Brain-Computer Interface M.G.

Sumithra
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Brain-Computer Interface
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 Brain-Computer Interface

Using Deep Learning Applications

Edited by
M.G. Sumithra
Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj
Mariofanna Milanova
Balamurugan Balusamy
and
Chandran Venkatesan
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 Contents

Preface xiii
1 Introduction to Brain–Computer Interface: Applications
and Challenges 1
Jyoti R. Munavalli, Priya R. Sankpal, Sumathi A.
and Jayashree M. Oli
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Brain – Its Functions 3
1.3 BCI Technology 3
1.3.1 Signal Acquisition 5
1.3.1.1 Invasive Methods 6
1.3.1.2 Non-Invasive Methods 8
1.3.2 Feature Extraction 10
1.3.3 Classification 11
1.3.3.1 Types of Classifiers 12
1.4 Applications of BCI 13
1.5 Challenges Faced During Implementation of BCI 17
References 21
2 Introduction: Brain–Computer Interface and Deep Learning 25
Muskan Jindal, Eshan Bajal and Areeba Kazim
2.1 Introduction 26
2.1.1 Current Stance of P300 BCI 28
2.2 Brain–Computer Interface Cycle 29
2.3 Classification of Techniques Used for Brain–Computer
Interface 38
2.3.1 Application in Mental Health 38
2.3.2 Application in Motor-Imagery 38
2.3.3 Application in Sleep Analysis 39
2.3.4 Application in Emotion Analysis 39

v
vi Contents

2.3.5 Hybrid Methodologies 40

2.3.6 Recent Notable Advancements 41
2.4 Case Study: A Hybrid EEG-fNIRS BCI 46
2.5 Conclusion, Open Issues and Future Endeavors 47
References 49
3 Statistical Learning for Brain–Computer Interface 63
Lalit Kumar Gangwar, Ankit, John A. and Rajesh E.
3.1 Introduction 64
3.1.1 Various Techniques to BCI 64
3.1.1.1 Non-Invasive 64
3.1.1.2 Semi-Invasive 65
3.1.1.3 Invasive 67
3.2 Machine Learning Techniques to BCI 67
3.2.1 Support Vector Machine (SVM) 69
3.2.2 Neural Networks 69
3.3 Deep Learning Techniques Used in BCI 70
3.3.1 Convolutional Neural Network Model (CNN) 72
3.3.2 Generative DL Models 73
3.4 Future Direction 73
3.5 Conclusion 74
References 75
4 The Impact of Brain–Computer Interface on Lifestyle
of Elderly People 77
Zahra Alidousti Shahraki and Mohsen Aghabozorgi Nafchi
4.1 Introduction 78
4.2 Diagnosing Diseases 79
4.3 Movement Control 84
4.4 IoT 85
4.5 Cognitive Science 86
4.6 Olfactory System 88
4.7 Brain-to-Brain (B2B) Communication Systems 89
4.8 Hearing 90
4.9 Diabetes 91
4.10 Urinary Incontinence 92
4.11 Conclusion 93
References 93
 Contents vii

5 A Review of Innovation to Human Augmentation

in Brain-Machine Interface – Potential, Limitation,
and Incorporation of AI 101
T. Graceshalini, S. Rathnamala and M. Prabhanantha Kumar
5.1 Introduction 102
5.2 Technologies in Neuroscience for Recording
and Influencing Brain Activity 103
5.2.1 Brain Activity Recording Technologies 104
5.2.1.1 A Non-Invasive Recording Methodology 104
5.2.1.2 An Invasive Recording Methodology 104
5.3 Neuroscience Technology Applications
for Human Augmentation 106
5.3.1 Need for BMI 106
5.3.1.1 Need of BMI Individuals
for Re-Establishing the Control
and Communication of Motor 107
5.3.1.2 Brain-Computer Interface Noninvasive
Research at Wadsworth Center 107
5.3.1.3 An Interface of Berlin Brain-Computer:
Machine Learning-Dependent
of User-Specific Brain States Detection 107
5.4 History of BMI 108
5.5 BMI Interpretation of Machine Learning Integration 111
5.6 Beyond Current Existing Methodologies: Nanomachine
Learning BMI Supported 116
5.7 Challenges and Open Issues 119
5.8 Conclusion 120
References 121
6 Resting-State fMRI: Large Data Analysis in Neuroimaging 127
M. Menagadevi , S. Mangai, S. Sudha and D. Thiyagarajan
6.1 Introduction 128
6.1.1 Principles of Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (fMRI) 128
6.1.2 Resting State fMRI (rsfMRI) for Neuroimaging 128
6.1.3 The Measurement of Fully Connected
and Construction of Default Mode Network (DMN) 129
viii Contents

6.2 Brain Connectivity 129

6.2.1 Anatomical Connectivity 129
6.2.2 Functional Connectivity 130
6.3 Better Image Availability 130
6.3.1 Large Data Analysis in Neuroimaging 131
6.3.2 Big Data rfMRI Challenges 133
6.3.3 Large rfMRI Data Software Packages 134
6.4 Informatics Infrastructure and Analytical Analysis 137
6.5 Need of Resting-State MRI 137
6.5.1 Cerebral Energetics 137
6.5.2 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) 137
6.5.3 Multi-Purpose Data Sets 138
6.5.4 Expanded Patient Populations 138
6.5.5 Reliability 138
6.6 Technical Development 138
6.7 rsfMRI Clinical Applications 139
6.7.1 Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI)
and Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) 139
6.7.2 Fronto-Temporal Dementia (FTD) 140
6.7.3 Multiple Sclerosis (MS) 141
6.7.4 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
and Depression 143
6.7.5 Bipolar 144
6.7.6 Schizophrenia 145
6.7.7 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 147
6.7.8 Multiple System Atrophy (MSA) 147
6.7.9 Epilepsy/Seizures 147
6.7.10 Pediatric Applications 149
6.8 Resting-State Functional Imaging of Neonatal
Brain Image 149
6.9 Different Groups in Brain Disease 151
6.10 Learning Algorithms for Analyzing rsfMRI 151
6.11 Conclusion and Future Directions 154
References 154
7 Early Prediction of Epileptic Seizure Using Deep Learning
Algorithm 157
T. Jagadesh, A. Reethika, B. Jaishankar and M.S. Kanivarshini
7.1 Introduction 158
7.2 Methodology 164
7.3 Experimental Results 169
 Contents ix

7.4 Taking Care of Children with Seizure Disorders 172

7.5 Ketogenic Diet 172
7.6 Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS) 172
7.7 Brain Surgeries 173
7.8 Conclusion 173
References 175
8 Brain–Computer Interface-Based Real-Time Movement
of Upper Limb Prostheses Topic: Improving the Quality
of the Elderly with Brain-Computer Interface 179
S. Vairaprakash and S. Rajagopal
8.1 Introduction 180
8.1.1 Motor Imagery Signal Decoding 181
8.2 Literature Survey 182
8.3 Methodology of Proposed Work 184
8.3.1 Proposed Control Scheme 185
8.3.2 One Versus All Adaptive Neural Type-2
Fuzzy Inference System (OVAANT2FIS) 187
8.3.3 Position Control of Robot Arm Using Hybrid BCI
for Rehabilitation Purpose 187
8.3.4 Jaco Robot Arm 189
8.3.5 Scheme 1: Random Order Positional Control 189
8.4 Experiments and Data Processing 192
8.4.1 Feature Extraction 195
8.4.2 Performance Analysis of the Detectors 197
8.4.3 Performance of the Real Time Robot
Arm Controllers 198
8.5 Discussion 200
8.6 Conclusion and Future Research Directions 202
References 203
9 Brain–Computer Interface-Assisted Automated
Wheelchair Control Management-Cerebro: A BCI Application 205
Sudhendra Kambhamettu, Meenalosini Vimal Cruz, Anitha S.,
Sibi Chakkaravarthy S. and K. Nandeesh Kumar
9.1 Introduction 206
9.1.1 What is a BCI? 207
9.2 How Do BCI’s Work? 207
9.2.1 Measuring Brain Activity 208
9.2.1.1 Without Surgery 208
9.2.1.2 With Surgery 208
x Contents

9.2.2 Mental Strategies 209

9.2.2.1 SSVEP 210
9.2.2.2 Neural Motor Imagery 210
9.3 Data Collection 211
9.3.1 Overview of the Data 211
9.3.2 EEG Headset 213
9.3.3 EEG Signal Collection 214
9.4 Data Pre-Processing 215
9.4.1 Artifact Removal 216
9.4.2 Signal Processing and Dimensionality Reduction 217
9.4.3 Feature Extraction 217
9.5 Classification 218
9.5.1 Deep Learning (DL) Model Pipeline 219
9.5.2 Architecture of the DL Model 220
9.5.3 Output Metrics of the Classifier 221
9.5.4 Deployment of DL Model 221
9.5.5 Control System 223
9.5.6 Control Flow Overview 223
9.6 Control Modes 223
9.6.1 Speech Mode 223
9.6.2 Blink Stimulus Mapping 223
9.6.3 Text Interface 225
9.6.4 Motion Mode 225
9.6.5 Motor Arrangement 225
9.6.6 Imagined Motion Mapping 226
9.7 Compilation of All Systems 226
9.8 Conclusion 226
References 227
10 Identification of Imagined Bengali Vowels
from EEG Signals Using Activity Map
and Convolutional Neural Network 231
Rajdeep Ghosh, Nidul Sinha and Souvik Phadikar
10.1 Introduction 232
10.1.1 Electroencephalography (EEG) 233
10.1.2 Imagined Speech or Silent Speech 233
10.2 Literature Survey 234
10.3 Theoretical Background 238
10.3.1 Convolutional Neural Network 238
10.3.2 Activity Map 240
10.4 Methodology 242
 Contents xi

10.4.1 Data Collection 243

10.4.2 Pre-Processing 244
10.4.3 Feature Extraction 245
10.4.4 Classification 247
10.5 Results 249
10.6 Conclusion 252
Acknowledgment 252
References 252
11 Optimized Feature Selection Techniques for Classifying
Electrocorticography Signals 255
B. Paulchamy, R. Uma Maheshwari,
D. Sudarvizhi AP(Sr. G), R. Anandkumar AP(Sr. G)
and Ravi G.
11.1 Introduction 256
11.1.1 Brain–Computer Interface 256
11.2 Literature Study 258
11.3 Proposed Methodology 260
11.3.1 Dataset 261
11.3.2 Feature Extraction Using Auto-Regressive (AR)
Model and Wavelet Transform 261
11.3.2.1 Auto-Regressive Features 261
11.3.2.2 Wavelet Features 262
11.3.2.3 Feature Selection Methods 262
11.3.2.4 Information Gain (IG) 263
11.3.2.5 Clonal Selection 263
11.3.2.6 An Overview of the Steps of the
CLONALG 264
11.3.3 Hybrid CLONALG 265
11.4 Experimental Results 268
11.4.1 Results of Feature Selection Using IG with
Various Classifiers 272
11.4.2 Results of Optimizing Support Vector Machine
Using CLONALG Selection 274
11.5 Conclusion 276
References 277
12 BCI – Challenges, Applications, and Advancements 279
R. Remya and Sumithra, M.G.
12.1 Introduction 279
12.1.1 BCI Structure 280
xii Contents

12.2 Related Works 281

12.3 Applications 282
12.4 Challenges and Advancements 297
12.5 Conclusion 299
References 299
Index 303
 Preface

The Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) is an emerging technology that

is developing to be more functional in practice. The aim is to establish,
through experiences with electronic devices, a communication chan-
nel bridging the human neural networks within the brain to the external
world. For example, creating communication or control applications for
locked-in patients who have no control over their bodies will be one such
use. Recently, from communication to marketing, recovery, care, mental
state monitoring, and entertainment, the possible application areas have
been expanding. Machine learning algorithms have advanced BCI tech-
nology in the last few decades, and in the sense of classification accuracy,
performance standards have been greatly improved. For BCI to be effective
in the real-world, however some problems remain to be solved.
The book provides the reader with the fundamental theories, concepts,
and methods in neuroscience, brain recording and stimulation technol-
ogies, signal processing, and machine learning. Readers have the chance
to review their knowledge and assess their comprehension of the subjects
presented in each chapter with exercises and questions at the end of each
chapter. Some assignments provide the student the option to explore top-
ics outside of those covered in the textbook by looking for new informa-
tion online and following leads in research articles. Highlighting most of
the research directions in the digital world, this book is more suitable for
researchers from biomedical background, data analysts, AI researchers,
machine and deep learning engineers, students and academicians.
The book is organized as follows: In chapters 1 and 2 provides an
introduction to Brain–Computer Interface: Applications and Challenges.
Chapter 3 discusses the statistical learning of brain compute interface was
discussed. Chapter 4 begins with the impact of brain computer interface
on the lifestyle of elderly people. Chapter 5 reviews the innovation to
human augmentation in brain computer interface and its potential lim-
itations in artificial intelligence. Chapter 6 details the Resting-State fMRI:
large data analysis in neuro imaging. Chapter 7 describes early detection of

xiii
xiv Preface

epileptic seizure using deep learning algorithms. Chapter 8 describes the

application of brain computer interface based on the real time upper limb
protheses to improve the quality of the elderly. Chapter 9 describes another
application of brain computer interface to assisted automated wheelchair
control management. Chapter 10 shows the application of convolutional
neural network to identify Bengali vowels from EEG signal using activa-
tion map. Chapter 11 discusses the optimized feature selection techniques
for classifying electrocorticography signals. Chapter 12 reviews some of
the challenges, application and advancements in brain computer interface.
The editors thank all contributors for their time and effort and have col-
lectively delivered high quality work.

The Editors
December 2022
 1
Introduction to Brain–Computer
Interface: Applications and Challenges
Jyoti R. Munavalli1*, Priya R. Sankpal1, Sumathi A.1 and Jayashree M. Oli2

ECE, BNM Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India

1

2
Amrita School of Engineering, ECE, Bengaluru, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham,
India

Abstract
Brain–Computer Interface (BCI) is a technology that facilitates the communica-
tion between the brain and the machine. It is a promising field that has lot of poten-
tial to be tapped for various applications. To begin with, this chapter explains the
basics of the brain and its function. It describes the BCI technology and the steps:
from signal acquisition to applications. The signal capturing is done through inva-
sive and non-invasive methods. The features from the brain signals are extracted
and classified using various advanced machine learning classification algorithms.
BCI is extensively helpful for health-related problems but it also has applications
in education, smart homes, security and many more. BCI has its own share of
challenges that it has to overcome so that it could be beneficial in the future use.
We discuss about all the issues like ethical, technical and legal. This chapter pro-
vides an overview on BCI through basics, applications, and challenges.
Keywords: Brain-Computer Interface, BCI technology, BCI applications,
BCI challenges

1.1 Introduction
“A man sitting in a garden enjoying his regular walk. There are three
devices that are in use in the garden; a drone, a wheelchair, and a lap-
top. Each of them is controlled by the man without using any remote

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

M.G. Sumithra, Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj, Mariofanna Milanova, Balamurugan Balusamy and Chandran
Venkatesan (eds.) Brain-Computer Interface: Using Deep Learning Applications, (1–24) © 2023
Scrivener Publishing LLC

1
2 Brain-Computer Interface

controller. Yes, he is controlling them with his mind. This is one of the
examples of brain-machine interface and we will be having numerous of
them in the near future.”

In the past 20 years, the world has seen tremendous changes in the
technology. Many technologies were invented that really affected the soci-
ety for/in their well-being. We are witnessing new arenas like Artificial
Intelligence, Virtual Reality, electronic health records, robotics, Data
Science, and many more. All these have revolutionized the healthcare
delivery system. Artificial Intelligence has paved its way in diagnosis, pre-
diction of diseases through its advanced algorithms like machine learning
and deep learning [1]. Virtual reality assists in treatment plans like pho-
bias and neurological disorders [2]. EMR-based real time optimization has
improved the efficiency of hospital systems and aid in decision making,
again through technological intervention [3–7]. It has been observed that
robotic assisted surgeries and the extent to which data science was uti-
lized during pandemic are the big marking of technology in healthcare
(Healthcare 4.0). With these technological interventions, Brain Computing
Interface (BCI) is one among them.
In 1920, the first record to measure brain activity of human was by
means of EEG but the device was very elementary. Later in 1970, research
on BCI that was particularly for neuro-prosthetic, began at the University
of California, Los Angeles, but it was in 1990s that these devices were actu-
ally implemented in humans.
A Brain–Computer Interface is also referred as Brain Machine Interface
or Mind-Machine Interface. BCI is a computer-based system that acquires
the signals based on the activities in the brain and analyzes and translates
the neuronal information into commands that can control external envi-
ronment (either hardware or software). It is an Artificial Intelligence system
that identifies the patterns from the collected brain signals. The electrical
signals that are generated during brain activities are used in interaction or
change with the surroundings. It allows individuals that are not capable to
talk and/or make use of their limbs for operating the assistive devices that
help them in walking and handling and controlling the objects [8]. BCI is
extensively used in Medicine and Healthcare [9].
This chapter presents the overview of BCI: its history and basics, the
process details with hardware components, its applications and then finally
the challenges faced while dealing with BCI. We begin with the description
of functional areas of brain.
 Introduction to Brain–Computer Interface 3

Parietal lobe

Occipital
lobe
Frontal
lobe

Cerebellum

Temporal lobe Brainstem

Figure 1.1 Brain parts.

1.2 The Brain – Its Functions

The brain is a soft mass made up of the nerves and tissues that are con-
nected to the spinal cord. The main parts of the brain are Cerebrum,
Cerebellum and Brain stem (see Figure 1.1). Frontal lobe, temporal lobe,
parietal lobe and occipital lobe, are the four lobes of cerebrum. They are
responsible for reading, learning, thinking, emotions, walking, vision, and
hearing (regarding senses). Cerebellum is responsible for balancing and
coordination. Brain stem is responsible for heartbeat, breathing, blood
pressure, swallowing, and eye movements [10, 11].
Brain generates many signals and the electrical signals generated are
used in BCI system. These signals are measured using invasive or non-­
invasive techniques.

1.3 BCI Technology

BCI as mentioned earlier is a communication channel between the brain
and the external processing device. The goal of BCI technology is to give a
communication model to those people who are severely paralyzed and do
not have control over their muscles [12]. It takes the bio-signals measured
from a person and predicts some abstract facet of cognitive state.
4 Brain-Computer Interface

Most commonly, the BCI focuses on patients that have problems with
motor state and cognitive state. In normal humans, there is an intersection
of brain activity, eye movement, and body movements. If any one of them
is missed, it results in constrained state. Figure 1.2 shows this intersection.
It is observed that BCI is applicable to the areas where patients have nor-
mal to major cognition levels working along with no motor state response
to minor motor state response. So under this umbrella, we get patients that
experience completely locked-in syndrome (CLIS) or Locked-in Syndrome
(LiS) [13].
Motor state

Normal

Minor problem

Major problem
BCI domain

No Response

Normal Minor problem Major problem No Response

Cognitive level

Figure 1.2 BCI domain.

Signal Processing

Signal Feature
Classification
Acquisition Extraction
Digitized
signal

Commands

Feedback
BCI Application

Figure 1.3 Block diagram of BCI.

 Introduction to Brain–Computer Interface 5

Locked-in syndrome is a neurological disorder also known as pseudo

coma where patient is completely paralyzed that is losing control of volun-
tary muscles, except the eye movements. Therefore, such people can think
and analyze but not speak and move. In recent past, it is seen that chronic
LIS can be unlocked with the aid of BCI [14].
The block diagram of BCI is as in Figure 1.3. It begins with recording of
signals from brain, then processing of these recorded signals. Here various
features from the signals are extracted and classified as per their properties
or characteristics. Based on these signals’ commands are generated and the
BCI device works accordingly.

1.3.1 Signal Acquisition

In BCI, signal acquisitor plays an important role. There are different
recording techniques in BCI and are broadly classified as invasive and non-­
invasive methods as shown in the Figure 1.4. These methods aid to bring
out/pull out electric and magnetic signals of brain activity.

Intracortical
Recording
Invasive

ECoG

BCI Recording
EEG
Methods

MEG

Non-invasive

fMRI

NIRS

Figure 1.4 Types of BCI signal acquisitor.

6 Brain-Computer Interface

1.3.1.1 Invasive Methods

Electrodes are implanted in the scalp to extract the required parameters
and in non-invasive method, external sensors are used to measure the
parameters.

a. Intra-Cortical Recording:
A single electrode or sometimes array of electrodes are in the cortex of the
brain. These interfaces are been used for the past 70 years and some of the
popular kinds of hardware for intracortical recording are as follows:

i. Wire-based arrays
ii. Micro-machined micro-electrodes
iii. Polymer microelectrodes

i. Wire-Based Arrays
They are also called Microwire arrays, Wire arrays are made up of insulated
metal wires with an uninsulated tip that is used to observe the bipotential
form of neurons in a bipolar environment [15]. The diameter of those wires
is in the range of 10–200 micrometers the limitations of microwire-based
arrays are as follows:

• They are limited because of recording failures and FBR

effects.
• Microwire arrays are highly prone to variation, disappear-
ance, or disappearance of recorded signal in the timeframe
spanning from weeks to months post-implantation [16].
• The wires are tedious to place and route to microelectronic
packages.
• Isolation cracks, corrosion – analysis of tungsten micro-
waves extracted from rats after 9 months of use, revealed
material deterioration in the form of isolation fractures and
defamation.
• Extensive use of electrodes leads to electric leakages which
result in errors when recording.

ii. Micro-Machined Micro-Electrodes

The introduction of photolithography and subsequent advancements in
micromachining technology prompted the development of a new genera-
tion of silicon-based brain probes. (micromachined microelectrodes) [17].
Ex: Michigan Planar electrode arrays, Utah Electrode arrays [18].
 Introduction to Brain–Computer Interface 7

The limitations are as follows:

• They degrade with time.

• Recording loss due to vascular mutilation.
• Failures in interconnection.
• Size and rigidity of the probes.
• Expensive (GoldPlatinum, Iridium are widely used in planar
recording areas).
• They are prone to fracture.
• Failure in persistent recordings is mainly because of the 2D.
geometry of MMEA-based reading electrodes.
• The size and mechanical mismatch of silicon-based and
wire microelectrode arrays with the brain are two of the
most important problems limiting the quality of neural
recordings.

iii. Polymer Microelectrodes

The disadvantages of stiff materials can be potentially deviated using
Polymers [19]. But they have certain limitations:

• The accuracy and depth of implantation of soft and flexible

implants into the brain is hampered, making them difficult
to implant [20].
• Complicated structural design.
• Expensive methods of fabrication.
• As these are internally placed, they pose challenge for using
in long term cases [21]. Fabrication methods and the char-
acteristics of the materials used also impact on its durability.

b. Electrocorticography (ECoG)
Intracranial electroencephalography is a technique for recording brain sig-
nals by putting electrode grids on the cortex’s surface. ECoG is an inva-
sive BCI recording method that records with electrodes put directly on the
brain’s exposed surface [22]. These are used when performing an internal
brain surgery.

• They are expensive.

• They are bulky.
• They are prone to the formation of scar tissue, which
obstructs the signal when the body reacts to the foreign item.
8 Brain-Computer Interface

Non invasive
EEG
MEG

Invasive
ECoG
SEEG
Intracortical
implant

Figure 1.5 Recording places in/on brain.

• Limited sampling time – Seizures may not be recorded with

EcoG [23, 24].
• The region of the exposed cortex and operation duration
restrict the number of electrodes that may be placed. Errors
in sampling are possible.

ECoG is a minimal invasive method. Stereotactic electroencephalogra-

phy (sEEG) also used electrodes to measure brain activity. sEEG provides
measurements from much deeper brain structures than ECoG, yet it has
received very less attention in BCI applications [25, 26]. All, the intracor-
tical, ECoG and sEEG are invasive methods and their placing in cortex is
as shown in the Figure 1.5. ECoG is sometimes referred as semi-invasive
method.

1.3.1.2 Non-Invasive Methods

a. EEG (Electroencephalogram)
EEG is a method of signal acquisition that records the electrical signals
of the brain by the help of metal discs(electrodes) that are attached to the
scalp [27]. There are four types of electrodes:

1) Traditional wet electrodes

2) Dry electordes
3) Active electrodes
4) Passive electrodes
 Introduction to Brain–Computer Interface 9

Hardware concerns with EEG-based BCI equipment with wet electrodes:

• Maintenance and use of wet electrodes is cumbersome.

• Electrical impedance of the skin has its impact the signal
acquisition, that is the quality of recording the brain signals.
The water content in association with the electrodes reduces
electrical impedance whereas the air in association with the
electrodes increases the electrical impedance.
• The interface betweeen the skin and electrode causes noises
which considerably affect the signal.
• The setup of wet electrode is not well tolerated by subjects
over longer periods of recording a) because of the electrolytic
gel used which causes irritation to the subjects b) because of
the discomfort caused by the elastic straps to hold the eeg
cap in place [28].
• The electrical impedance also depends on various factors
like surface area of the electrode, room temperature, and the
interface layer.The people who were taking the EEG read-
ings must keep all these factors in check.

Hardware concerns with EEG-based BCI equipment with dry electrodes:

• The Quality of the signal obtained using dry electrodes is

low when compared to wet electrodes [29].
• For dry electrodes the electrical impedance deteriorate rap-
idly with use and generally should be replaced after 30 days
of usage.
• The electrode caps are prone to movement since there will
be no gel to hold the caps in place.
• Highquality electrode caps are generally made of gold and
titanium, for prolonged hours of usage change of electrode
caps is recommended so it will be costly to buy and maintain
the electrodes [30].
• Elastic straps are used to maintain the electric caps in place
which causes discomfort to the subject over longer periods
of time.

b. MEG (Magnetoencephalography)
It is an imaging test which reflects the activity of the brain by recording
the magnetic fields produced by electric currents occuring naturally in the
brain [31].
10 Brain-Computer Interface

Hardware concerns with MEG-based BCI equipment:

• The MEG equipment is very expensive.

• MEG equipment requires liquid helium to maintain its
superconducting equipment.
• The equipment must be used in a magnetic shielded room
and the food used by the subjects and the examiner must
also be administered ad managed.
• The patients need to remain relatively still during a MEG
examination and the patients with a vagus nerve simulator,
pacemaker, or similar device may not be able to undergo an
MEG study [32].

c. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

This method acquires the brain activity parameters based on blood flow
changes. So, this method depends on cerebral blood flow coupled with
neuronal activation. When brain is in use, the blood flow varies depending
to the task being performed. Hence, the parameters also vary. fMRI is used
to detect and evaluate the brain abnormalities that could not be captured
in other imaging techniques like x-ray or MRI.

d. Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)

This method measures brain activity in frontal cortex. Here light absorp-
tion is used to calculate oxygen and hemoglobin levels.
Before extracting the features from the measured parameters, pre-­
processing is required. Pre-processing generally consists of Referencing,
temporal filtering, and signal enhancement. Referencing is comparing the
measured brain signal to a standard or reference signal in the form of volt-
age. It can be common reference, average reference, or current source den-
sity. Temporal filtering removes unwanted noise signals that are present in
the measured brain signals. Signal enhancement techniques like Principal
component Analysis (PCA), Surface Laplacian, automatic enhancement
methods are used to enhance the parameters measured.

1.3.2 Feature Extraction

Based on the signal processing, the commands are generated. So, identi-
fication of correct features is an essential step. Feature extraction in BCI
is recognizing the events or useful properties that are captured by vari-
ous neuroimage methods. This will reduce the complexity and help in
 Introduction to Brain–Computer Interface 11

classification. Generally used method is EEG and in feature extraction, fre-

quency information of each electrode and between electrodes is extracted.
The noise and the outliers are important features of brain signals. Along
with them, we also have to consider that brain signals are highly dimen-
sional, timely information, non-stationary and non-linear. Particularly for
EEG, the data collected is time series. There are EEG bands based on fre-
quency range. These bands are Delta for frontal lobe, theta for temporal
and parietal lobe, Alpha for occipital lobe, Beta for frontal central lobe, and
Gamma for parietal lobe [33]. These bands are used in feature extraction.
A cross correlation is analyzed between different frequency bands and
it helps to extracts few important properties. It is observed that Fourier
transforms are not efficient when the signals are non-linear and non-­
stationary, so time-frequency methods are used in feature extraction, like
wavelet algorithm (based on the physiological activity knowledge) and
empirical mode decomposition.
Any EEG signal has features that are measured in time domain. These
parameters are referred as Hjorth parameters that basically are activity,
mobility, and complexity. In addition to this, parametric models are used
to model time series. Autoregressive parameters, Multivariate autoregres-
sive parameters, adaptive autoregressive parameters and these parameters
with exogenous input are considered [34].
There is another set of models called Inverse models. These models rep-
resent the brain as a set of volume elements called as voxels. Specific pat-
terns are identified in the regions associated with cognitive component.
These are the peak picking methods. Another method is the slow cortical
potentials calculation in which amplitudes are extracted, corrected, and
used as feedback.
Poor feature detection and extraction would reduce the accuracy and
efficiency of the BCI model. The feature extraction of brain signals directly
depends on the signal types being measured and recorded. Along with
the above mentioned feature extraction, commonly used features include
mean, slope, peak, signal minimum, skewness, and kurtosis, number of
occurrence of peaks, variance, root mean square, standard deviation,
median, power spectrum density (PSD), logarithmic band power and
common spatial patterns [13].

1.3.3 Classification
The signal patterns in the brain are dynamic stochastic processes because
of the biological factors and technical issues like amplifier noise and elec-
trode impedance changes. The identified signals before being translated
12 Brain-Computer Interface

into commands have to be classified. That is grouping of the signals based

on their appropriate features. There are many categories of classification
algorithms used in BCI systems. With the advancements in Artificial
Intelligence, Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL), more
advanced algorithms for feature extraction and classification are in use.
There are four classifier taxonomies in contrast to each other.

• Generative/Informative and Discriminative classifiers

• Static and Dynamic classifiers
• Stable and Unstable classifiers
• Regularized classifier

1.3.3.1 Types of Classifiers

1. Linear Classifiers
These classifiers use linear algorithms to differentiate between two or more
classes. A hyper plane is used to distinguish the considered data falls in
first or second class. The classic examples of linear classifiers are Linear
Discriminant Analysis (LDA) and Support Vector Machine (SVM).

Linear Discriminant Analysis is a popular classification algorithm used

in BCI applications. It is a dimensionality reduction technique. LDA uses
single hyperplane to separate the data representing the two classes and sev-
eral hyperplanes if multiclass problems are used. The discrimination rules
used in LDA are “maximum likelihood”, “Bayes Discriminant Rule”, and
“Fisher’s linear discriminant rule”. This method is used because of its very
low computational requirement and as well provides good results.
Support Vector Machine was originally designed for binary classifica-
tion and to maximize the margin compared to LDA. SVM uses statistical
learning theory. It searches the maximum margin hyperplane between two
classes. Maximization of the margins extends the generalization capabili-
ties of the algorithm. The accuracy is improved by adjusting the parameters.
A variant in SVM is the Gaussian SVM that provides excellent accuracy in
classification.

2. Neural Networks Classifiers

A neural network is an arrangement of processing units in layers that con-
vert the input to output using weights associated with the nodes. These
are commonly used classifiers for BCI along with linear classifiers. Multi-
Layer Perceptron (MLP), Learning Vector Quantization, Adaptive Logic
Networks, Time Delayed Neural Network, Recurrent Neural Network are
 Introduction to Brain–Computer Interface 13

few neural network classifiers. An MLP contains multiple layers of neurons

in the form of an input layer, either one or more hidden layers, and an out-
put layer. The neurons of the output layer determine which class the input
feature vector belongs to (that is classifying which class). MLP classifies to
any number of classes which makes neural network more flexible. It is also
called as universal classifier and can be applied to most of the BCI prob-
lems that have either two (binary) or multiple classes to discriminate [35].

3. Non-Linear Bayesian Classifiers

Bayes quadratic, Bayesian Graphical network (BGN) and Hidden Markov
Model (HMM) are the Bayesian classifiers used for BCI: Although Bayesian
Graphical Network (When compared BGN is slow compared to other two.
Hidden Markov Models are very efficient nonlinear techniques used for
the time series data or signal classification. HMMs are the dynamic classi-
fiers that are used for speech recognition. HMMs work on a probabilistic
automaton for a given sequence of feature vectors.

4. k-Nearest Neighbor Classifiers

k-NN classification is a non-parametric model in which a new feature
is assigned to a class depending on nearest neighbors. It is described as
instance-based learning where the model memorizes the training datasets.
It provides better accuracy in classification with less training and testing
datasets. Features of EEG signals can be extracted by Hjorth’s parameters
like activity, mobility and complexity are extracted and, on that k-NN clas-
sification would result in improved accuracy. First the number of near-
est neighbors is found and then data points are classified based on that.
Euclidean distance is used to find the neighbors. It selects k samples from
training set. This classifier is based on giving new samples to the class with
majority of votes [36, 37].

1.4 Applications of BCI

BCI has taken a big leap in its applications with the growth in modern
computing and cognitive levels of humans in understanding the brain. BCI
applications are making the unconquered world into reality. With BCI, it
is possible to manipulate the thoughts with computers. BCI, in its nascent
days involved recording brain signals, in contrast to designing implants
in today’s world. These implants act as a communication tool between the
brain and outside world. Implants are designed for some important brain
functions such as feeling, hearing and vision to name a few.
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 This was a wee alarming. “No,” quoth I—“no, Isaac, man, I ne’er
heard o’t.”
“But let alane resurrectioners, do ye no think there is sic a thing as
ghaists? Guide ye, my man, my granny could hae telled ye as muckle
about them as wad hae filled a minister’s sermons from June to
January.”
“Kay—kay—that’s a’ buff,” I said. “Are there nae cutty-stool
businesses—are there nae marriages gaun, Isaac?” for I was keen to
change the subject.
“Ye may kay—kay—as ye like, though; I can just tell ye this—ye’ll
mind auld Armstrong, wi’ the leather breeks, and the brown three-
storey wig—him that was the grave—digger? Weel, he saw a ghaist
wi’ his leeving een—aye, and what’s better, in this very kirkyard too.
It was a cauld spring morning, and daylight just coming in, when he
cam to the yett yonder, thinking to meet his man, paidling Jock—but
Jock had sleepit in, and wasna there. Weel, to the wast corner ower
yonder he gaed, and throwing his coat ower a headstane, and his hat
on the tap o’t, he dug awa wi’ his spade, casting out the mools, and
the coffin-handles, and the green banes, and sic-like, till he stoppit a
wee to tak breath.—What! are ye whistling to yoursel?” quo’ Isaac to
me, “and no hearing what’s God’s truth?”
“Ou ay,” said I, “but ye didna tell me if ony body was cried last
Sunday?” I wad hae given every farthing I had made by the needle to
hae been at that blessed time in my bed wi’ my wife and wean. Ay,
how I was gruing! I mostly chacked aff my tongue in chitterin’. But a’
wadna do.
“Weel, speaking of ghaists;—when he was resting on his spade, he
looked up to the steeple, to see what o’clock it was, wondering what
way Jock hadna come,—when lo, and behold! in the lang diced
window of the kirk yonder, he saw a lady a’ in white, wi’ her hands
clasped thegither, looking out to the kirkyard at him.
“He couldna believe his een, so he rubbit them wi’ his sark sleeve,
but she was still there bodily, and, keeping ae ee on her, and anither
on his road to the yett, he drew his coat and hat to him below his
arm, and aff like mad, throwing his shool half a mile ahint him. Jock
fand that; for he was coming singing in at the yett, when his maister
ran clean ower the tap o’ him, and capseized him like a toom barrel;
and never stoppin’ till he was in at his ain house, and the door baith
bolted and barred at his tail.
“Did ye ever hear the like of that, Mansie? Weel man, I’ll explain
the hale history o’t to ye. Ye see,—’od! how sound that callant’s
sleeping,” continued Isaac; “he’s snoring like a nine-year-auld.”
I was glad he had stoppit, for I was like to sink through the grund
wi’ fear; but na, it wadna do.
“Dinna ye ken—sauf us! what a fearsome night this is! The trees ’ll
be a’ broken. What a noise in the lum! I dare say there is some auld
hag of a witch-wife gaun to come rumble doun’t. It’s no the first time,
I’ll swear. Hae ye a silver sixpence? Wad ye like that?” he bawled up
the chimley. “Ye’ll hae heard,” said he, “lang ago, that a wee
murdered wean was buried—didna ye hear a voice?—was buried
below that corner—the hearthstane there, where the laddie’s lying
on?”
I had now lost my breath, so that I couldna stop him.
“Ye never heard tell o’t, didna ye? Weel, I’se tell’t ye.—Sauf us!
what swurls o’ smoke coming down the chimley—I could swear
something no canny’s stopping up the lum-head—gang out and see!”
At that moment, a clap like thunder was heard—the candle was
driven ower—the sleeping laddie roared “Help!” and “Murder!” and
“Thieves!” and as the furm on which we were sitting played flee
backwards, cripple Isaac bellowed out, “I’m dead!—I’m killed! shot
through the head!—oh, oh, oh!”
Surely I had fainted away; for when I came to mysel, I found my
red comforter loosed; my face a’ wet—Isaac rubbing down my
waistcoat with his sleeve—the laddie swigging ale out of a bicker—
and the brisk brown stout, which, by casting its cork, had caused a’
the alarm, whizz—whizz—whizzing in the chimley-lug.—Mansie
Wauch.
 MARY WILSON.

On her white arm down sunk her head,

She shivered, sighed, and died.
Mallet.

Joseph Wilson was a farmer in the parish of D——. He possessed

enough of the goods of this world to make him be respected by all his
neighbours, and esteemed by them as the most careful, well-doing
man in the parish. Joseph knew well enough the value of his riches;
but still the jewel which was nearest and dearest to his heart was his
only daughter, the beautiful and innocent Mary Wilson. He loved her
—and his love was not greater than that of Marjory, his wife—more
than all he possessed; and when rallied by his neighbours on the
depth of his purse, he was wont to say, that the brightest guinea he
adored was the face of his own sweet Mary. While a child she was
indulged; and the smiles of her pretty round face, and her caresses
and kisses, gained all her little wants from her doting parents. While
the daughters of other farmers assisted in household management,
she was never required to soil her fingers, but would skip and dance
before her father over the fields and the meadows, and sport as the
little lamb round her parent. As she advanced from childhood, her
days were clad in the same fair livery of joy. She danced and she
toyed, and though no longer dandled and prattling on the knees of
her parents, she made them the confidants of all her light
amusements and secrets, and she sang to them all the legendary
ballads which she had picked up, and their hearts were still
gladdened in the little offspring of their wedlock.
From a child to the age of fifteen, she had attended the parish
school along with all the boys and girls, both high and low. Here she
was a general favourite, and the youths would crowd to attend Mary
Wilson home, because she had the prettiest little lips, and the
kindliest laugh, of any girl in the school; and happy was he, and
proud of himself, who obtained her hand to dance at the Candlemas
ball. The father and mother saw no harm in the adulations paid to
their daughter, for they did not equal their own; and the good old
schoolmaster loved to see Mary the favourite of all his youths,
because she was a good scholar and the best singer in the school and
in the church, and on that account the greatest favourite with
himself. When he raised the tune on the Sabbath to the praise of the
Lord, he would turn in his desk to the seat of Mary Wilson for her
accompaniment, and, when her sweet voice was once heard through
the church, then would the whole congregation join, and every young
man emulate himself to gain the approbation of the fair and goodly
singer. To those who are in the practice of attending a country parish
church, I need not mention in how high estimation the best female
singer is held amongst all the young men of the country side.
At the age of fifteen she was removed to a boarding-school in town.
Here she remained two years, and though she perfected herself in
accomplishments, and though many young men dangled after her,
yet her heart, albeit naturally merry, was sensitive; and vapid
appeared to her the revel in the midnight ball compared to the dance
on the heaven-canopied lawn, when heart panted with heart, and
every spirit caught the existing flame of pleasure; and frigid and
disagreeable seemed to her the lips from whom politeness extorted
studied words, compared to the lips of those who spoke the warm
and momentary feelings of the mind. She returned to the place of her
youth, and sought again for mirth and pleasure amongst her old
companions; but she was changed both in person and in mind. She
was no longer the light airy girl, but she was now the woman glowing
in all the richness and luxuriance of female beauty. She could not
now associate with the young men, and be their umpire in all their
disputes and contentions, as in the days of her youth; nor could she
find that delight in the company of her female companions which she
did ere her departure. Mary was a flower,—
A violet by a mossy stone,
Half hid from human eyes,
that, left undisturbed on the wild, would have flourished the loveliest
of her comrades, but once transplanted for a little time into the
garden, she took not so well when removed again to her native soil.
Though she danced, and though she sung, as she was wont, still part
of that which she had seen in town mingled itself with that which she
enjoyed in the country; the customs of a populous city were not to be
easily banished from her, and she could not be so happy as formerly.
To her father and her mother she was the same adored object; both
rejoiced in her beauty, and while they would at times talk of who
might be her husband, they would soon chase away the idea as that
of a robber that would deprive them of their all.
A little after Mary’s return to her father’s, Charles Morley returned
likewise from the University. He was the son of the laird, but he had
been at the parish school with the young men, and once been their
constant companion. He hunted for birds’ nests with them, he had
fished with them, he had often broken into his father’s garden with
them, and Morley was as one of themselves. He had ever been
attentive to Mary Wilson; and she, if the umpire of a race or a
wrestle, was always happy when she could adjudge the honour of
victory to Charlie Morley, because he would at times snatch a kiss
from her, and would always take her hand and assist her when
wading through the burns. He had completed his education at the
University, and, while he had acquired knowledge, he had lost the
command of himself. Long did he withstand the temptations laid in
his way by more wicked companions, and long did he endeavour to
retain the principles his old master had instilled into him; but in
vain: while the sage was discoursing on the nobleness of man’s
nature, and the blessings of wisdom, and while he acquiesced in all
the learned man said, Charles Morley had become one of the most
profligate young men in the college.
When he returned to the country, he often met Mary Wilson, both
at her father’s and at the houses of the other tenants. Their meetings
became frequent, and though they never made assignations, yet
Charles Morley was sure to meet with Mary Wilson in her walks. She
saw no harm in meeting with her old school companion, but he had
his schemes laid; he saw her leaning on him in all her maiden
fondness; he knew human nature, and he knew that if he attempted
to wrong her in their early meetings, he would discover his baseness
and be spurned. He suffered therefore her affection to grow upon
her, and, when it had fully ripened, he gave her his feigned love, and
received hers, as the offerings of a devotee to his God, in return. For
some time she was almost happy, and though she knew her situation
must soon be known, she was certain it would not be so till she was
the wife of Charles Morley—for so he had promised; and could she
doubt him? Time, however, flew on, and Mary becoming
discontented and frightened, Morley, in order to draw her from a
place where discovery would have been ruin to himself, proposed
flight. When a woman has once gone astray, the man who has ruined
her does not require great efforts to persuade her to anything. She is
his, body and soul. Mary one night bade adieu to the house of her
father, and fled with her paramour to an obscure lodging in the
capital.
Sad was the morning which arose to her parents on the discovery
of her departure, and more especially the cause of it, which
neighbours were not slow in surmising and hinting. Her mother wept
in all the bitterness of woe, but her tears could not express the
sorrow of her heart. The father was louder in his grief; he wept and
raved by turns. Now he grieved for her helplessness, and prayed to
God to grant her mercy; then he cursed the hour in which she was
born, and called down curses on him who had ruined the hope of his
days. In a little time their violent grief had subsided; the fugitives
could not be traced, and neither Joseph nor his wife suffered that
name which was nearest to their hearts to pass their lips. But when
Marjory would see the work-basket of her daughter, she would throw
herself on her bed and weep; and Joseph, when anything came in his
way that strongly associated the idea of his Mary, would seize his hat,
rush from the house, and give utterance to a grief which he would
fain conceal from an already heart-broken wife.
It was about five months after the departure of Mary, when
Marjory, hearing one day a gentle tap at the door, went to open it. It
was Mary who knocked; but oh! how changed from her who once was
the boast of the country side! She was pale and emaciated, her eye
had lost its lustre, and she seemed to be worse than the shadow of
her former loveliness. Her dress was ragged and torn, and in her
arms she bore a child—the ill-fated offspring of her illicit amour. Her
mother held the door for some minutes, while she surveyed with
melancholy eyes the woeworn condition of her daughter. “Mary,” she
said—and her manner was composed—“Mary, you did not need
formerly to knock at the door of your father’s house.” Mary stepped
over the threshold, and staggering, rather than walking, forward into
the kitchen, threw herself on the dais. “Mary,” said her mother again,
“where have you been? Are you a married woman? Better be the wife
of the poorest man than——.” Here her daughter buried her face in
the bosom of her child, and sobbed aloud. “Mary,” again said her
mother, “I reproach you not. God will grant you His forgiveness, as I
do mine; I feel I cannot live long after this stroke, and we must all
meet with trials on this side the grave; but Mary, oh, my darling
Mary,” and she threw her arms around her daughter’s neck and
kissed her, “your father! how will you bear the look of your father?”
Her words were scarce finished when Joseph entered. He laid his hat
on the table, he shaded back his gray hairs, and clasped his hands,
and, from his hard-knitted brows, he seemed about to pray the
vengeance of God on her who had so dishonoured his old age. He
looked at his daughter; her eyes were on him, and her once lovely
arm was extended as if to avoid the threatened curse; his brows
relaxed, he unclasped his hands, and placing them on his face, wept
aloud. She laid her child on the seat, she was at his feet on her knees,
and her arms grasped him by the waist. He felt her, he placed one
hand in hers, and raised the other as he said, “May God forgive thee,
my daughter! Ah, Mary, Mary, thou art still my offspring, though
thou art a defiled vessel in the eyes of God and man!”
On the second Sunday after her return to her father’s, she
prepared to attend her purification in the kirk. She had gone through
all preliminary forms, and was now once more to take her seat in the
house of God. She went muffled up and attended by her father and
mother, and was not recognised. During the singing of the first and
second psalms she was silent; but at the third, her father desired her
to sing to the praise of that God who had brought her back as a lost
sheep into His fold. In the second line she joined the tune; but
weakly and feebly compared to that voice which used to lead the
whole kirk. It was, however, recognised; there was a more than
momentary stop while all eyes were turned towards her; and her old
master, turning towards the seat of his old favourite, strove, while
the big tears rolled down his cheeks, and his voice faltered, to bear
her through the tune. The minister again rose to prayer: he stretched
his hands to heaven, and prayed for all mankind; he prayed for the
sinner that had gone astray, and that the Father of mercies would
have compassion on the wretched, and again take her into his
bosom. There was not a dry eye in the kirk. Humanity for once
prevailed, and human selfishness forgot itself in the woes of a fellow-
mortal. She, for whom they were supplicating, stood with her hands
firmly clasped, her eyes closed, and her head bowed to the earth; and
though her father and mother sobbed and wept, she moved not, but,
when service was over, she walked with a firm step, and uncovered
face and head, through all the parishioners, to her father’s dwelling.
She laid herself down on her bed, and in three weeks the grave
yawned and closed on the unfortunate Mary Wilson.
A few weeks ago, I made it in my way to pass through D——. Many
revolutions of a tropical sun had passed over my head since I had left
my native land, and, on my return, I was anxious to visit that spot
where I passed many of my happiest days, even though I knew that
all my relatives were long since in the cold grave. As I turned round
the hill, the well-known cottage of Joseph Wilson came in view, and
the story of his daughter flashed vividly on my mind. I approached a
countryman, who was standing with his plough and horses at the end
of a furrow, wiping the sweat from his brow, and inquired, if Joseph
Wilson was still living.
“Na,” replied he, “nor ane o’ his kith or kindred. The poor wean
that suckled frae an unfortunate breast died soon after his mother,
like a young shoot or sapling that has been rashly cut down. Then
Marjory soon followed, and Joseph became a heart-broken man;
a’thing gaed to wreck, and he died on the parish. There are sad ups
and downs in life, and nae the lightest thing to disturb our balance is
the waywardness of a child.”
“Poor Mary Wilson!” said I. She became as visible to my mind’s
eye as when I saw her winding in the mazes of a dance in all her
maiden beauty and innocence; and the lines of my favourite poet
came to my lips:—
When lovely woman stoops to folly,
And finds, too late, that men betray,
What charms can soothe her melancholy?
What art can wash her guilt away?
The only art her guilt to cover,
To hide her shame from every eye,
To give repentance to her lover,
And wring his bosom, is—to die.

“And what has become of the laird?” said I, looking to the well-
known mansion.
“The old laird is dead, and the young one, that was once expected
to be laird, lies rotting with many carcases in a foreign trench. He
broke his father’s heart, spent his substance, and died a common
soldier. The comforting dew of heaven seldom falls on him who
disregards its commands: seldom does the friendly hands of woman
smooth the dying bed of the seducer; and still more rarely does the
insulter of a parent’s gray hairs sleep in the same grave wi’ him. Ye
canna lament Mary Wilson mair than I do.”
“Do you possess her father’s land?” said I.
“Ay do I,” replied the rustic,—apparently much moved; “and it may
be that I would hae ploughed them mair pleasantly, and whistled
mair cheerfully to my horses, had Mary shared it with a plain man, as
became her station; but we maunna repine.”
I had no wish to proceed farther; and in my ride back I enjoyed
one of those deep, melancholy musings, far more congenial to my
mind than the most ecstatic dreams of the most ambitious men.—
Aberdeen Censor.
 THE LAIRD OF CASSWAY.

By James Hogg, the “Ettrick Shepherd.”

Chapter I.
There is an old story which I have often heard related, about a
great Laird of Cassway, in an outer corner of Dumfriesshire, of the
name of Beattie, and his two sons. The incidents of the story are of a
very extraordinary nature. This Beattie had occasion to be almost
constantly in England, because, as my informant said, he took a great
hand in government affairs, from which I conclude that the tradition
had its rise about the time of the civil wars; for about the close of that
time the Scotts took advantage of the times to put the Beatties down,
who for some previous ages had maintained the superiority of that
district.
Be that as it may, the Laird of Cassway’s second son, Francis, fell
desperately in love with a remarkably beautiful girl, the eldest
daughter of Henry Scott of Drumfielding, a gentleman, but still only
a retainer, and far beneath Beattie of Cassway, both in point of
wealth and influence. Francis was a scholar newly returned from the
university; was tall, handsome, of a pale complexion, and
gentlemanly appearance, while Thomas, the eldest son, was fair,
ruddy, and stout made, a perfect picture of health and good humour,
—a sportsman, a warrior, and a jovial blade; one who would not
suffer a fox to get rest in the whole moor district. He rode the best
horse, kept the best hounds, played the best fiddle, danced the best
country bumpkin, and took the stoutest draught of mountain dew, of
any man between Erick Brae and Teviot Stone, and was altogether
the sort of young man, that whenever he cast his eyes on a pretty girl,
either at chapel or at weapon-shaw, she would hide her face, and
giggle as if tickled by some unseen hand.
Now, though Thomas, or the Young Laird, as he was called, had
only spoken once to Ellen Scott in his life, at which time he chucked
her below the chin, and bid the deil take him if ever he saw as bonny
a face in his whole born days; yet for all that, Ellen loved him. It
could not be said that she was “in love” with him, for a maiden’s
heart must be won before it is given absolutely away; but hers gave
him the preference to any other young man. She loved to see him, to
hear of him, and to laugh at him; and it was even observed by the
domestics, that Tam Beattie o’ the Cassway’s name came oftener into
her conversation than there was any good reason for.
Such was the state of affairs when Francis came home, and fell
desperately in love with Ellen Scott; and his father being in England,
and he under no restraint, he went frequently to visit her. She
received him with a kindness and affability that pleased him to the
heart; but he little wist that this was only a spontaneous and natural
glow of kindness towards him because of his connections, and rather
because he was the young laird of Cassway’s only brother, than the
poor but accomplished Francis Beattie, the scholar from Oxford.
He was, however, so much delighted with her, that he asked her
father’s permission to pay his addresses to her. Her father, who was a
prudent and sensible man, answered him in this wise:—“That
nothing would give him greater delight than to see his beloved Ellen
joined with so accomplished and amiable a young gentleman in the
bonds of holy wedlock, provided his father’s assent was previously
obtained. But as he himself was subordinate to another house, not on
the best terms with the house of Cassway, he would not take it on
him to sanction any such connection without the old Laird’s full
consent. That, moreover, as he, Francis Beattie, was just setting out
in life as a lawyer, there was but too much reason to doubt that a
matrimonial connection with Ellen at that time would be highly
imprudent; therefore it was not to be thought further of till the old
laird was consulted. In the meantime, he should always be welcome
to his house, and to his daughter’s company, as he had the same
confidence in his honour and integrity as if he had been a son of his
own.”
 The young man thanked him affectionately, and could not help
acquiescing in the truth of his remarks, promised not to mention
matrimony farther till he had consulted his father, and added,—“But
indeed you must excuse me, if I avail myself of your permission to
visit here often, as I am sensible that it will be impossible for me to
live for any space of time out of my dear Ellen’s sight.” He was again
assured of welcome, and the two parted mutually pleased.
Henry Scott of Drumfielding was a widower, with six daughters,
over whom presided Mrs Jane Jerdan, their maternal aunt, an old
maid, with fashions and ideas even more antiquated than herself. No
sooner had the young wooer taken his leave than she bounced into
the room, the only sitting apartment in the house, and said, in a loud,
important whisper, “What’s that young swankey of a lawyer wanting,
that he’s aye hankering sae muckle about our town? I’ll tell you what,
brother Harry, it strikes me that he wants to make a wheelwright o’
your daughter Nell. Now, gin he axes your consent to ony siccan
thing, dinna ye grant it. That’s a.’ Tak an auld fool’s advice gin ye wad
prosper. Folk are a’ wise ahint the hand, and sae will ye be.”
“Dear Mrs Jane, what objections can you have to Mr Francis
Beattie, the most accomplished young gentleman of the whole
country?”
“’Complished gentleman! ’Complished kirn-milk! I’ll tell ye what,
brother Harry,—afore I were a landless lady, I wad rather be a tailor’s
lay-board. What has he to maintain a lady spouse with? The wind o’
his lungs, forsooth!—thinks to sell that for goud in goupins. Hech
me! Crazy wad they be wha wad buy it; and they wha trust to crazy
people for their living will live but crazily. Tak an auld fool’s advice
gin ye wad prosper, else ye’ll be wise ahint the hand. Have nae mair
to do with him—Nell’s bread for his betters; tell him that. Or, by my
certie, gin I meet wi’ him face to face, I’ll tell him!”
“It would be unfriendly in me to keep aught a secret from you,
sister, considering the interest you have taken in my family. I have
given him my consent to visit my daughter, but at the same time
have restricted him from mentioning matrimony until he has
consulted his father.”
“And what has the visiting to gang for, then? Awa wi’ him! Our
Nell’s food for his betters. What wad you think an she could get the
young laird, his brother, wi’ a blink o’ her ee?”
 “Never speak to me of that, Mrs Jane. I wad rather see the poorest
of his shepherd lads coming to court my child than see him;” and
with these words Henry left the room.
Mrs Jane stood long, making faces, shaking her apron with both
hands, nodding her head, and sometimes giving a stamp with her
foot. “I have set my face against that connexion,” said she. “Our
Nell’s no made for a lady to a London lawyer. It wad set her rather
better to be Lady of Cassway. The young laird for me! I’ll hae the
branks of love thrown ower the heads o’ the twasome, tie the tangs
thegither, and then let them gallop like twa kippled grews. My
brother Harry’s a simple man; he disna ken the credit that he has by
his daughters—thanks to some other body than him! Niece Nell has a
shape, an ee, and a lady-manner that wad kilhab the best lord o’ the
kingdom, were he to come under their influence and my manoovres.
She’s a Jerdan a’ through; and that I’ll let them ken! Folk are a’ wise
ahint the hand; credit only comes by catch and keep. Good night to a’
younger brothers, puffings o’ love vows, and sabs o’ wind! Gie me the
good green hills, the gruff wedders, and bobtailed yowes; and let the
law and the gospel-men sell the wind o’ their lungs as dear as they
can!”
In a few days, Henry of Drumfielding was called out to attend his
chief on some expedition; on which Mrs Jane, not caring to trust her
message to any other person, went over to Cassway, and invited the
young laird to Drumfielding to see her niece, quite convinced that
her charms and endowments would at once enslave the elder
brother, as they had done the younger. Tam Beattie was delighted at
finding such a good back friend as Mrs Jane, for he had not failed to
observe, for a twelvemonth back, that Ellen Scott was very pretty,
and either through chance or design, he asked Mrs Jane if the young
lady was privy to this invitation.
“She privy to it!” exclaimed Mrs Jane, shaking her apron. “Ha,
weel I wat, no! She wad soon hae flown in my face wi’ her gibery and
her jaukery, had I tauld her my errand; but the gowk kens what the
tittling wants, although it is no aye crying, ‘Give, give,’ like the horse
loch-leech.”
“Does the horse-leech really cry that, Mrs Jane? I should think,
from a view of its mouth, that it could scarcely cry anything,” said
Tom.
 “Are ye sic a reprobate as to deny the words o’ the Scripture, sir?
Hech, wae’s me! what some folk hae to answer for! We’re a’ wise
ahint the hand. But hark ye,—come ye ower in time, else I am feared
she may be settled for ever out o’ your reach. Now, I canna bide to
think on that, for I have always thought you twa made for ane
anither. Let me take a look o’ you frae tap to tae—O yes—made for
ane anither. Come ower in time, before billy Harry come hame again;
and let your visit be in timeous hours, else I’ll gie you the back of the
door to keep.—Wild reprobate!” she exclaimed to herself, on taking
her leave; “to deny that the horse loch-leech can speak! Ha—ha—the
young laird is the man for me!”
Thomas Beattie was true to his appointment, as may be supposed,
and Mrs Jane having her niece dressed in style, he was perfectly
charmed with her; and really it cannot be denied that Ellen was as
much delighted with him. She was young, gay, and frolicsome, and
she never spent a more joyous and happy afternoon, or knew before
what it was to be in a presence that delighted her so much. While
they sat conversing, and apparently better satisfied with the
company of each other than was likely to be regarded with
indifference by any other individual aspiring to the favour of the
young lady, the door was opened, and there entered no other than
Francis Beattie! When Ellen saw her devoted lover appear thus
suddenly, she blushed deeply, and her glee was damped in a
moment. She looked rather like a condemned criminal, or at least a
guilty creature, than what she really was,—a being over whose mind
the cloud of guilt had never cast its shadow.
Francis loved her above all things on earth or in heaven, and the
moment he saw her so much abashed at being surprised in the
company of his brother, his spirit was moved to jealousy—to
maddening and uncontrollable jealousy. His ears rang, his hair stood
on end, and the contour of his face became like a bent bow. He
walked up to his brother with his hand on his sword-hilt, and, in a
state of excitement which rendered his words inarticulate, addressed
him thus, while his teeth ground together like a horse-rattle:—
“Pray, sir, may I ask you of your intentions, and of what you are
seeking here?”
“I know not, Frank, what right you have to ask any such questions;
but you will allow that I have a right to ask at you what you are
seeking here at present, seeing you come so very inopportunely?”
“Sir,” said Francis, whose passion could stay no farther parley,
“dare you put it to the issue of the sword this moment?”
“Come now, dear Francis, do not act the fool and the madman
both at a time. Rather than bring such a dispute to the issue of the
sword between two brothers who never had a quarrel in their lives, I
propose that we bring it to a much more temperate and decisive issue
here where we stand, by giving the maiden her choice. Stand you
there at that corner of the room, I at this, and Ellen Scott in the
middle; let us both ask, and to whomsoever she comes, the prize be
his. Why should we try to decide, by the loss of one of our lives, what
we cannot decide, and what may be decided in a friendly and rational
way in one minute?”
“It is easy for you, sir, to talk temperately and with indifference of
such a trial, but not so with me. This young lady is dear to my heart.”
“Well, but so is she to mine. Let us, therefore, appeal to the lady at
once whose claim is the best; and, as your pretensions are the
highest, do you ask her first.”
“My dearest Ellen,” said Francis, humbly and affectionately, “you
know that my whole soul is devoted to your love, and that I aspire to
it only in the most honourable way; put an end to this dispute,
therefore, by honouring me with the preference which the
unequivocal offer of my hand merits.”
Ellen stood dumb and motionless, looking stedfastly down at the
hem of her jerkin, which she was nibbling with her hands. She dared
not lift an eye to either of the brothers, though apparently conscious
that she ought to have recognised the claims of Francis.
“Ellen, I need not tell you that I love you,” said Thomas, in a light
and careless manner, as if certain that his appeal would be
successful; “nor need I attempt to tell how dearly and how long I will
love you, for, in faith, I cannot. Will you make the discovery for
yourself, by deciding in my favour?”
Ellen looked up. There was a smile on her face; an arch,
mischievous, and happy smile, but it turned not on Thomas. Her face
turned to the contrary side, but yet the beam of that smile fell not on
Francis, who stood in a state of as terrible suspense between hope
and fear, as a Roman Catholic sinner at the gate of heaven, who has
implored St Peter to open the gate, and awaits a final answer. The die
of his fate was soon cast; for Ellen, looking one way, yet moving
another, straightway threw herself into Thomas Beattie’s arms,
exclaiming, “Ah, Tom! I fear I am doing that which I shall rue, but I
must trust to your generosity; for, bad as you are, I like you the best!”
Thomas took her in his arms, and kissed her; but before he could
say a word in return, the despair and rage of his brother, breaking
forth over every barrier of reason, interrupted him.
“This is the trick of a coward, to screen himself from the
chastisement he deserves. But you escape me not thus. Follow me, if
you dare!” And as he said this, Francis rushed from the house,
shaking his naked sword at his brother.
Ellen trembled with agitation at the young man’s rage; and while
Thomas still continued to assure her of his unalterable affection, Mrs
Jane Jerdan entered, plucking her apron so as to make it twang like a
bowstring.
“What’s a’ this, Squire Tummas? Are we to be habbled out o’ house
and hadding by this outrageous young lawyer o’ yours? By the souls
o’ the Jerdans, I’ll kick up sic a stour about his lugs as shall blind the
juridical een o’ him! Its’ queer that men should study the law only to
learn to break it. Sure am I, nae gentleman, that hasna been bred a
lawyer, wad come into a neighbour’s house bullyragging that gate, wi’
sword in han’, malice prepense in his eye, and venom on his tongue.
Just as if a lassie hadna her ain freedom o’ choice, because a fool has
been pleased to ask her! Haud the grip you hae, niece Nell; ye hae
made a wise choice for aince. Tam’s the man for my money! Folk are
a’ wise ahint the hand, but real wisdom lies taking time by the
forelock. But, Squire Tam, the thing that I want to ken is this—Are
you going to put up wi’ a’ that bullying and threatening, or do you
propose to chastise the fool according to his folly?”
“In truth, Mrs Jane, I am very sorry for my brother’s behaviour,
and could not, with honour, yield any more than I did to pacify him.
But he must be humbled. It would not do to suffer him to carry
matters with so high a hand.”
“Now, wad ye be but advised and leave him to me, I would play
him sic a plisky as he shouldna forget till his dying day. By the souls
o’ the Jerdans, I would! Now, promise to me that ye winna fight
him.”
“O promise, promise!” cried Ellen, vehemently; “for the sake of
Heaven’s love, promise my aunt that.”
Thomas smiled and shook his head, as much as if he had said,
“You do not know what you are asking.” Mrs Jane went on.
“Do it then—do it with a vengence; and remember this, that
wherever ye set the place o’ combat, be it in hill or dale, deep linn or
moss hag, I shall have a thirsdman there to encourage you on. I shall
give you a meeting you little wot of!”
Thomas Beattie took all this for words of course, as Mrs Jane was
well known for a raving, ranting old maid, whose vehemence few
regarded, though a great many respected her for the care she had
taken of her sister’s family, and a greater number still regarded her
with terror, as a being possessed of superhuman powers; so after
many expressions of the fondest love for Ellen, he took his leave, his
mind being made up how it behoved him to deal with his brother.
I forgot to mention before, that old Beattie lived at Nether Cassway
with his family; and his eldest son Thomas at Over Cassway, having,
on his father’s entering into a second marriage, been put in
possession of that castle and these lands. Francis, of course, lived in
his father’s house when in Scotland; and it was thus that his brother
knew nothing of his frequent visits to Ellen Scott.
That night, as soon as Thomas went home, he despatched a note to
his brother to the following purport: That he was sorry for the
rudeness and unreasonableness of his behaviour. But if, on coming
to himself, he was willing to make an apology before his mistress,
then he (Thomas) would gladly extend to him the right hand of love
and brotherhood; but if he refused this, he would please to meet him
on the Crook of Glendearg next morning by the sunrising. Francis
returned for answer, that he would meet him at the time and place
appointed. There was then no farther door of reconciliation left open,
but Thomas still had hopes of managing him even on the combat
field.
Francis slept little that night, being wholly set on revenge for the
loss of his beloved mistress; and a little after daybreak he arose, and
putting himself in light armour, proceeded to the place of
rendezvous. He had farther to go than his elder brother, and on
coming in sight of the Crook of Glendearg, he perceived the latter
there before him. He was wrapt in his cavalier’s cloak, and walking
up and down the Crook with impassioned strides, on which Francis
soliloquized as follows, as he hasted on:—“Ah, ha! so Tom is here
before me! This is what I did not expect, for I did not think the
flagitious dog had so much spirit or courage in him as to meet me. I
am glad he has! for how I long to chastise him, and draw some of the
pampered blood from that vain and insolent heart, which has
bereaved me of all I held dear on earth.”
In this way did he cherish his wrath till close at his brother’s side,
and then, addressing him in the same insolent terms, he desired him
to cease his cowardly cogitations and draw. His opponent instantly
wheeled about, threw off his horseman’s cloak, and presented his
sword; and, behold, the young man’s father stood before him, armed
and ready for action! The sword fell from Francis’ hand, and he stood
appalled, as if he had been a statue, unable either to utter a word or
move a muscle.
“Take up thy sword, caitiff, and let it work thy ruthless work of
vengeance here. Is it not better that thou shouldst pierce this old
heart, worn out with care and sorrow, and chilled by the ingratitude
of my race, than that of thy gallant and generous brother, the
representative of our house, and the chief of our name? Take up thy
sword, I say, and if I do not chastise thee as thou deservest, may
heaven reft the sword of justice from the hand of the avenger!”
“The God of heaven forbid that I should ever lift my sword against
my honoured father!” said Francis.
“Thou darest not, thou traitor and coward!” returned the father. “I
throw back the disgraceful terms in thy teeth which thou usedst to
thy brother. Thou camest here boiling with rancour to shed his
blood; and when I appear in person for him, thou darest not accept
the challenge.”
“You never did me wrong, my dear father; but my brother has
wronged me in the tenderest part.”
“Thy brother never wronged thee intentionally, thou deceitful and
sanguinary fratricide. It was thou alone who forced this quarrel upon
him; and I have great reason to suspect thee of a design to cut him
off, that the inheritance and the maid might both be thine own. But
here I swear by Him that made me, and the Redeemer that saved me,
if thou wilt not go straight and kneel to thy brother for forgiveness,
confessing thy injurious treatment, and swearing submission to thy
natural chief, I will banish thee from my house and presence for ever,
and load thee with a parent’s curse.”
The young scholar, being utterly astounded at his father’s words,
and at the awful and stern manner in which he addressed him, whom
he had never before reprimanded, was wholly overcome. He kneeled
to his parent, and implored his forgiveness, promising, with tears, to
fulfil every injunction which it would please him to enjoin; and on
this understanding, the two parted on amicable and gracious terms.
 Chapter II.
Francis went straight to the tower of Over Cassway, and inquired
for his brother, resolved to fulfil his father’s stern injunctions to the
very letter. He was informed his brother was in his chamber in bed,
and indisposed. He asked the porter farther, if he had not been forth
that day, and was answered, that he had gone forth early in the
morning in armour, but had quickly returned, apparently in great
agitation, and betaken himself to his bed. Francis then requested to
be taken to his brother, to which the servant instantly assented, and
led him up to the chamber, never suspecting that there could be any
animosity between the two only brothers; but on John Burgess
opening the door, and announcing the Tutor, Thomas, being in a
nervous state, was a little alarmed. “Remain in the room there,
Burgess,” said he. “What, brother Frank, are you seeking here at this
hour, armed cap-a-pie? I hope you are not come to assassinate me in
my bed?”
“God forbid, brother,” said the other; “here John, take my sword
down with you, I want some private conversation with Thomas.”
John did so, and the following conversation ensued; for as soon as
the door closed, Francis dropt on his knees, and said, “O, my dear
brother, I have erred grievously, and am come to confess my crime,
and implore your pardon.”
“We have both erred, Francis, in suffering any earthly concern to
incite us against each other’s lives. We have both erred, but you have
my forgiveness cheerfully; here is my hand on it, and grant me thine
in return. Oh, Francis, I have got an admonition this morning, that
never will be erased from my memory, and which has caused me to
see my life in a new light. What or whom think you I met an hour ago
on my way to the Crook of Glendearg to encounter you?”
“Our father, perhaps.”
“You have seen him, then?”
“Indeed I have, and he has given me such a reprimand for severity
as son never before received from a parent.”