband Coaxial Cable

This cable transmits many simultaneous signals and that too using different frequency. It

covers more area than the Baseband coaxial cable and can run nearly 100km, but requires

analog amplifiers. Amplifiers are used to strengthen the signal periodically.

 3. Fiber-optic cable

Fiber-optic cable, also known as Optical Fibre provides high quality transmission of signals at

high speed.

The fiber optic cable has a glass core in the center.

Through the glass core, light propagates. The glass

core is then surrounded by a glass cladding. This has

lower index of refraction as compared to core, so

that the light remains in the core itself. To protect

the gladding, a thin plastic jacket is used.

How Fiber-optic cable works

In optical fiber, information is transmitted by semiconductor lasers in the form of light. The

source has a converter, which converts electrical signals into light waves. The light waves get

transmitted over the fiber. The destination also has a converter, which converts the light

waves back to electric signals. The signal is sent to the receiver after amplification.

Advantages

 Fiber-optic cable do not get affected by electromagnetic interference.

 It you want high quality transmission of signals at very high speed, use fiber-optic cable .

 Works for both analog as well as digital signals.

 Point to point one way communication generally uses the cable.

2. Unguided Media: It is also called wireless media and it includes radio waves, microwave,

and infrared. In unguided media, signals are transmitted through the air. Radio waves are

used for long-distance communication while infrared is used for short-distance

communication.

The selection of transmission media depends on various factors like the distance between the

communicating devices, the required bandwidth, the level of security, and cost.
Advantages of Unguided/ Unbounded Transmission Media

 Users communicate while travelling in trains, metro and bus.

 Users communicate while walking using unguided media (wireless)

 Even Gigantic buildings and mountains will not be able to stop wireless communication.

Large distances can be easily covered.

Radio Transmission

Radio Transmission is used globally for

communication both indoors and outdoors. Radio

waves travels long distances and even penetrate

buildings with ease, with its omnidirectional

feature. Omnidirectional travel in all the

directions, avoiding the need to align transmitter

and receiver.

Radio communication has eight ranges, also called bands, and all regulated by government

authorities.

The following are the radio frequencies,

 VLF : Very Low Frequency for submarine

communication

 LF: Low Frequency for long-range navigation.

 MF: Middle Frequency for AM radio.

 HF: High Frequency for long distance ship and aircraft communication.

 VHF: Very High Frequency for FM radio.

 UHF: Ultra High Frequency for Television, mobile telephone communication.

 SHF: Superhigh frequency for terrestrial and satellite microwave.

 EHF: Extremely high frequency for radar.

Microwave Transmission in Computer Networks

Microwave transmission use lower gigahertz frequency of the electronic magnetic spectrum.

They require line-of-sight transmission, since they do not follow the curvature of earth. The

signals in Microwave transmission propagates in a single direction at a time. The following are

the types of Microwave Data Communication,

 Terrestrial Microwave

 Satellite Communication

Terrestrial Microwave

The following two antennas are used for terrestrial Microwave,

Parabolic Dish Antenna: The parabolic dish antenna is based on the line of symmetry. Lines

parallel to the line of sight gets reflect off the curves at angles

intersecting at focus. The antenna catches a wide range of waves

like a funnel as you can in the below figure. The waves are

directed to a common point.

Horn Antenna: Using a horn antenna, the outgoing (sending)

transmission is broadcasted up a stem. The deflection is outwards in a series of narrow parallel

beams. The horn’s scooped shape collects the incoming (receiving) transmission. The deflection

is downwards in to the stem.

Satellite Communication

Satellite microwave systems are placed in outerspace like a microwave relay station. The

satellites are launched into the outer space by rockets or space shuttles.

Satellites are positioned 3600km above the equater. The orbit speed matches the rotation

speed of our planet earth.

Geosynchronous Orbit (GSO)

The orbit around the earth of a satellite

with a speed that matches the earth’s

rotation on its axis is called geosynchronous

orbit. For constant communication, the

satellite should move at the same speed as

the earth.

Physical Topologies :

1. Bus Topology: In this topology, all devices in the network are connected to a common

communication line called a bus. Data travels along the bus, and each device on the bus can

receive the data, but only the device intended to receive the data will process it.

2. Star Topology: In this topology, each device is connected to a central hub or switch. Data

travels from the sending device to the hub or switch, which then forwards the data to the

intended recipient device.

3. Ring Topology: In this topology, devices are connected in a circular ring, with each device

connected to the next device in the ring. Data travels around the ring until it reaches the

intended recipient device.

4. Mesh Topology: In this topology, each device is connected to every other device in the

network. Data can travel along multiple paths to reach its destination, making the network

highly fault-tolerant.

Advantages of Physical Layer:

 Simple and low-cost hardware.

 Offers fast and efficient data transfer.

 Provides a direct and continuous transmission medium.

 Supports various types of physical topologies.

Disadvantages of Physical Layer:

 Susceptible to physical damage, electromagnetic interference, and attenuation.

 Limited range and bandwidth compared to higher layers.

 Does not support intelligent data transmission or error correction.

 Difficult to manage and maintain.

EXAMPLE

An example of the physical layer is the use of Ethernet cables to connect devices in a local area

network (LAN). The physical layer specifies the transmission medium, such as copper or fiber

optic cables, and the electrical and mechanical specifications for transmitting data between

devices.

MAC Layer

The medium access control (MAC) is a sublayer of the data link layer of the open system

interconnections (OSI) reference model for data transmission. It is responsible for flow

control and multiplexing for transmission medium. It controls the transmission of data packets

via remotely shared channels. It sends data over the network interface card.

MAC Layer in the OSI Model

The Open System Interconnections (OSI) model is a layered networking framework that

conceptualizes how communications should be done between heterogeneous systems. The data

link layer is the second lowest layer. It is divided into two sublayers −

 The logical link control (LLC) sublayer

 The medium access control (MAC) sublayer

The following diagram depicts the position of the MAC layer −

Functions of MAC Layer

 It provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the LLC and upper layers of the OSI

network.

 It is responsible for encapsulating frames so that they are suitable for transmission via

the physical medium.

 It resolves the addressing of source station as well as the destination station, or groups

of destination stations.

 It performs multiple access resolutions when more than one data frame is to be

transmitted. It determines the channel access methods for transmission.

 It also performs collision resolution and initiating retransmission in case of collisions.

 It generates the frame check sequences and thus contributes to protection against

transmission errors.

MAC Addresses

MAC Addresses are unique 48-bit hardware number of a computer, which is embedded into a

network card (known as a Network Interface Card during the time of manufacturing. MAC

Address is also known as the Physical Address of a network device. In IEEE 802 standard, Data

Link Layer is divided into two sublayers –

 1. Logical Link Control(LLC) Sublayer

2. Media Access Control(MAC) Sublayer

MAC address is used by the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of the Data-Link Layer. MAC

Address is worldwide unique since millions of network devices exist and we need to uniquely

identify each.

Format of MAC Address

MAC Address is a 12-digit hexadecimal number (6-Byte binary number), which is mostly

represented by Colon-Hexadecimal notation. The First 6 digits (say 00:40:96) of the MAC

Address identify the manufacturer, called OUI (Organizational Unique Identifier). IEEE

Registration Authority Committee assigns these MAC prefixes to its registered vendors.

The rightmost six digits represent Network Interface Controller, which is assigned by the

manufacturer.

As discussed above, the MAC address is represented by Colon-Hexadecimal notation. But this is

just a conversion, not mandatory. MAC address can be represented using any of the following

formats:
Note: Colon-Hexadecimal notation is used by Linux OS and Period-separated Hexadecimal

notation is used by Cisco Systems.

Types of MAC Address

1. Unicast: A Unicast-addressed frame is only sent out to the interface leading to a specific

NIC. If the LSB (least significant bit) of the first octet of an address is set to zero, the frame

is meant to reach only one receiving NIC. The MAC Address of the source machine is always

Unicast.

2. Multicast: The multicast address allows the source to send a frame to a group of devices. In

Layer-2 (Ethernet) Multicast address, the LSB (least significant bit) of the first octet of an

address is set to one. IEEE has allocated the address block 01-80-C2-xx-xx-xx (01-80-C2-00-

00-00 to 01-80-C2-FF-FF-FF) for group addresses for use by standard protocols.

3. Broadcast: Similar to Network Layer, Broadcast is also possible on the underlying layer(

Data Link Layer). Ethernet frames with ones in all bits of the destination address (FF-FF-FF-

FF-FF-FF) are referred to as the broadcast addresses. Frames that are destined with MAC

address FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF will reach every computer belonging to that LAN segment.

Characteristics of MAC Address

An Ethernet MAC address is a 48-bit binary value expressed as 12 hexadecimal digits (4 bits

per hexadecimal digit). MAC addresses are in a flat structure and thus they are not routable on

the Internet. Serial interfaces do not use MAC addresses. It does NOT contain a network and

host portion with the address. It is used to deliver the frame to the destination device.
 MAC addresses are used in LAN (Local Area Network) environments to identify devices

and allow communication between them.

 MAC addresses are burned into the hardware of a network interface card (NIC) and

cannot be changed, except in some rare cases where the manufacturer has provided a

specific tool to do so.

 The first 3 bytes of a MAC address represent the manufacturer ID, while the last 3

bytes represent a unique identifier assigned by the manufacturer.

 MAC addresses are often used in conjunction with ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) to

resolve IP addresses to MAC addresses for communication on a LAN.

 Some operating systems, such as Windows and Linux, allow you to view the MAC address

of your network adapter through a command prompt or network settings.

Advantages of MAC Layer:

 Efficient medium access for data transfer

 Support for multiple access methods, such as contention-based or reservation-based

 Effective error control through techniques like CRC and retransmission

 Ability to prioritize traffic based on traffic type or source/destination addresses

Disadvantages of MAC Layer:

 Overhead associated with error control and retransmission can reduce network

efficiency

 In some cases, contention-based access methods can lead to excessive collisions and

reduced throughput

 Limited scalability in some cases, particularly for larger networks with many nodes

 Complex protocols can be difficult to implement and manage.

 EXAMPLE:

examples of MAC protocols include Wi-Fi (802.11) for wireless LANs, and Bluetooth for short-

range wireless communication between devices.

 Link Layer

o In the OSI model, the data link layer is a 4th layer from the top and 2nd layer from the

bottom.

o The communication channel that connects the adjacent nodes is known as links, and in

order to move the datagram from source to the destination, the datagram must be moved

across an individual link.

o The main responsibility of the Data Link Layer is to transfer the datagram across an

individual link.

o The Data link layer protocol defines the format of the packet exchanged across the

nodes as well as the actions such as Error detection, retransmission, flow control, and

random access.

o The Data Link Layer protocols are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI and PPP.

o An important characteristic of a Data Link Layer is that datagram can be handled by

different link layer protocols on different links in a path. For example, the datagram is

handled by Ethernet on the first link, PPP on the second link.

Following services are provided by the Data Link Layer:

o Framing & Link access: Data Link Layer protocols encapsulate each network frame

within a Link layer frame before the transmission across the link. A frame consists of a

data field in which network layer datagram is inserted and a number of data fields. It

specifies the structure of the frame as well as a channel access protocol by which frame

is to be transmitted over the link.

o Reliable delivery: Data Link Layer provides a reliable delivery service, i.e., transmits the

network layer datagram without any error. A reliable delivery service is accomplished

with transmissions and acknowledgements. A data link layer mainly provides the reliable

delivery service over the links as they have higher error rates and they can be corrected

locally, link at which an error occurs rather than forcing to retransmit the data.

o Flow control: A receiving node can receive the frames at a faster rate than it can

process the frame. Without flow control, the receiver's buffer can overflow, and frames

can get lost. To overcome this problem, the data link layer uses the flow control to

prevent the sending node on one side of the link from overwhelming the receiving node on

another side of the link.

o Error detection: Errors can be introduced by signal attenuation and noise. Data Link

Layer protocol provides a mechanism to detect one or more errors. This is achieved by

adding error detection bits in the frame and then receiving node can perform an error

check.
 o Error correction: Error correction is similar to the Error detection, except that

receiving node not only detect the errors but also determine where the errors have

occurred in the frame.

o Half-Duplex & Full-Duplex: In a Full-Duplex mode, both the nodes can transmit the

data at the same time. In a Half-Duplex mode, only one node can transmit the data at the

same time.

Functions of the Data-link Layer:

1. Framing: The data link layer divides the data received from the network layer into

frames for transmission over the network.

2. Addressing: Each frame is assigned a unique source and destination address to ensure

that it is delivered to the correct destination.

3. Error control: The data link layer uses techniques such as checksums to detect and

correct errors that may occur during transmission.

4. Flow control: The data link layer ensures that data is transmitted at an appropriate rate,

avoiding congestion and ensuring that the receiver can handle the incoming data.

5. Access control: The data link layer is responsible for controlling access to the network by

devices, using techniques such as CSMA/CD and token passing.

6. Link management: The data link layer manages the establishment, maintenance, and

termination of connections between devices on the network.

Advantages of the Data Link Layer:

 Efficient data transfer by error detection and correction mechanisms

 Provides flow control and synchronization between sender and receiver

 Can handle different topologies and physical media

 Can support both connection-oriented and connectionless services

Disadvantages of the Data Link Layer:

 Overhead in terms of additional headers and trailers that increase the frame size

 Limited scalability due to the use of fixed network addresses

 Inability to provide end-to-end services beyond its own network segment

 Limited security mechanisms, making it vulnerable to attacks such as spoofing and

tampering.

Example:

One example of the data link layer in networking is the Ethernet protocol, which is commonly

used for wired LANs. It provides reliable, high-speed communication between devices on the

same physical network segment. Other examples include Wi-Fi (for wireless LANs), Bluetooth

(for short-range wireless communication between devices), and Frame Relay (for wide-area

networks).

Explain the qualities of service metrics that are used to evaluate the performance of the

network?

Quality of Service (QoS) metrics are used to evaluate the performance of a network in terms

of its ability to provide a certain level of service to its users. These metrics can vary depending

on the type of network and the specific requirements of the application. Some of the commonly

used QoS metrics are:

1. Bandwidth: Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transmitted over a network in a

given time period. It is measured in bits per second (bps) or a multiple of bps.

2. Latency: Latency is the time delay between sending a request and receiving a response. It

is measured in milliseconds (ms) or a multiple of ms.

3. Jitter: Jitter is the variation in latency between successive data packets. It is measured

in milliseconds (ms) or a multiple of ms.

 4. Packet loss: Packet loss occurs when one or more data packets are lost during

transmission. It is measured as a percentage of total packets sent.

5. Reliability: Reliability refers to the ability of a network to deliver data without errors or

loss of information.

6. Availability: Availability refers to the percentage of time that the network is operational

and accessible to users.

7. Throughput: Throughput is the amount of data that can be transmitted over a network in

a given time period. It is measured in bits per second (bps) or a multiple of bps.

8. Security: Security refers to the protection of data and information transmitted over the

network from unauthorized access, interception, or manipulation.

These QoS metrics are essential in evaluating the performance of a network and ensuring that

it meets the requirements of the applications and the users.

 UNIT – 4

Data Retrieval in Sensor Networks

Data retrieval in sensor networks involves the process of collecting data from the deployed

sensors in the network. The following steps are involved in data retrieval:

1. Data Collection: The first step involves collecting data from the sensors deployed in the

network. The data collected may include temperature, humidity, pressure, etc.

2. Data Aggregation: The collected data is then aggregated, where the data from multiple

sensors are combined to reduce redundancy and improve the efficiency of the network.

3. Data Compression: The aggregated data is then compressed to reduce the amount of data

that needs to be transmitted to the base station. This is important in sensor networks

because of the limited bandwidth and power resources.

4. Data Transmission: The compressed data is then transmitted to the base station through

a multi-hop route. This is achieved through the use of routing protocols that determine

the best path for data transmission.

5. Data Processing: The base station then processes the received data to extract the

required information. The processed data may be used for various applications such as

environmental monitoring, surveillance, etc.

The performance of the network in data retrieval can be evaluated using the following

quality of service metrics:

1. Reliability: This refers to the ability of the network to deliver data with a high degree of

accuracy and precision.

2. Latency: This is the time taken for the data to travel from the source to the destination.

3. Throughput: This is the amount of data that can be transmitted through the network per

unit time.
 4. Security: This refers to the ability of the network to protect against unauthorized

access, eavesdropping, and other security threats.

 Routing Layer

Introduction

 The routing protocol is a process to select suitable path for the data to travel from

source to destination.

 The process encounters several difficulties while selecting the route, which depends

upon, type of network, channel characteristics and the performance metrics.

 The data sensed by the sensor nodes in a wireless sensor network (WSN) is typically

forwarded to the base station that connects the sensor network with the other networks

(may be internet) where the data is collected, analyzed and some action is taken

accordingly.

In very small sensor networks where the base station and motes (sensor nodes) so close that

they can communicate directly with each other than this is single-hop communication but in

most WSN application the coverage area is so large that requires thousands of nodes to be

placed and this scenario requires multi-hop communication because most of the sensor nodes

are so far from the sink node (gateway) so that they cannot communicate directly with the base

station.

The single-hop communication is also called direct communication and multi-hop communication is

called indirect communication.

In multi-hop communication the sensor nodes not only produce and deliver their material but

also serve as a path for other sensor nodes towards the base station. The process of finding

suitable path from source node to destination node is called routing and this is the primary

responsibility of the network layer.

Example:

One example of a routing layer is the Internet Protocol (IP) routing layer in the TCP/IP

protocol suite. This layer is responsible for forwarding packets of data between network

devices in a network. It uses routing algorithms to determine the best path for data to travel

through the network to reach its destination. Other examples of routing layers include Routing

Information Protocol (RIP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), Border Gateway Protocol (BGP),

and Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS).

There are typically two types of routing layers in a network:

1. Logical routing layer: This type of routing layer operates at the logical level and

is responsible for forwarding packets based on the network topology and the

routing table. It is responsible for managing routing protocols, building and

updating routing tables, and determining the optimal path for packets to travel

through the network.

Applications:

1. Routing data between different subnets or VLANs in a network

2. Providing redundancy and load balancing for network traffic

3. Enforcing network security policies and access control

4. Connecting different networks or sites using Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

Advantages:

1. Scalability: improve the scalability of a network by enabling the creation of virtual

routers or routing domains. This can help to reduce the amount of traffic that needs to

be processed by individual routers and can make it easier to scale the network as it

grows.
 2. Flexibility: provide a high degree of flexibility by allowing different routing policies to be

applied to different parts of the network. This can help to optimize network performance

and improve the overall user experience.

3. Security: improve network security by enabling the creation of isolated routing domains

that can be secured independently of each other. This can help to prevent attacks from

spreading across the network and can make it easier to manage security policies.

4. Cost-effectiveness: A logical routing layer can be a cost-effective way to improve

network performance and scalability. By creating virtual routing domains, it may be

possible to reduce the number of physical routers that are required, which can help to

lower capital and operational costs.

Disadvantages:

1. Complex design: The logical routing layer can be complex to design and implement, which

requires skilled network engineers.

2. Overhead: Adding an additional layer to the network can result in increased overhead,

which can impact network performance.

3. Cost: The logical routing layer can require additional hardware and software, which can

increase the cost of the network.

4. Latency: The logical routing layer can introduce additional latency into the network, which

can impact the performance of real-time applications.

5. Maintenance: The logical routing layer can be more difficult to maintain and troubleshoot,

requiring specialized knowledge and tools.

2. Physical routing layer: This type of routing layer operates at the physical level

and is responsible for forwarding packets based on the physical topology of the

network. It is responsible for managing the physical connections between nodes

and forwarding packets based on the MAC (Media Access Control) addresses of

the nodes.
Applications:

1. Ethernet: Ethernet is a widely used physical routing layer protocol used in local area

networks (LANs) for transmitting data over copper or fiber-optic cables.

2. Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi is a popular physical routing layer protocol used for wireless communication

between devices in a local area network.

3. Bluetooth: Bluetooth is another wireless physical routing layer protocol commonly used

for short-range communication between devices.

Advantages:

1. Efficiency: Physical routing layer ensures that data packets are transmitted through the

most efficient path, ensuring minimal delay and congestion.

2. Scalability: Physical routing layer can scale up or down easily depending on the network's

size and topology, ensuring seamless operation.

3. Flexibility: Physical routing layer can support various wireless standards and frequencies,

making it adaptable to different network requirements.

4. Security: Physical routing layer can provide secure communication channels between nodes,

ensuring that data is transmitted securely and without interference.

5. Lower Cost: Physical routing layer can be less expensive than logical routing layer due to its
simplicity and ease of implementation.

disadvantages physical routing layer in points

1. Limited flexibility: Since the physical layer is tied to the physical hardware of a network, it

can be difficult to make changes or modifications without physically altering the hardware.

2. Difficult troubleshooting: If there are issues with the physical layer, it can be difficult to

pinpoint the source of the problem and troubleshoot it effectively.

3. Costly upgrades: Upgrading the physical layer can be costly, especially if it involves replacing

hardware components or implementing new technologies.

4. Limited scalability: Depending on the specific hardware being used, the physical layer may

have limited scalability, which could pose problems for networks that need to expand in the

future.

5. Vulnerability to physical damage: Since the physical layer is based on physical hardware

components, it is susceptible to damage from environmental factors, such as temperature,

humidity, and physical impact.

The routing layer has advantages and disadvantages as follows:

Advantages:

a. Efficient and optimized packet routing

b. Improved network performance and reduced congestion

c. Increased scalability and flexibility

d. Enhanced security and reliability

e. Support for various network topologies and protocols

Disadvantages:

a. Higher complexity and cost compared to simpler networking architecture

b. Requires specialized knowledge and expertise to set up and maintain

c. Greater potential for network failures and outages due to the complexity of the

routing layer

d. Can introduce additional latency and overhead to network traffic

e. May require more powerful hardware to handle the increased traffic and

processing demands.
  Transport Layer

The transport layer is an important component of the network protocol stack in wireless sensor

networks (WSNs) as it is responsible for providing end-to-end communication between nodes.

The main function of the transport layer is to ensure reliable and efficient data transfer

between the source and destination nodes. In this answer, we will discuss the transport layer in

WSNs in detail.

The transport layer in WSNs performs several functions such as:

a. Reliable Data Delivery: One of the primary functions of the transport layer is to ensure

reliable data delivery. This is done by using mechanisms such as error checking and

retransmission to ensure that the data sent from the source node is correctly received by

the destination node.

b. Congestion Control: The transport layer also handles congestion control to prevent network

congestion and ensure efficient data transfer. This is done by using techniques such as flow

control and congestion avoidance to regulate the flow of data between nodes.

c. Quality of Service (QoS): The transport layer in WSNs also provides QoS guarantees for

different types of data traffic. For example, real-time data such as video and audio require

low latency and high bandwidth, while non-real-time data such as temperature readings can

tolerate higher latency.

Transport Layer protocols

The transport layer is represented by two protocols: TCP and UDP.

UDP

o UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol.

o UDP is a simple protocol and it provides non sequenced transport functionality.

o UDP is a connectionless protocol.

o This type of protocol is used when reliability and security are less important than speed and
size.
o UDP is an end-to-end transport level protocol that adds transport-level addresses, checksum
error control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.

o The packet produced by the UDP protocol is known as a user datagram.

User Datagram Format

The user datagram has a 16-byte header which is shown below:

o Source port address: It defines the address of the application process that has

delivered a message. The source port address is of 16 bits address.

o Destination port address: It defines the address of the application process that will

receive the message. The destination port address is of a 16-bit address.

o Total length: It defines the total length of the user datagram in bytes. It is a 16-bit

field.

o Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field which is used in error detection.

Advantages of UDP:

 Low overhead and efficient for simple data transmission.

 Faster transmission since it does not require establishing and maintaining connections.

 Better suited for real-time applications like gaming and video streaming, where some
packet loss is acceptable.

Disadvantages of UDP:

 No error checking or retransmission of lost packets, which can result in unreliable data
transmission.

 Vulnerable to security threats, including denial-of-service attacks and UDP-based

attacks.
  Not suitable for applications that require reliable and ordered data delivery, such as file
transfer or email.

TCP

o TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol.

o It provides full transport layer services to applications.

o It is a connection-oriented protocol means the connection established between both the

ends of the transmission. For creating the connection, TCP generates a virtual circuit

between sender and receiver for the duration of a transmission.

Features Of TCP protocol

 Provides reliable, connection-oriented communication between two endpoints.

 Implements flow control to prevent congestion and ensure data integrity.

 Supports error detection and recovery through checksums and retransmission

mechanisms.

 Allows for ordered delivery of data packets.

 Implements congestion control to manage network congestion and prevent network

collapse.

 Provides a mechanism for establishing and terminating connections through the use of

the three-way handshake.

 Supports full-duplex communication, allowing for data to be sent and received

simultaneously.
TCP Segment Format

o Source port address: It is used to define the address of the application program in a

source computer. It is a 16-bit field.

o Destination port address: It is used to define the address of the application program in

a destination computer. It is a 16-bit field.

o Sequence number: A stream of data is divided into two or more TCP segments. The 32-

bit sequence number field represents the position of the data in an original data stream.

o Acknowledgement number: A 32-field acknowledgement number acknowledge the data

from other communicating devices. If ACK field is set to 1, then it specifies the sequence

number that the receiver is expecting to receive.

o Header Length (HLEN): It specifies the size of the TCP header in 32-bit words. The

minimum size of the header is 5 words, and the maximum size of the header is 15 words.

Therefore, the maximum size of the TCP header is 60 bytes, and the minimum size of the

TCP header is 20 bytes.

o Reserved: It is a six-bit field which is reserved for future use.

o Control bits: Each bit of a control field functions individually and independently. A

control bit defines the use of a segment or serves as a validity check for other fields.
There are total six types of flags in control field:

o URG: The URG field indicates that the data in a segment is urgent.

o ACK: When ACK field is set, then it validates the acknowledgement number.

o PSH: The PSH field is used to inform the sender that higher throughput is needed so if

possible, data must be pushed with higher throughput.

o RST: The reset bit is used to reset the TCP connection when there is any confusion

occurs in the sequence numbers.

o SYN: The SYN field is used to synchronize the sequence numbers

o FIN: The FIN field is used to inform the receiving TCP module that the sender has

finished sending data.

Advantages of TCP:

 Provides reliable, error-free transmission of data.

 Offers congestion control to prevent network congestion and ensure fair sharing of

network resources.

 Supports full-duplex communication, allowing data to be transmitted in both directions

simultaneously.

 Works well for applications that require high levels of reliability and accuracy, such as

web browsing, email, and file transfer.

Disadvantages of TCP:

 Can be slower than UDP due to its reliability mechanisms and flow control.

 Requires more overhead in terms of processing and network resources than UDP.

 May not be suitable for applications that require real-time communication, such as gaming

or live video streaming, due to its error checking and congestion control mechanisms.
High-level application layer support

The application layer in wireless communication provides high-level support to the applications
that communicate over the network. The primary function of the application layer is to provide
an interface between the network and the application, allowing the application to communicate
with other devices over the network.

Some of the high-level application layer protocols used in wireless communication are HTTP
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer
Protocol), and DNS (Domain Name System).

The advantages of high-level application layer support in wireless communication are:

 It provides a standardized interface for application developers to interact with the

network, which makes it easier to develop applications.

 It supports a wide range of applications, including web browsing, email, file transfer, and
video streaming.

 It enables applications to communicate across different platforms and devices,

regardless of the underlying network technology.

The disadvantages of high-level application layer support in wireless communication are:

 It can introduce additional overhead and latency, which can slow down the communication
process.

 It can increase the complexity of the network architecture, making it harder to manage
and troubleshoot.

 It can pose security risks, as some protocols may be vulnerable to attacks and exploits.

Adapting to the inherent

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have some inherent characteristics such as limited

resources, unreliable wireless links, dynamic topology, and distributed architecture. To adapt to

these characteristics, several techniques are used in WSNs:

1. Energy-efficient protocols: To cope with limited resources, energy-efficient protocols

are used that reduce energy consumption and prolong network lifetime.
 2. Adaptive routing: Due to the dynamic topology of WSNs, adaptive routing protocols are

employed that can find and maintain the optimal path between source and destination

nodes.

3. Data aggregation: WSNs generate a large amount of data, which is transmitted over the

wireless links. Data aggregation techniques are used to reduce the amount of data

transmitted, which reduces energy consumption and increases network lifetime.

4. Localization: WSNs are often deployed in remote or hostile environments, where it is

difficult to accurately locate nodes. Localization techniques are used to determine the

physical location of nodes, which is essential for many applications.

5. Security: Wireless links are susceptible to eavesdropping, jamming, and other attacks.

Security mechanisms are used to protect the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of

data transmitted over the wireless links.

dynamic nature of WSNs

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are inherently dynamic due to the unpredictable behavior of

the sensors, the environment they operate in, and the wireless communication medium. The

dynamic nature of WSNs refers to the fact that the network topology, network conditions, and

network traffic can change frequently and unexpectedly. To adapt to this dynamic nature,

WSNs employ various techniques, such as dynamic routing, dynamic resource allocation, and

dynamic reconfiguration. These techniques allow the network to reconfigure itself to adapt to

the changing conditions and maintain optimal performance. The ability to adapt to the inherent

dynamic nature of WSNs is critical to achieving reliable and efficient communication in these

networks.
 Sensor Networks and mobile robots

Sensor networks and mobile robots are two technologies that have become increasingly

important in recent years due to their wide range of applications in various fields. Sensor

networks are a collection of small devices equipped with sensors that can collect and transmit

data to a central location.

On the other hand, mobile robots are autonomous machines that can move around and interact

with their environment.

The integration of these two technologies can provide many benefits. Mobile robots can be

equipped with sensors and used to gather data from hard-to-reach areas or dangerous

environments.

They can also be used to move sensor nodes around, which can help to increase coverage or

improve the quality of data collected by the sensor network.

In addition, sensor networks can be used to provide information to mobile robots, which can

help them navigate through complex environments. The information collected by the sensor

network can also be used to make decisions about the robot's behavior, such as where to go

next or what actions to take.

Overall, the combination of sensor networks and mobile robots has the potential to

revolutionize many industries, including agriculture, manufacturing, and healthcare, by providing

more efficient and effective ways to collect and analyze data.

Security in Ad Hoc networks

Security in Ad Hoc networks refers to the protection of the network from unauthorized

access, data theft, and other security threats. Security in Ad Hoc networks can be achieved

through various measures such as authentication, encryption, and key management.

 Ad hoc networks are vulnerable to various types of security attacks due to their

decentralized nature and lack of a fixed infrastructure.

  Security mechanisms are required to protect the confidentiality, integrity, and

availability of data in ad hoc networks.

 The two main categories of security attacks in ad hoc networks are passive attacks and

active attacks.

 Passive attacks involve eavesdropping on network communications, while active attacks

involve modifying, deleting, or injecting new data into network communications.

 Encryption and authentication techniques can be used to protect against security attacks

in ad hoc networks.

 Public key cryptography is commonly used for secure key exchange, while symmetric key

cryptography is used for data encryption and decryption.

 Other security mechanisms that can be used in ad hoc networks include firewalls,

intrusion detection systems, and intrusion prevention systems.

key management of security in adhoc

In ad hoc networks, key management is an important aspect of security. Here are some points

about key management in ad hoc networks:

 Ad hoc networks have dynamic topology and frequent node movement, which makes key

management challenging.

 Key management involves generating, distributing, storing, and revoking cryptographic

keys used for securing communication in the network.

 In ad hoc networks, two key management approaches are commonly used: centralized and

distributed.

 In centralized key management, a central authority is responsible for key generation and

distribution. This approach is efficient but has a single point of failure.

 In distributed key management, each node generates and distributes its own keys. This

approach is more resilient but may lead to key inconsistencies and vulnerabilities.
  A common approach to key management in ad hoc networks is to use a combination of

centralized and distributed methods.

Secure routing in Ad Hoc networks

1. Ad Hoc networks are vulnerable to attacks due to their decentralized nature and lack of

infrastructure. Secure routing is essential to prevent unauthorized access and ensure

data confidentiality.

2. Secure routing protocols are designed to detect and prevent attacks such as blackhole,

grayhole, and wormhole attacks.

3. In secure routing, each node is assigned a security level based on its role in the network.

Nodes with higher security levels are responsible for maintaining the network's security

and ensuring data integrity.

4. Secure routing protocols use various techniques such as authentication, encryption, and

digital signatures to protect the data being transmitted over the network.

5. One popular secure routing protocol for Ad Hoc networks is the Secure Ad Hoc On-

Demand Distance Vector (SAODV) protocol, which is an extension of the Ad Hoc On-

Demand Distance Vector (AODV) protocol.

6. SAODV uses public key cryptography and digital signatures to provide secure routing.

Each node has a public key and a private key, and messages are encrypted and signed

using these keys.

7. Another secure routing protocol for Ad Hoc networks is the Dynamic Source Routing

(DSR) protocol, which uses digital signatures and certificates to authenticate nodes and

ensure data integrity.

8. Secure routing in Ad Hoc networks is an ongoing research area, and new protocols and

techniques are constantly being developed to improve the security of these networks.
Cooperation in MANETs

Cooperation in MANETs can refer to the collaboration among nodes in the network to achieve a

common goal or to improve network performance. Here are some points on cooperation in

MANETs:

 Cooperation among nodes in MANETs can improve the reliability and robustness of the

network. By sharing information and resources, nodes can work together to overcome the

limitations of their individual capabilities.

 Cooperative routing protocols can be used in MANETs to improve the routing efficiency

and reduce the overhead of the network. These protocols rely on the cooperation of

nodes to forward packets to their destinations, and can adapt to changes in network

topology and traffic load.

 In cooperative spectrum sensing, nodes in MANETs can work together to detect and

classify the available spectrum bands for use in cognitive radio networks. This can

improve the spectrum utilization and reduce interference in the network.

 Cooperative caching is another technique that can be used in MANETs to improve data

accessibility and reduce the latency of data retrieval. By storing frequently accessed

data in the caches of nearby nodes, the network can reduce the number of hops required

to retrieve the data.

 However, cooperation in MANETs can also be vulnerable to attacks by malicious nodes.

These nodes may refuse to cooperate or provide false information, which can compromise

the reliability and security of the network. Therefore, secure and trust-based

cooperation mechanisms are necessary to ensure the integrity of the network.

Intrusion Detection System (IDS)

A system called an intrusion detection system (IDS) observes network traffic for malicious

transactions and sends immediate alerts when it is observed.

It is software that checks a network or system for malicious activities or policy violations.

It works by monitoring and analyzing network traffic for suspicious behavior or known attack

patterns, and generating alerts or taking automated actions to block or mitigate the threats.

(see gfg one image IDS)

How does an IDS work?

 An IDS (Intrusion Detection System) monitors the traffic on a computer network to

detect any suspicious activity.

 It analyzes the data flowing through the network to look for patterns and signs of
abnormal behavior.

 The IDS compares the network activity to a set of predefined rules and patterns to
identify any activity that might indicate an attack or intrusion.

 If the IDS detects something that matches one of these rules or patterns, it sends an
alert to the system administrator.

 The system administrator can then investigate the alert and take action to prevent any
damage or further intrusion.

Classification of Intrusion Detection System

IDS are classified into 5 types:

 Network Intrusion Detection System (NIDS): Network intrusion detection systems

(NIDS) are set up at a planned point within the network to examine traffic from all

devices on the network. It performs an observation of passing traffic on the entire

subnet and matches the traffic that is passed on the subnets to the collection of known

attacks. Once an attack is identified or abnormal behavior is observed, the alert can be
 sent to the administrator. An example of a NIDS is installing it on the subnet where

firewalls are located in order to see if someone is trying to crack the firewall.

 Host Intrusion Detection System (HIDS): Host intrusion detection systems (HIDS) run

on independent hosts or devices on the network. A HIDS monitors the incoming and

outgoing packets from the device only and will alert the administrator if suspicious or

malicious activity is detected. It takes a snapshot of existing system files and compares

it with the previous snapshot. If the analytical system files were edited or deleted, an

alert is sent to the administrator to investigate. An example of HIDS usage can be seen

on mission-critical machines, which are not expected to change their layout.

 Protocol-based Intrusion Detection System (PIDS): Protocol-based intrusion detection

system (PIDS) comprises a system or agent that would consistently reside at the front

end of a server, controlling and interpreting the protocol between a user/device and the

server. It is trying to secure the web server by regularly monitoring the HTTPS protocol

stream and accepting the related HTTP protocol. As HTTPS is unencrypted and before

instantly entering its web presentation layer then this system would need to reside in

this interface, between to use the HTTPS.

 Application Protocol-based Intrusion Detection System (APIDS): An application

Protocol-based Intrusion Detection System (APIDS) is a system or agent that generally

resides within a group of servers. It identifies the intrusions by monitoring and

interpreting the communication on application-specific protocols. For example, this would

 monitor the SQL protocol explicitly to the middleware as it transacts with the database

in the web server.

Detection Method of IDS

1. Signature-based Method: Signature-based IDS detects the attacks on the basis of the

specific patterns such as the number of bytes or a number of 1s or the number of 0s in

the network traffic. It also detects on the basis of the already known malicious

instruction sequence that is used by the malware. The detected patterns in the IDS are

known as signatures. Signature-based IDS can easily detect the attacks whose pattern

(signature) already exists in the system but it is quite difficult to detect new malware

attacks as their pattern (signature) is not known.

2. Anomaly-based Method: Anomaly-based IDS was introduced to detect unknown malware

attacks as new malware is developed rapidly. In anomaly-based IDS there is the use of

machine learning to create a trustful activity model and anything coming is compared with

that model and it is declared suspicious if it is not found in the model. The machine

learning-based method has a better-generalized property in comparison to signature-

based IDS as these models can be trained according to the applications and hardware

configurations.

Benefits of IDS

 Detects malicious activity: IDS can detect any suspicious activities and alert the system

administrator before any significant damage is done.

 Improves network performance: IDS can identify any performance issues on the

network, which can be addressed to improve network performance.

 Compliance requirements: IDS can help in meeting compliance requirements by

monitoring network activity and generating reports.

 Provides insights: IDS generates valuable insights into network traffic, which can be

used to identify any weaknesses and improve network security.

Disadvantages

1. False Positives: IDS may generate false positives, which means it can raise an alarm for

benign traffic, leading to unnecessary investigations and wastage of resources.

2. False Negatives: IDS may also miss actual attacks, which can go undetected, leading to

serious security breaches.

3. High Maintenance Cost: IDS requires continuous maintenance and monitoring, which can

be expensive and time-consuming.

4. Complex Setup: The setup and configuration of IDS can be complex, requiring specialized

knowledge and expertise.

5. Limited Coverage: IDS can only detect known attacks and may fail to identify new or

unknown attacks.

6. Performance Overhead: IDS can add overhead to the network and may impact

performance, especially in high-traffic networks.

7. Inability to Prevent Attacks: IDS can only detect and report attacks, it cannot prevent

them from happening. Therefore, additional measures may be required to prevent

attacks.

8. Privacy Concerns: IDS may raise privacy concerns, as it involves monitoring and analyzing

network traffic, which may include sensitive information.

 Sensor Network Hardware

Sensor network hardware refers to the physical components and devices that are used to

construct wireless sensor networks (WSNs). These hardware devices include sensors,

microcontrollers, radios, power sources, and other supporting components.

Sensors are the most important hardware component in WSNs. These devices are responsible

for collecting and measuring the physical parameters of the environment such as temperature,

humidity, pressure, light, sound, and motion. Microcontrollers are used to process the data

collected by sensors and to communicate with other nodes in the network. Radios are used to

transmit and receive data wirelessly between nodes. Power sources are used to provide energy

to the nodes for their operation.

Advances in technology have led to the development of low-power, low-cost sensors and radios,

which have made it possible to deploy large-scale WSNs for various applications. The choice of

hardware depends on the specific requirements of the application, such as the type of sensors

needed, the range of communication required, the power source availability, and the

environmental conditions.

Overall, the selection and deployment of appropriate hardware components play a crucial role in

the success of WSNs.

Berkeley motes

Berkeley motes are a popular platform for sensor networks, and their key features can be

summarized as follows:

1. Low-power: Motes are designed to operate on very low power, allowing them to run on

batteries for long periods of time.

2. Wireless communication: Motes have built-in wireless communication capabilities, allowing

them to communicate with other motes and with external devices.

 3. Small size: Motes are small and lightweight, making them easy to deploy in a variety of

environments.

4. Programmable: Motes are programmable, allowing researchers and developers to

customize their behavior and functionality.

5. Sensor interfaces: Motes have interfaces for connecting to a variety of sensors, making

them well-suited for sensor network applications.

6. Modular: Motes are modular, allowing users to add or remove components as needed to

suit their specific application requirements.

7. Open-source: Motes are based on open-source hardware and software, making them

accessible and customizable to a wide range of users.

Sensor Network Programming Challenges

 Limited resources: Sensor nodes have limited processing power, memory, and battery life,

which makes it challenging to develop efficient algorithms and programs that can operate

under these constraints.

 Network topology: Sensor networks can have complex topologies with dynamic

connectivity patterns, making it challenging to design routing and data aggregation

algorithms that can adapt to changes in the network.

 Data management: Sensor networks generate large amounts of data, which must be

efficiently collected, processed, and stored. This requires specialized data management

techniques and algorithms that can handle the high data rates and limited storage

capacity of sensor nodes.

 Security: Sensor networks are often deployed in remote and hostile environments, making

them vulnerable to attacks and security breaches. Ensuring the security and privacy of

data in sensor networks is a significant challenge that requires specialized security

protocols and algorithms.

 Interoperability: Sensor networks often consist of nodes from different manufacturers

and with different hardware and software configurations. Ensuring interoperability

between different nodes and systems can be challenging, especially when using different

communication protocols and standards.

 Energy efficiency: Sensor nodes are typically battery-powered and have limited energy

reserves. Developing energy-efficient programming techniques and algorithms is critical

to maximizing the lifespan of the sensor network and minimizing the need for frequent

battery replacements.

 Scalability: Sensor networks can consist of thousands of nodes, making it challenging to

develop programming techniques and algorithms that can scale to large networks without

sacrificing performance or efficiency.