Contents

Unit 1: The Origin and Evolution of The Universe, Solar System and Earth
1. The Universe, The Big Bang Theory, Galaxies & Stellar Evolution .................................................................... 1

1.2. The Big Bang of Theory .................................................................................................................................. 1

The Evolution of The Universe Since the Big Bang .............................................................................................................. 2
Accelerating Expansion of The Universe & Dark Energy ................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Evidence for Big Bang Theory ........................................................................................................................ 3
Doppler-Shift or Redshift and Blueshift ................................................................................................................................... 3
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMD) .................................................................................................................................... 3
Gravitational Waves .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4. Galaxy ............................................................................................................................................................... 7
Regular Galaxies ................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Our Galaxy (The Milky Way) ..........................................................................................................................................................8
1.5. Star Formation (Stellar Evolution or Life Cycle of a Star) ........................................................................... 9
Protostar ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Main sequence stars...................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Red Giant ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Planetary Nebula ............................................................................................................................................................................ 11
White Dwarf ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Black dwarf ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
Supernova ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Neutron stars ................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Black holes......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
1.6. Constellations................................................................................................................................................. 15
2. The Solar system.................................................................................................................................................... 17

The Formation of the Solar System: Nuclear Disc Model (Neo-Laplacian model)............................................ 17
Earlier Theories ................................................................................................................................................................................ 17
The Formation of the Sun ........................................................................................................................................................... 17
The Formation of the Planets .................................................................................................................................................... 17
Iron Catastrophe and Planetary Differentiation ................................................................................................................. 18
2.2. Components of the Solar System ................................................................................................................ 19
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion .......................................................................................................................................... 21
2.3. The Sun ........................................................................................................................................................... 22
The Sun’s Internal Structure and Atmosphere .................................................................................................................... 23
2.4. Planets............................................................................................................................................................. 25
Inner Planets ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Outer Planets.................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
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2.5. Other Solar System Objects .......................................................................................................................... 32

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Asteroid Belt ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 32

 Kuiper Belt, Pluto, and Charon .................................................................................................................................................. 33
Comets................................................................................................................................................................................................ 33
Meteoroid, Meteor and Meteorite .......................................................................................................................................... 36
2.6. What’s the Closest Star to the Sun? ............................................................................................................ 37
2.7. Heliopause — The Boundary? ...................................................................................................................... 38
2.8. Distant Artificial Objects Exploring the Solar System ............................................................................... 39
3. Geological Time Scale – The Evolution of The Earth’s Surface ........................................................................ 41

3.1. Hadean Eon (4,540 mya to 4,000 mya) ....................................................................................................... 41

3.2. Archean Eon (4,000 mya to 2,500 mya) ...................................................................................................... 43
3.3. Proterozoic Eon (2,500 mya to 550 mya) ................................................................................................... 44
3.4. Phanerozoic Eon (550 mya to present) ....................................................................................................... 44
Paleozoic Era (550 mya to 250 mya) ....................................................................................................................................... 44
Mesozoic Era (250 mya to 66 mya) ......................................................................................................................................... 47
Cenozoic Era (65 mya to present) ............................................................................................................................................ 48

Unit 2: Geomorphology
4. Earth’s Interior ....................................................................................................................................................... 51

4.1. The Internal Structure of The Earth ............................................................................................................. 51

The Crust ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 51
The Mantle ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 53
The Core ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 54
Seismic Discontinuities ................................................................................................................................................................. 55
4.2. Understanding the Earth’s Interior .............................................................................................................. 55
Importance of Understanding the Earth’s Interior ............................................................................................................ 55
4.3. Direct Sources of Information...................................................................................................................... 56
4.4. Indirect Sources of Information................................................................................................................... 56
Seismic Waves ................................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Meteorites ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Gravitation ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Magnetic field .................................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Sources of Earth’s Internal Heat ............................................................................................................................................... 57
4.5. Seismic Waves (Earthquake Waves) ............................................................................................................ 58
Body Waves ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Surface waves (L-Waves) ............................................................................................................................................................. 61
How Do Seismic Waves Help In Understanding The Earth’s Interior? ...................................................................... 62
5. Earth’s Magnetic Field (Geomagnetic Field) ...................................................................................................... 64

5.1. Magnetosphere .............................................................................................................................................. 64

Magnetopause................................................................................................................................................................................. 65
Plasmasphere ................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Auroras ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
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5.2. Magnetosphere and Solar Wind .................................................................................................................. 65

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Geomagnetic Storms .................................................................................................................................................................... 67

 A Planet’s Magnetic Field Protects its Atmosphere .......................................................................................................... 67
Van Allen Radiation Belt .............................................................................................................................................................. 68
5.3. Magnetic Field of Solar System Objects ..................................................................................................... 68
5.4. Dynamo Theory: Generation of Earth’s Magnetic Field and Sustaining it ............................................. 69
5.5. Magnetic Poles............................................................................................................................................... 70
Antipodal: situated on the opposite side of the earth. An antipodal line drawn between two surface points
passes through the centre. E.g., Earth’s Rotational AxisPoles of Earth’s Magnetic Field ................................... 71
Geomagnetic Poles ........................................................................................................................................................................ 71
Geomagnetic Reversal .................................................................................................................................................................. 73
Normal and Reversed Magnetic Field .................................................................................................................................... 74
The Current Location of the Magnetic Poles ....................................................................................................................... 74
5.6. Compass .......................................................................................................................................................... 75
Magnetic Declination .................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Magnetic Inclination or Magnetic Dip or Dip Angle ........................................................................................................ 76
6. Geomorphic Movements ...................................................................................................................................... 78

6.1. Endogenic Geomorphic Movements ........................................................................................................... 78

The Force Behind Endogenic Movements ............................................................................................................................ 79
Classification of Endogenic Movements ............................................................................................................................... 79
Diastrophism .................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Sudden Movements ...................................................................................................................................................................... 81
6.2. Exogenic Geomorphic Movements.............................................................................................................. 82
Denudation ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Weathering ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Physical Weathering Processes ................................................................................................................................................. 83
Chemical Weathering ................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Biological Activity and Weathering ......................................................................................................................................... 91
7. Tectonics................................................................................................................................................................. 93

7.1. Major Concepts That Tried to Explain the Tectonic Processes ................................................................ 93
7.2. Continental Drift Theory............................................................................................................................... 93
Forces Behind The Drifting Of Continents (According to Wegener) ......................................................................... 95
Evidence in Support of Continental Drift .............................................................................................................................. 95
Drawbacks of Continental Drift Theory ................................................................................................................................. 98
7.3. Seafloor Spreading ........................................................................................................................................ 98
Convection Current Theory (CCT) ............................................................................................................................................ 98
Palaeomagnetism ........................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Evidence in Support of Seafloor Spreading ....................................................................................................................... 101
7.4. Plate Tectonics .............................................................................................................................................101
Major Tectonic Plates.................................................................................................................................................................. 102
Minor Tectonic Plates ................................................................................................................................................................. 105
Interaction of Tectonic Plates .................................................................................................................................................. 106
Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics ............................................................................................................................... 107
The Significance of Plate Tectonics ....................................................................................................................................... 108
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7.5. Comparison: Continental Drift – Seafloor Spreading – Plate Tectonics................................................109

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8. Convergent Boundary .........................................................................................................................................110

 8.1. Ocean-Ocean Convergence (O-O Convergence) or The Island-Arc Convergence ...............................110
Formation of Island Arcs............................................................................................................................................................111
Formation of The Philippine Island Arc System ............................................................................................................... 112
Formation of The Indonesian Archipelago......................................................................................................................... 112
Formation of The Caribbean Islands ..................................................................................................................................... 113
Formation of The Isthmus of Panama .................................................................................................................................. 113
Formation of The Japanese Island Arc ................................................................................................................................. 114
8.2. Continent-Ocean (C-O) Convergence or The Cordilleran Convergence................................................115
Formation of Continental Arcs ................................................................................................................................................ 116
Formation of Fold Mountains (Orogeny) ............................................................................................................................ 116
Formation of The Andes ............................................................................................................................................................118
Formation of The Rockies ......................................................................................................................................................... 119
8.3. Continent-Continent Convergence or The Himalayan Convergence ....................................................119
Formation of The Himalayans and The Tibetan Plateau ............................................................................................... 120
Formation of Alps, Urals, Appalachians and the Atlas Mountains ............................................................................ 123
Volcanism and Earthquakes in Continent-Continent Convergence ......................................................................... 123
8.4. Continent-Arc Convergence or New Guinea Convergence ....................................................................124
9. Divergent Boundary ............................................................................................................................................126

9.1. Formation and Evolution of Rift Valleys, Rift Lakes, Seas, and Oceans ................................................126
Stage 1: Upwarping and Fault Zones ................................................................................................................................... 126
Stage 2: Rift Valley Formation ................................................................................................................................................. 126
Stage 3: Formation of Linear Sea or Rift Lakes ................................................................................................................. 128
Stage 4: Linear Sea Transforms Into Ocean ....................................................................................................................... 129
9.2. The Great Rift Valley ...................................................................................................................................129
Africa is Splitting ........................................................................................................................................................................... 129
Volcanism & Seismicity Along East African Rift Valley................................................................................................. 130
10. Types of Mountains.............................................................................................................................................132

10.1. Classification of Mountains ........................................................................................................................132

Classification of Mountains based on The Period Of Origin ....................................................................................... 132
Classification of Mountains based on Mode Of Origin ................................................................................................. 132
Classification of Mountains Based on Location................................................................................................................ 133
10.2. Fold Mountains ............................................................................................................................................134
‘Fold’ In Geology ........................................................................................................................................................................... 134
Classification of Fold Mountains ............................................................................................................................................ 134
Characteristics of Fold Mountains ......................................................................................................................................... 136
10.3. Block Mountains or Fault-Block Mountains .............................................................................................136
‘Fault’ in Geology .......................................................................................................................................................................... 136
Types of Faults ............................................................................................................................................................................... 137
11. Volcanism .............................................................................................................................................................139

11.1. What Causes Volcanism? ............................................................................................................................139

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11.2. Lava Types ....................................................................................................................................................139

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Andesitic Or Acidic Or Composite Or Stratovolcanic Lava .......................................................................................... 139

 Basic Or Basaltic Or Shield Lava.............................................................................................................................................. 140
11.3. Types of Volcanoes ......................................................................................................................................140
Composite Type Volcano (Stratovolcano) .......................................................................................................................... 140
Shield Type Volcano .................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Fissure Type or Flood Basalt Volcanoe (Lava Plateaus) ................................................................................................. 141
11.4. Types of Volcanoes Based on Frequency of Eruption .............................................................................141
Active Volcanoes........................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Dormant Volcanoes ..................................................................................................................................................................... 142
Extinct or Ancient Volcanoes ................................................................................................................................................... 142
11.5. Volcanism Types ..........................................................................................................................................142
1) Exhalative (Vapour Or Fumes) ....................................................................................................................................... 142
2) Effusive (Lava Outpouring) ............................................................................................................................................. 142
3) Explosive (Violent Ejection Of Solid Material) ......................................................................................................... 142
4) Subaqueous Volcanism ................................................................................................................................................... 143
11.6. Eruptive Volcanism Types ...........................................................................................................................144
1) Hawaiian Eruption..............................................................................................................................................................145
2) Icelandic Eruption ..............................................................................................................................................................145
3) Strombolian Eruption ....................................................................................................................................................... 145
4) Vulcanian Eruption ............................................................................................................................................................ 146
5) Plinian Eruption................................................................................................................................................................... 146
6) Pelean Eruption ................................................................................................................................................................... 148
11.7. Volcanic Landforms .....................................................................................................................................148
Extrusive Volcanic Landforms .................................................................................................................................................. 149
Intrusive (Plutonic) Volcanic Landforms .............................................................................................................................. 154
11.8. Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes across the World...............................................................154
Pacific Ring of Fire........................................................................................................................................................................ 155
Other regions ................................................................................................................................................................................. 156
Mediterranean Volcanism ......................................................................................................................................................... 156
Volcanos in India .......................................................................................................................................................................... 156
11.9. Geysers and Hot Springs .............................................................................................................................157
11.10. Destructive Effects of Volcanoes ...............................................................................................................159
Volcanism – Acid Rain, Ozone Destruction ........................................................................................................................ 160
11.11. Positive Effects of Volcanoes .....................................................................................................................160
12. Hotspot Volcanism ..............................................................................................................................................161

12.1. Mantle Plumes .............................................................................................................................................162

12.2. Mantle Plumes and Flood Basalt Volcanism (Large Igneous Provinces)...............................................162
Flood Basalt Events and Extinctions ...................................................................................................................................... 162
12.3. Mantle Plumes and Volcanic Hotspots .....................................................................................................162
Hotspot Volcano Chain ..............................................................................................................................................................162
Reunion Hotspot .......................................................................................................................................................................... 164
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12.4. Mantle Plumes and Uplifted Landforms (Epeirogenic Movements) .....................................................166

12.5. Mantle Plumes and Thinning of The Continental Crust ..........................................................................166
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12.6. Mantle Plumes and Supervolcanoes .........................................................................................................167

 Supervolcano Eruptions .............................................................................................................................................................167
Disaster Potential.......................................................................................................................................................................... 168
13. Types of Rocks & Rock Cycle .............................................................................................................................169

13.1. Igneous Rocks or Primary rocks.................................................................................................................169

Intrusive Igneous Rocks (Plutonic Rocks) ........................................................................................................................... 169
Extrusive Igneous Rocks (Lava Or Volcanic Rocks) ......................................................................................................... 170
Hypabyssal or Dyke Rocks or Intermediate rocks ........................................................................................................... 170
Acid Rocks ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 170
Basic Rocks ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 170
Economic Significance of Igneous Rocks ............................................................................................................................ 170
13.2. Sedimentary Rocks or Detrital Rocks ........................................................................................................171
Mechanically Formed Sedimentary Rocks .......................................................................................................................... 171
Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks .............................................................................................................................. 171
Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks ............................................................................................................................. 172
Chief Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks....................................................................................................................... 172
The Spread of Sedimentary Rocks in India ........................................................................................................................ 172
Economic Significance of Sedimentary Rocks .................................................................................................................. 172
13.3. Metamorphic Rocks.....................................................................................................................................173
Causes of Metamorphism ......................................................................................................................................................... 173
Some Examples of Metamorphosis ....................................................................................................................................... 174
Metamorphic Rocks in India .................................................................................................................................................... 174
13.4. Rock Cycle.....................................................................................................................................................174
13.5. Some Rock-Forming Minerals ....................................................................................................................175
14. Earthquakes ..........................................................................................................................................................177

14.1. Terms.............................................................................................................................................................177
Focus and Epicentre .................................................................................................................................................................... 177
Foreshocks, Aftershocks & Swarms ...................................................................................................................................... 177
14.2. Causes of Earthquakes ................................................................................................................................178
Fault Zones...................................................................................................................................................................................... 178
Plate Tectonics ............................................................................................................................................................................... 178
Volcanic Activity ............................................................................................................................................................................ 179
Human-Induced Earthquakes .................................................................................................................................................. 179
14.3. Earthquakes Based on The Depth of Focus ..............................................................................................179
Shallow-Focus Earthquakes ...................................................................................................................................................... 180
Deep-Focus Earthquakes ...........................................................................................................................................................180
Wadati–Benioff Zone: Earthquakes Along the Convergent Boundary .................................................................... 180
14.4. Distribution of Earthquakes .......................................................................................................................181
14.5. Richter Magnitude Scale .............................................................................................................................182
14.6. Most Powerful Earthquakes Ever Recorded .............................................................................................183
14.7. Notable Earthquakes ...................................................................................................................................184
14.8. Earthquake Zones of India..........................................................................................................................187
Earthquakes in Delhi NCR Region ......................................................................................................................................... 188
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Earthquakes in the North East................................................................................................................................................. 188

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14.9. Effects of Earthquakes ................................................................................................................................189

15. Tsunami ................................................................................................................................................................190

15.1. Mechanism of Tsunami Waves...................................................................................................................191

Disturbance ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 191
Propagation of The Waves ....................................................................................................................................................... 191
15.2. Properties of Tsunami Waves ....................................................................................................................191
Basics ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 191
Normal Waves ............................................................................................................................................................................... 192
Normal Waves vs Tsunami Waves ......................................................................................................................................... 192
15.3. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami .......................................................................................................................193
Plate Tectonics ............................................................................................................................................................................... 193
Tsunami Waves.............................................................................................................................................................................. 193
Shifts in Geography ..................................................................................................................................................................... 194
15.4. Tsunami Warning Systems .........................................................................................................................194
India’s Preparedness ................................................................................................................................................................... 195
16. Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ............................................................................................................197

16.1. Fluvial Erosional Landforms .......................................................................................................................197

River Valley...................................................................................................................................................................................... 197
River Course.................................................................................................................................................................................... 198
Meanders ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 199
Oxbow Lake .................................................................................................................................................................................... 200
Waterfalls ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 200
Potholes ...........................................................................................................................................................................................201
Terraces ............................................................................................................................................................................................201
Gulleys/Rills..................................................................................................................................................................................... 202
Peneplane (Peneplain) ................................................................................................................................................................202
16.2. Fluvial Depositional Landforms .................................................................................................................203
Alluvial Fans and Cones .............................................................................................................................................................203
Floodplains ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 203
Natural Levees ............................................................................................................................................................................... 204
Delta .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 205
Estuaries ...........................................................................................................................................................................................206
Cuspate Delta ................................................................................................................................................................................. 207
High-Constructive Deltas – Elongate and Lobate Delta ............................................................................................... 207
High-Destructive Deltas .............................................................................................................................................................208
16.3. Drainage Basin or River Basin ....................................................................................................................208
Drainage Divide............................................................................................................................................................................. 209
Difference between a River Basin, Watershed and Catchment Area ....................................................................... 209
Some Important Drainage Basins Across The World ..................................................................................................... 209
16.4. Drainage Systems (Drainage Patterns) .....................................................................................................209
Concordant Drainage.................................................................................................................................................................. 209
Discordant or Insequent Drainage Patterns ...................................................................................................................... 211
Other Drainage Patterns ............................................................................................................................................................213
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17. Major Landforms and Cycle of Erosion .............................................................................................................216

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 17.1. Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ...................................................................................................216
Marine Erosional Landforms .................................................................................................................................................... 216
Marine Depositional Landforms ............................................................................................................................................. 218
Coral Reefs ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 219
Coastlines ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 223
17.2. Karst Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ......................................................................................................226
Chemistry Behind Karst Landforms ....................................................................................................................................... 227
Conditions for The Formation of Karst Topography ...................................................................................................... 227
Karst Landforms ............................................................................................................................................................................ 227
The Karst Cycle of Erosion ........................................................................................................................................................ 230
17.3. Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ....................................................................................................230
Glacial Erosional Landforms ..................................................................................................................................................... 231
Glacial Depositional Landforms .............................................................................................................................................. 232
Glacial Cycle of Erosion ..............................................................................................................................................................233
17.4. Arid Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ........................................................................................................234
Water Eroded Arid Landforms................................................................................................................................................. 234
Wind Eroded Arid Landforms .................................................................................................................................................. 235
Arid Depositional Landforms ................................................................................................................................................... 237

Unit 3: Climatology and Climatic Regions

18. Latitudes and Longitudes ...................................................................................................................................240

18.1. Latitude or Parallel ......................................................................................................................................240

Important Parallels of Latitudes .............................................................................................................................................. 240
The Shape of The Earth and Latitudinal Heat Zones ...................................................................................................... 241
18.2. Longitude or Meridian ................................................................................................................................242
Longitude and Time .................................................................................................................................................................... 243
Standard Time and Time Zones .............................................................................................................................................. 243
Indian Standard Time.................................................................................................................................................................. 245
The International Date Line (IDL) ........................................................................................................................................... 246
18.3. Comparison: Latitude vs. Longitude..........................................................................................................250
19. The Motions of The Earth and Their Effects .....................................................................................................251

19.1. Rotation of Earth .........................................................................................................................................251

19.2. Revolution of Earth .....................................................................................................................................252
Solstice.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 252
Equinox .............................................................................................................................................................................................254
Perihelion and Aphelion ............................................................................................................................................................255
19.3. Eclipse ...........................................................................................................................................................257
Phases of The Moon.................................................................................................................................................................... 257
Solar Eclipse .................................................................................................................................................................................... 261
Lunar Eclipse ................................................................................................................................................................................... 264
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20. Earth’s Atmosphere .............................................................................................................................................269

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20.1. Composition of The Earth’s Atmosphere ..................................................................................................269

 Evolution of The Earth’s atmosphere.................................................................................................................................... 270
Permanent Gases of The Atmosphere ................................................................................................................................. 271
Important Constituents of The Atmosphere ..................................................................................................................... 272
20.2. Structure of The Earth’s Atmosphere ........................................................................................................274
Troposphere (0 to 12 km) ......................................................................................................................................................... 274
Stratosphere (12 to 50 km) ....................................................................................................................................................... 275
Mesosphere (50 to 80 km) ........................................................................................................................................................ 277
Thermosphere (80 to 700 km) ................................................................................................................................................. 277
Exosphere (700 to 1,000 km) ................................................................................................................................................... 279
20.3. Importance of Earth’s Atmosphere ...........................................................................................................280
21. Horizontal Distribution of Temperature ..........................................................................................................282

21.1. Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy ...............................................................................................................282

Radiation .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 282
Conduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 282
Convection ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 282
21.2. Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution ............................................................................................282
The Angle of Incidence (Inclination) of The Sun’s Rays ................................................................................................ 282
Duration of Sunshine .................................................................................................................................................................. 283
Transparency of Atmosphere .................................................................................................................................................. 283
Albedo .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 283
Land-Sea Differential .................................................................................................................................................................. 286
Prevailing Winds ........................................................................................................................................................................... 287
Aspects of Slope ........................................................................................................................................................................... 287
Ocean Currents.............................................................................................................................................................................. 287
Altitude .............................................................................................................................................................................................287
21.3. The Mean Annual Temperature Distribution ...........................................................................................288
General Characteristics of Isotherms .................................................................................................................................... 288
General Temperature Distribution ......................................................................................................................................... 288
Seasonal Temperature Distribution ...................................................................................................................................... 289
21.4. Latitudinal Heat Balance .............................................................................................................................292
21.5. Heat Budget .................................................................................................................................................293
22. Vertical Distribution of Temperature................................................................................................................294

22.1. Latent Heat of Condensation .....................................................................................................................294

Latent Heat...................................................................................................................................................................................... 294
22.2. Lapse Rate.....................................................................................................................................................295
22.3. Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR) ........................................................................................................................296
Relation Between Pressure, Temperature and Volume ................................................................................................. 296
Adiabatic Process: Temperature Changes In A Parcel of Rising or Falling Air ..................................................... 296
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) ........................................................................................................................................... 298
Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR) ......................................................................................................................................... 299
Significance In Meteorology (Weather Forecasting) ...................................................................................................... 299
22.4. Temperature Inversion................................................................................................................................300
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Types of Temperature Inversion ............................................................................................................................................. 300

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23. Pressure Systems and Wind System..................................................................................................................304

23.1. Atmospheric Pressure .................................................................................................................................304

Atmospheric Pressure Cells ...................................................................................................................................................... 304
Isobars............................................................................................................................................................................................... 304
Vertical Variation of Atmospheric Pressure ....................................................................................................................... 305
23.2. Factors Affecting Wind Movement ...........................................................................................................306
Pressure Gradient Force .............................................................................................................................................................306
Buoyant Force ................................................................................................................................................................................ 306
Frictional Force .............................................................................................................................................................................. 307
Coriolis Force.................................................................................................................................................................................. 307
Centripetal Acceleration ............................................................................................................................................................309
23.3. Horizontal Distribution of Pressure ..........................................................................................................311
Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’ ...................................................................................................................... 311
Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes...................................................................................................... 312
Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt.................................................................................................................................................... 313
Polar High-Pressure Belt ............................................................................................................................................................313
Factors Controlling Pressure Systems .................................................................................................................................. 314
Pressure Belts In July ................................................................................................................................................................... 314
Pressure Belts In January ...........................................................................................................................................................314
23.4. Pressure systems and General Circulation ................................................................................................315
Hadley Cell ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 316
Ferrel Cell ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 317
Polar Cell .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 317
23.5. Classification of Winds................................................................................................................................318
Primary winds or Prevailing Winds or Planetary Winds ................................................................................................ 318
Secondary or Periodic Winds................................................................................................................................................... 320
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze .................................................................................................................................................... 321
Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze ..................................................................................................................................... 322
Tertiary or Local Winds ..............................................................................................................................................................322
24. Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle) ......................................................................................................................325

24.1. Humidity .......................................................................................................................................................325

Water Vapour In Atmosphere ................................................................................................................................................. 325
Absolute Humidity ....................................................................................................................................................................... 326
Relative Humidity ......................................................................................................................................................................... 326
Specific Humidity .......................................................................................................................................................................... 327
24.2. Evaporation ..................................................................................................................................................328
Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation ................................................................................................................................. 328
24.3. Condensation ...............................................................................................................................................329
Processes of Cooling For Producing Condensation ....................................................................................................... 330
24.4. Forms of Condensation ...............................................................................................................................330
Dew .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 331
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White Frost ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 331

Fog ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 332
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 Mist .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 333
Clouds ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 333
Precipitation.................................................................................................................................................................................... 337
24.5. Types of Rainfall ..........................................................................................................................................338
Convectional Rainfall................................................................................................................................................................... 338
Orographic Rainfall ...................................................................................................................................................................... 339
Cyclonic Rainfal ............................................................................................................................................................................. 339
World Distribution of Rainfall .................................................................................................................................................. 340
25. Thunderstorm ......................................................................................................................................................342

25.1. Formation of A (Thermal) Thunderstorm .................................................................................................342

Stage 1: Cumulus Stage .............................................................................................................................................................342
Stage 2: Mature stage................................................................................................................................................................. 342
Stage 3: Dissipating stage ......................................................................................................................................................... 344
25.2. Types of Thunderstorms .............................................................................................................................344
Single-Cell Thunderstorm (Isolated Thermal Thunderstorm) ..................................................................................... 344
A Multi-Cell Thunderstorm ....................................................................................................................................................... 345
A Supercell Thunderstorm ........................................................................................................................................................ 345
25.3. Tornado.........................................................................................................................................................346
Tornadogenesis (Formation of A Tornado)........................................................................................................................ 347
Waterspout ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 347
Distribution of Tornadoes ......................................................................................................................................................... 348
25.4. Lightning And Thunder...............................................................................................................................348
Thunder ............................................................................................................................................................................................349
Lightning From Cloud To Earth............................................................................................................................................... 349
Lightning Deaths .......................................................................................................................................................................... 350
25.5. Hailstorm ......................................................................................................................................................351
Favourable Conditions For Hail Formation ........................................................................................................................ 351
Formation of Hail.......................................................................................................................................................................... 351
25.6. Hazards Posed by Thunderstorms .............................................................................................................352
Pyrocumulonimbus Clouds And Forest Fires .................................................................................................................... 353
26. Tropical Cyclones.................................................................................................................................................354

26.1. Conditions Necessary for The Formation of A Tropical Cyclone ...........................................................355

Good Source of Latent Heat .................................................................................................................................................... 355
Coriolis Force.................................................................................................................................................................................. 356
Low-level Disturbances ..............................................................................................................................................................357
Why Fewer Cyclones Form Over The Arabian Sea As Compared To The Bay Of Bengal? .............................. 357
Temperature Contrast Between Air Masses ....................................................................................................................... 359
Wind Shear...................................................................................................................................................................................... 359
Upper Air Disturbance ................................................................................................................................................................360
26.2. Convective Cyclogenesis (Development of Tropical Cyclones)..............................................................361
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Stage 1: Tropical Disturbance .................................................................................................................................................. 361

Stage 2: Tropical Depression (Maximum Sustained Wind Speed < 63 Kmph) .................................................... 362
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Stage 3: Tropical Storm (63 Kmph < Maximum Sustained Wind Speed < 119 Kmph) .................................... 363
 Stage 4: Tropical Cyclone (Maximum Sustained Wind Speed > 119 Kmph) ........................................................ 363
Convective Cyclogenesis Mechanism – Early stage ........................................................................................................ 364
Convective Cyclogenesis Mechanism – Mature stage ................................................................................................... 366
26.3. Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones ..................................................................................................367
Regional Names For Tropical Cyclones ............................................................................................................................... 370
26.4. Path of Tropical Cyclones ...........................................................................................................................370
Which Sector Of The Cyclone Experiences The Strongest Winds? ........................................................................... 371
26.5. Tropical Cyclone Scale.................................................................................................................................371
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale .................................................................................................................................. 371
Tropical Cyclone Scale by Indian Meteorological Department .................................................................................. 372
26.6. Damage Associated with Tropical Cyclones .............................................................................................372
Floods ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 373
Wind .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 373
Storm Surge .................................................................................................................................................................................... 373
States Vulnerable to Cyclones ................................................................................................................................................. 374
26.7. Positive Effects of Tropical Cyclones .........................................................................................................376
Heat Balance................................................................................................................................................................................... 376
Tropical Cyclones Bring Rainfall To The Rain Shadow And Other Parched Regions ......................................... 376
Break Up Red Tide........................................................................................................................................................................ 376
Replenish Barrier Islands............................................................................................................................................................376
Speed Dispersal To Faraway Locations ................................................................................................................................ 376
26.8. Naming of Tropical Cyclones .....................................................................................................................376
Northern Indian Ocean Region ............................................................................................................................................... 377
26.9. Changing Cyclone Patterns in The Indian Ocean .....................................................................................377
Cyclone Patterns in The Arabian Sea .................................................................................................................................... 378
26.10. Twin Cyclones...............................................................................................................................................379
Fujiwhara Effect ............................................................................................................................................................................. 379
Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) ........................................................................................................................................... 380
Madden-Julian Oscillation’s Impact on Weather ............................................................................................................. 381
How Does MJO Help The Formation of Twin Cyclones? .............................................................................................. 381
26.11. Warning of Tropical Cyclones ....................................................................................................................382
4-Stage IMD Warning System For Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................... 382
27. Jet streams ...........................................................................................................................................................383

27.1. Explanation of Jet Streams .........................................................................................................................384

Geostrophic Wind ........................................................................................................................................................................ 384
Upper Tropospheric Westerlies .............................................................................................................................................. 385
High Velocity .................................................................................................................................................................................. 385
Meandering (Rossby Waves) ................................................................................................................................................... 386
27.2. Permanent Jet Streams ...............................................................................................................................387
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Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ) ..................................................................................................................................................... 387

Polar Front Jet (PFJ) ..................................................................................................................................................................... 388
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27.3. Temporary Jet Streams ...............................................................................................................................388

 The Somali Jet ................................................................................................................................................................................ 389
The Tropical Easterly (TEJ) Jet or African Easterly Jet ..................................................................................................... 389
27.4. Influence of Jet Streams on Weather ........................................................................................................389
Jet Streams And Weather In Temperate Regions ............................................................................................................ 389
Polar Vortex .................................................................................................................................................................................... 391
Heat Domes .................................................................................................................................................................................... 392
27.5. Jet Streams And Aviation ...........................................................................................................................393
28. Temperate Cyclones ............................................................................................................................................395

28.1. Air Masses.....................................................................................................................................................395

Source Regions.............................................................................................................................................................................. 395
Air Masses Based On Source Regions .................................................................................................................................. 396
Influence of Air Masses on World Weather ....................................................................................................................... 397
28.2. Fronts ............................................................................................................................................................398
Front Formation ............................................................................................................................................................................ 398
28.3. Classification of Fronts................................................................................................................................398
Stationary Front............................................................................................................................................................................. 399
Cold Front ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 400
Warm Front ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 401
Occluded Front .............................................................................................................................................................................. 402
28.4. Origin and Development of Temperate Cyclones ...................................................................................404
Polar Front Theory ....................................................................................................................................................................... 405
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones ................................................................................................................................ 406
28.5. Tropical Cyclones vs. Temperate Cyclones ...............................................................................................408
29. El Nino, La Nina & El Nino Modoki ...................................................................................................................411

29.1. Normal Conditions ......................................................................................................................................412

Walker Circulation (Normal Years) ........................................................................................................................................ 412
29.2. El Nino ...........................................................................................................................................................413
El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) .................................................................................................................................... 413
El Nino Modoki.............................................................................................................................................................................. 413
Effects of El Nino & ENSO......................................................................................................................................................... 414
29.3. Impact of El Nino on Indian Monsoons ....................................................................................................415
Southern Oscillation Index and Indian Monsoons .......................................................................................................... 415
Indian Ocean Dipole Effect (Not Every El Nino Year Is The Same In India) ........................................................... 415
29.4. La Nina ..........................................................................................................................................................417
Effects of La Nina .......................................................................................................................................................................... 417
30. Climatic Regions ..................................................................................................................................................420

30.1. Koppen’s Scheme of Classification of Climate .........................................................................................420

Climatic Groups According to Koppen ................................................................................................................................ 420
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Major Climatic Types According to Koppen ...................................................................................................................... 421

Köppen–Geiger Climate Classification ................................................................................................................................. 421
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 30.2. A – Tropical Humid Climates ......................................................................................................................423
Tropical Wet Climate (Af: A – Tropical, f – no dry season) ........................................................................................... 423
Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am: A – Tropical, m – monsoon) .................................................................................... 429
Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw: A – Tropical, w – dry winter) ...................................................... 435
30.3. B – Dry Climate ............................................................................................................................................439
Hot Desert Climate (BWh: B – Dry, W – Desert, h – low latitude) ............................................................................. 440
Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (BWk: B – Dry, W – Desert, k – high latitude) ......................................................... 441
Desert Climate ............................................................................................................................................................................... 441
Desert Vegetation ........................................................................................................................................................................ 443
Life In The Deserts ........................................................................................................................................................................ 444
Steppe Or Temperate Grassland (Continental) Climate (BSk: B – Dry, S – Steppe, k – High Latitude)....... 444
30.4. C – Warm Temperate (Mid-latitude) Climates .........................................................................................447
Mediterranean Climate (Cs: C – Warm Temperate, s – Dry summer) ...................................................................... 447
Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate (Cfa: C – warm temperate, f – no dry season, a – hot summer)451
Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate (Cf: C – Warm temperate, f – no dry season) ................................ 455
30.5. D – Cold Snow-Forest Climates ..................................................................................................................460
Cool Temperate Eastern Marine Climate (Dfb: D – cool temperate, f – no dry season, b – warm summer)460
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate (Dfc: D – cool temperate, f – no dry season, c – cold summer) ................ 466
30.6. E – Cold Climates..........................................................................................................................................471
Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic Climate (ET) ................................................................................................ 471
Polar Ice Cap Climate (EF) ......................................................................................................................................................... 472
30.7. Previous Year UPSC Prelims Questions .....................................................................................................472

Unit 4: Oceanography
31. Ocean Relief .........................................................................................................................................................479

31.1. Major Ocean Relief Features ......................................................................................................................479

Continental Shelf .......................................................................................................................................................................... 479
Continental Slope ......................................................................................................................................................................... 481
Continental Rise ............................................................................................................................................................................ 481
Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain ............................................................................................................................................. 481
31.2. Minor Ocean Relief Features ......................................................................................................................481
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches ...................................................................................................................................................... 481
Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges ........................................................................................................................ 482
Abyssal Hills (Seamounts And Guyots) ................................................................................................................................ 482
Submarine Canyons..................................................................................................................................................................... 483
Atoll.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 483
Bank, Shoal and Reef .................................................................................................................................................................. 484
32. Ocean Movements – Ocean Currents And Tides ..............................................................................................486

32.1. Ocean Currents.............................................................................................................................................486

Forces That Influence Ocean Currents ................................................................................................................................. 486
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Types of Ocean Currents ...........................................................................................................................................................488

Pacific Ocean Currents ...............................................................................................................................................................488
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Atlantic Ocean Currents .............................................................................................................................................................491

 Indian Ocean Currents ................................................................................................................................................................494
Effects of Ocean Currents.......................................................................................................................................................... 496
32.2. Tides ..............................................................................................................................................................500
Tidal Bulge: Why There Are Two Tidal Bulges?................................................................................................................. 501
Types of Tides Based On Frequency ..................................................................................................................................... 501
Types of Tides Based On The Sun, Moon And The Earth’s Positions ...................................................................... 503
Magnitude Of Tides ..................................................................................................................................................................... 506
Importance of Tides .................................................................................................................................................................... 506
Characteristics of Tides ..............................................................................................................................................................508
Tidal Bore ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 509
33. Ocean Temperature And Salinity.......................................................................................................................511

33.1. Ocean Temperature .....................................................................................................................................511

Source Of Heat In Oceans ......................................................................................................................................................... 511
Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution of Oceans ................................................................................................ 511
Vertical Temperature Distribution of Oceans.................................................................................................................... 512
Horizontal Temperature Distribution ................................................................................................................................... 516
Range of Ocean Temperature ................................................................................................................................................. 517
33.2. Ocean Salinity ..............................................................................................................................................518
Share of Dissolved Minerals and Salts in Sea Water ...................................................................................................... 518
Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity............................................................................................................................................. 518
Horizontal Distribution Of Salinity......................................................................................................................................... 518
Vertical Distribution of Salinity ............................................................................................................................................... 520
33.3. Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) ............................................................................520
Importance of AMOC.................................................................................................................................................................. 520

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