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Brain-Computer Interface
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Brain-Computer Interface
Using Deep Learning Applications
Edited by
M.G. Sumithra
Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj
Mariofanna Milanova
Balamurugan Balusamy
and
Chandran Venkatesan
This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface xiii
1 Introduction to Brain–Computer Interface: Applications
and Challenges 1
Jyoti R. Munavalli, Priya R. Sankpal, Sumathi A.
and Jayashree M. Oli
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Brain – Its Functions 3
1.3 BCI Technology 3
1.3.1 Signal Acquisition 5
1.3.1.1 Invasive Methods 6
1.3.1.2 Non-Invasive Methods 8
1.3.2 Feature Extraction 10
1.3.3 Classification 11
1.3.3.1 Types of Classifiers 12
1.4 Applications of BCI 13
1.5 Challenges Faced During Implementation of BCI 17
References 21
2 Introduction: Brain–Computer Interface and Deep Learning 25
Muskan Jindal, Eshan Bajal and Areeba Kazim
2.1 Introduction 26
2.1.1 Current Stance of P300 BCI 28
2.2 Brain–Computer Interface Cycle 29
2.3 Classification of Techniques Used for Brain–Computer
Interface 38
2.3.1 Application in Mental Health 38
2.3.2 Application in Motor-Imagery 38
2.3.3 Application in Sleep Analysis 39
2.3.4 Application in Emotion Analysis 39
v
vi Contents
2.3.5 Hybrid Methodologies 40

2.3.6 Recent Notable Advancements 41
2.4 Case Study: A Hybrid EEG-fNIRS BCI 46
2.5 Conclusion, Open Issues and Future Endeavors 47
References 49
3 Statistical Learning for Brain–Computer Interface 63
Lalit Kumar Gangwar, Ankit, John A. and Rajesh E.
3.1 Introduction 64
3.1.1 Various Techniques to BCI 64
3.1.1.1 Non-Invasive 64
3.1.1.2 Semi-Invasive 65
3.1.1.3 Invasive 67
3.2 Machine Learning Techniques to BCI 67
3.2.1 Support Vector Machine (SVM) 69
3.2.2 Neural Networks 69
3.3 Deep Learning Techniques Used in BCI 70
3.3.1 Convolutional Neural Network Model (CNN) 72
3.3.2 Generative DL Models 73
3.4 Future Direction 73
3.5 Conclusion 74
References 75
4 The Impact of Brain–Computer Interface on Lifestyle
of Elderly People 77
Zahra Alidousti Shahraki and Mohsen Aghabozorgi Nafchi
4.1 Introduction 78
4.2 Diagnosing Diseases 79
4.3 Movement Control 84
4.4 IoT 85
4.5 Cognitive Science 86
4.6 Olfactory System 88
4.7 Brain-to-Brain (B2B) Communication Systems 89
4.8 Hearing 90
4.9 Diabetes 91
4.10 Urinary Incontinence 92
4.11 Conclusion 93
References 93
Contents vii
5 A Review of Innovation to Human Augmentation

in Brain-Machine Interface – Potential, Limitation,
and Incorporation of AI 101
T. Graceshalini, S. Rathnamala and M. Prabhanantha Kumar
5.1 Introduction 102
5.2 Technologies in Neuroscience for Recording
and Influencing Brain Activity 103
5.2.1 Brain Activity Recording Technologies 104
5.2.1.1 A Non-Invasive Recording Methodology 104
5.2.1.2 An Invasive Recording Methodology 104
5.3 Neuroscience Technology Applications
for Human Augmentation 106
5.3.1 Need for BMI 106
5.3.1.1 Need of BMI Individuals
for Re-Establishing the Control
and Communication of Motor 107
5.3.1.2 Brain-Computer Interface Noninvasive
Research at Wadsworth Center 107
5.3.1.3 An Interface of Berlin Brain-Computer:
Machine Learning-Dependent
of User-Specific Brain States Detection 107
5.4 History of BMI 108
5.5 BMI Interpretation of Machine Learning Integration 111
5.6 Beyond Current Existing Methodologies: Nanomachine
Learning BMI Supported 116
5.7 Challenges and Open Issues 119
5.8 Conclusion 120
References 121
6 Resting-State fMRI: Large Data Analysis in Neuroimaging 127
M. Menagadevi , S. Mangai, S. Sudha and D. Thiyagarajan
6.1.1 Principles of Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (fMRI) 128
6.1.2 Resting State fMRI (rsfMRI) for Neuroimaging 128
6.1.3 The Measurement of Fully Connected
and Construction of Default Mode Network (DMN) 129
viii Contents
6.2 Brain Connectivity 129

6.2.1 Anatomical Connectivity 129
6.2.2 Functional Connectivity 130
6.3 Better Image Availability 130
6.3.1 Large Data Analysis in Neuroimaging 131
6.3.2 Big Data rfMRI Challenges 133
6.3.3 Large rfMRI Data Software Packages 134
6.4 Informatics Infrastructure and Analytical Analysis 137
6.5 Need of Resting-State MRI 137
6.5.1 Cerebral Energetics 137
6.5.2 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) 137
6.5.3 Multi-Purpose Data Sets 138
6.5.4 Expanded Patient Populations 138
6.5.5 Reliability 138
6.6 Technical Development 138
6.7 rsfMRI Clinical Applications 139
6.7.1 Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI)
and Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) 139
6.7.2 Fronto-Temporal Dementia (FTD) 140
6.7.3 Multiple Sclerosis (MS) 141
6.7.4 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
and Depression 143
6.7.5 Bipolar 144
6.7.6 Schizophrenia 145
6.7.7 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 147
6.7.8 Multiple System Atrophy (MSA) 147
6.7.9 Epilepsy/Seizures 147
6.7.10 Pediatric Applications 149
6.8 Resting-State Functional Imaging of Neonatal
Brain Image 149
6.9 Different Groups in Brain Disease 151
6.10 Learning Algorithms for Analyzing rsfMRI 151
6.11 Conclusion and Future Directions 154
References 154
7 Early Prediction of Epileptic Seizure Using Deep Learning
Algorithm 157
T. Jagadesh, A. Reethika, B. Jaishankar and M.S. Kanivarshini
7.2 Methodology 164
7.3 Experimental Results 169
Contents ix
7.4 Taking Care of Children with Seizure Disorders 172

7.5 Ketogenic Diet 172
7.6 Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS) 172
7.7 Brain Surgeries 173
7.8 Conclusion 173
References 175
8 Brain–Computer Interface-Based Real-Time Movement
of Upper Limb Prostheses Topic: Improving the Quality
of the Elderly with Brain-Computer Interface 179
S. Vairaprakash and S. Rajagopal
8.1.1 Motor Imagery Signal Decoding 181
8.2 Literature Survey 182
8.3 Methodology of Proposed Work 184
8.3.1 Proposed Control Scheme 185
8.3.2 One Versus All Adaptive Neural Type-2
Fuzzy Inference System (OVAANT2FIS) 187
8.3.3 Position Control of Robot Arm Using Hybrid BCI
for Rehabilitation Purpose 187
8.3.4 Jaco Robot Arm 189
8.3.5 Scheme 1: Random Order Positional Control 189
8.4 Experiments and Data Processing 192
8.4.2 Performance Analysis of the Detectors 197
8.4.3 Performance of the Real Time Robot
Arm Controllers 198
8.5 Discussion 200
8.6 Conclusion and Future Research Directions 202
References 203
9 Brain–Computer Interface-Assisted Automated
Wheelchair Control Management-Cerebro: A BCI Application 205
Sudhendra Kambhamettu, Meenalosini Vimal Cruz, Anitha S.,
Sibi Chakkaravarthy S. and K. Nandeesh Kumar
9.1.1 What is a BCI? 207
9.2 How Do BCI’s Work? 207
9.2.1 Measuring Brain Activity 208
9.2.1.1 Without Surgery 208
9.2.1.2 With Surgery 208
x Contents
9.2.2 Mental Strategies 209

9.2.2.1 SSVEP 210
9.2.2.2 Neural Motor Imagery 210
9.3 Data Collection 211
9.3.1 Overview of the Data 211
9.3.2 EEG Headset 213
9.3.3 EEG Signal Collection 214
9.4 Data Pre-Processing 215
9.4.1 Artifact Removal 216
9.4.2 Signal Processing and Dimensionality Reduction 217
9.5 Classification 218
9.5.1 Deep Learning (DL) Model Pipeline 219
9.5.2 Architecture of the DL Model 220
9.5.3 Output Metrics of the Classifier 221
9.5.4 Deployment of DL Model 221
9.5.5 Control System 223
9.5.6 Control Flow Overview 223
9.6 Control Modes 223
9.6.1 Speech Mode 223
9.6.2 Blink Stimulus Mapping 223
9.6.3 Text Interface 225
9.6.4 Motion Mode 225
9.6.5 Motor Arrangement 225
9.6.6 Imagined Motion Mapping 226
9.7 Compilation of All Systems 226
9.8 Conclusion 226
References 227
10 Identification of Imagined Bengali Vowels
from EEG Signals Using Activity Map
and Convolutional Neural Network 231
Rajdeep Ghosh, Nidul Sinha and Souvik Phadikar
10.1.1 Electroencephalography (EEG) 233
10.1.2 Imagined Speech or Silent Speech 233
10.2 Literature Survey 234
10.3 Theoretical Background 238
10.3.1 Convolutional Neural Network 238
10.3.2 Activity Map 240
10.4 Methodology 242
Contents xi
10.4.1 Data Collection 243

10.4.2 Pre-Processing 244
10.4.4 Classification 247
10.5 Results 249
10.6 Conclusion 252
Acknowledgment 252
References 252
11 Optimized Feature Selection Techniques for Classifying
Electrocorticography Signals 255
B. Paulchamy, R. Uma Maheshwari,
D. Sudarvizhi AP(Sr. G), R. Anandkumar AP(Sr. G)
and Ravi G.
11.1.1 Brain–Computer Interface 256
11.2 Literature Study 258
11.3 Proposed Methodology 260
11.3.1 Dataset 261
11.3.2 Feature Extraction Using Auto-Regressive (AR)
Model and Wavelet Transform 261
11.3.2.1 Auto-Regressive Features 261
11.3.2.2 Wavelet Features 262
11.3.2.3 Feature Selection Methods 262
11.3.2.4 Information Gain (IG) 263
11.3.2.5 Clonal Selection 263
11.3.2.6 An Overview of the Steps of the
CLONALG 264
11.3.3 Hybrid CLONALG 265
11.4 Experimental Results 268
11.4.1 Results of Feature Selection Using IG with
Various Classifiers 272
11.4.2 Results of Optimizing Support Vector Machine
Using CLONALG Selection 274
11.5 Conclusion 276
References 277
12 BCI – Challenges, Applications, and Advancements 279
R. Remya and Sumithra, M.G.
12.1.1 BCI Structure 280
xii Contents
12.2 Related Works 281

12.3 Applications 282
12.4 Challenges and Advancements 297
12.5 Conclusion 299
References 299
Index 303
Preface
The Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) is an emerging technology that

is developing to be more functional in practice. The aim is to establish,
through experiences with electronic devices, a communication chan-
nel bridging the human neural networks within the brain to the external
world. For example, creating communication or control applications for
locked-in patients who have no control over their bodies will be one such
use. Recently, from communication to marketing, recovery, care, mental
state monitoring, and entertainment, the possible application areas have
been expanding. Machine learning algorithms have advanced BCI tech-
nology in the last few decades, and in the sense of classification accuracy,
performance standards have been greatly improved. For BCI to be effective
in the real-world, however some problems remain to be solved.
The book provides the reader with the fundamental theories, concepts,
and methods in neuroscience, brain recording and stimulation technol-
ogies, signal processing, and machine learning. Readers have the chance
to review their knowledge and assess their comprehension of the subjects
presented in each chapter with exercises and questions at the end of each
chapter. Some assignments provide the student the option to explore top-
ics outside of those covered in the textbook by looking for new informa-
tion online and following leads in research articles. Highlighting most of
the research directions in the digital world, this book is more suitable for
researchers from biomedical background, data analysts, AI researchers,
machine and deep learning engineers, students and academicians.
The book is organized as follows: In chapters 1 and 2 provides an
introduction to Brain–Computer Interface: Applications and Challenges.
Chapter 3 discusses the statistical learning of brain compute interface was
discussed. Chapter 4 begins with the impact of brain computer interface
on the lifestyle of elderly people. Chapter 5 reviews the innovation to
human augmentation in brain computer interface and its potential lim-
itations in artificial intelligence. Chapter 6 details the Resting-State fMRI:
large data analysis in neuro imaging. Chapter 7 describes early detection of
xiii
xiv Preface
epileptic seizure using deep learning algorithms. Chapter 8 describes the

application of brain computer interface based on the real time upper limb
protheses to improve the quality of the elderly. Chapter 9 describes another
application of brain computer interface to assisted automated wheelchair
control management. Chapter 10 shows the application of convolutional
neural network to identify Bengali vowels from EEG signal using activa-
tion map. Chapter 11 discusses the optimized feature selection techniques
for classifying electrocorticography signals. Chapter 12 reviews some of
the challenges, application and advancements in brain computer interface.
The editors thank all contributors for their time and effort and have col-
lectively delivered high quality work.
The Editors
December 2022
1
Introduction to Brain–Computer
Interface: Applications and Challenges
Jyoti R. Munavalli1*, Priya R. Sankpal1, Sumathi A.1 and Jayashree M. Oli2
ECE, BNM Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India

1
2
Amrita School of Engineering, ECE, Bengaluru, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham,
India
Abstract
Brain–Computer Interface (BCI) is a technology that facilitates the communica-
tion between the brain and the machine. It is a promising field that has lot of poten-
tial to be tapped for various applications. To begin with, this chapter explains the
basics of the brain and its function. It describes the BCI technology and the steps:
from signal acquisition to applications. The signal capturing is done through inva-
sive and non-invasive methods. The features from the brain signals are extracted
and classified using various advanced machine learning classification algorithms.
BCI is extensively helpful for health-related problems but it also has applications
in education, smart homes, security and many more. BCI has its own share of
challenges that it has to overcome so that it could be beneficial in the future use.
We discuss about all the issues like ethical, technical and legal. This chapter pro-
vides an overview on BCI through basics, applications, and challenges.
Keywords: Brain-Computer Interface, BCI technology, BCI applications,
BCI challenges
1.1 Introduction
“A man sitting in a garden enjoying his regular walk. There are three
devices that are in use in the garden; a drone, a wheelchair, and a lap-
top. Each of them is controlled by the man without using any remote
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

M.G. Sumithra, Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj, Mariofanna Milanova, Balamurugan Balusamy and Chandran
Venkatesan (eds.) Brain-Computer Interface: Using Deep Learning Applications, (1–24) © 2023
Scrivener Publishing LLC
1
2 Brain-Computer Interface
controller. Yes, he is controlling them with his mind. This is one of the
examples of brain-machine interface and we will be having numerous of
them in the near future.”
In the past 20 years, the world has seen tremendous changes in the
technology. Many technologies were invented that really affected the soci-
ety for/in their well-being. We are witnessing new arenas like Artificial
Intelligence, Virtual Reality, electronic health records, robotics, Data
Science, and many more. All these have revolutionized the healthcare
delivery system. Artificial Intelligence has paved its way in diagnosis, pre-
diction of diseases through its advanced algorithms like machine learning
and deep learning [1]. Virtual reality assists in treatment plans like pho-
bias and neurological disorders [2]. EMR-based real time optimization has
improved the efficiency of hospital systems and aid in decision making,
again through technological intervention [3–7]. It has been observed that
robotic assisted surgeries and the extent to which data science was uti-
lized during pandemic are the big marking of technology in healthcare
(Healthcare 4.0). With these technological interventions, Brain Computing
Interface (BCI) is one among them.
In 1920, the first record to measure brain activity of human was by
means of EEG but the device was very elementary. Later in 1970, research
on BCI that was particularly for neuro-prosthetic, began at the University
of California, Los Angeles, but it was in 1990s that these devices were actu-
ally implemented in humans.
A Brain–Computer Interface is also referred as Brain Machine Interface
or Mind-Machine Interface. BCI is a computer-based system that acquires
the signals based on the activities in the brain and analyzes and translates
the neuronal information into commands that can control external envi-
ronment (either hardware or software). It is an Artificial Intelligence system
that identifies the patterns from the collected brain signals. The electrical
signals that are generated during brain activities are used in interaction or
change with the surroundings. It allows individuals that are not capable to
talk and/or make use of their limbs for operating the assistive devices that
help them in walking and handling and controlling the objects [8]. BCI is
extensively used in Medicine and Healthcare [9].
This chapter presents the overview of BCI: its history and basics, the
process details with hardware components, its applications and then finally
the challenges faced while dealing with BCI. We begin with the description
of functional areas of brain.
Introduction to Brain–Computer Interface 3
Parietal lobe
Occipital
lobe
Frontal
lobe
Cerebellum
Temporal lobe Brainstem
Figure 1.1 Brain parts.
1.2 The Brain – Its Functions

The brain is a soft mass made up of the nerves and tissues that are con-
nected to the spinal cord. The main parts of the brain are Cerebrum,
Cerebellum and Brain stem (see Figure 1.1). Frontal lobe, temporal lobe,
parietal lobe and occipital lobe, are the four lobes of cerebrum. They are
responsible for reading, learning, thinking, emotions, walking, vision, and
hearing (regarding senses). Cerebellum is responsible for balancing and
coordination. Brain stem is responsible for heartbeat, breathing, blood
pressure, swallowing, and eye movements [10, 11].
Brain generates many signals and the electrical signals generated are
used in BCI system. These signals are measured using invasive or non-
invasive techniques.
1.3 BCI Technology

BCI as mentioned earlier is a communication channel between the brain
and the external processing device. The goal of BCI technology is to give a
communication model to those people who are severely paralyzed and do
not have control over their muscles [12]. It takes the bio-signals measured
from a person and predicts some abstract facet of cognitive state.
Most commonly, the BCI focuses on patients that have problems with
motor state and cognitive state. In normal humans, there is an intersection
of brain activity, eye movement, and body movements. If any one of them
is missed, it results in constrained state. Figure 1.2 shows this intersection.
It is observed that BCI is applicable to the areas where patients have nor-
mal to major cognition levels working along with no motor state response
to minor motor state response. So under this umbrella, we get patients that
experience completely locked-in syndrome (CLIS) or Locked-in Syndrome
(LiS) [13].
Motor state
Normal
Minor problem
Major problem
BCI domain
No Response
Normal Minor problem Major problem No Response

Cognitive level
Figure 1.2 BCI domain.
Signal Processing
Signal Feature
Classification
Acquisition Extraction
Digitized
signal
Commands
Feedback
BCI Application
Figure 1.3 Block diagram of BCI.

Locked-in syndrome is a neurological disorder also known as pseudo

coma where patient is completely paralyzed that is losing control of volun-
tary muscles, except the eye movements. Therefore, such people can think
and analyze but not speak and move. In recent past, it is seen that chronic
LIS can be unlocked with the aid of BCI [14].
The block diagram of BCI is as in Figure 1.3. It begins with recording of
signals from brain, then processing of these recorded signals. Here various
features from the signals are extracted and classified as per their properties
or characteristics. Based on these signals’ commands are generated and the
BCI device works accordingly.
1.3.1 Signal Acquisition

In BCI, signal acquisitor plays an important role. There are different
recording techniques in BCI and are broadly classified as invasive and non-
invasive methods as shown in the Figure 1.4. These methods aid to bring
out/pull out electric and magnetic signals of brain activity.
Intracortical
Recording
Invasive
ECoG
BCI Recording
EEG
Methods
MEG
Non-invasive
fMRI
NIRS
Figure 1.4 Types of BCI signal acquisitor.

1.3.1.1 Invasive Methods

Electrodes are implanted in the scalp to extract the required parameters
and in non-invasive method, external sensors are used to measure the
parameters.
a. Intra-Cortical Recording:
A single electrode or sometimes array of electrodes are in the cortex of the
brain. These interfaces are been used for the past 70 years and some of the
popular kinds of hardware for intracortical recording are as follows:
i. Wire-based arrays
ii. Micro-machined micro-electrodes
iii. Polymer microelectrodes
i. Wire-Based Arrays
They are also called Microwire arrays, Wire arrays are made up of insulated
metal wires with an uninsulated tip that is used to observe the bipotential
form of neurons in a bipolar environment [15]. The diameter of those wires
is in the range of 10–200 micrometers the limitations of microwire-based
arrays are as follows:
• They are limited because of recording failures and FBR

effects.
• Microwire arrays are highly prone to variation, disappear-
ance, or disappearance of recorded signal in the timeframe
spanning from weeks to months post-implantation [16].
• The wires are tedious to place and route to microelectronic
packages.
• Isolation cracks, corrosion – analysis of tungsten micro-
waves extracted from rats after 9 months of use, revealed
material deterioration in the form of isolation fractures and
defamation.
• Extensive use of electrodes leads to electric leakages which
result in errors when recording.
ii. Micro-Machined Micro-Electrodes

The introduction of photolithography and subsequent advancements in
micromachining technology prompted the development of a new genera-
tion of silicon-based brain probes. (micromachined microelectrodes) [17].
Ex: Michigan Planar electrode arrays, Utah Electrode arrays [18].
The limitations are as follows:
• They degrade with time.

• Recording loss due to vascular mutilation.
• Failures in interconnection.
• Size and rigidity of the probes.
• Expensive (GoldPlatinum, Iridium are widely used in planar
recording areas).
• They are prone to fracture.
• Failure in persistent recordings is mainly because of the 2D.
geometry of MMEA-based reading electrodes.
• The size and mechanical mismatch of silicon-based and
wire microelectrode arrays with the brain are two of the
most important problems limiting the quality of neural
recordings.
iii. Polymer Microelectrodes

The disadvantages of stiff materials can be potentially deviated using
Polymers [19]. But they have certain limitations:
• The accuracy and depth of implantation of soft and flexible

implants into the brain is hampered, making them difficult
to implant [20].
• Complicated structural design.
• Expensive methods of fabrication.
• As these are internally placed, they pose challenge for using
in long term cases [21]. Fabrication methods and the char-
acteristics of the materials used also impact on its durability.
b. Electrocorticography (ECoG)
Intracranial electroencephalography is a technique for recording brain sig-
nals by putting electrode grids on the cortex’s surface. ECoG is an inva-
sive BCI recording method that records with electrodes put directly on the
brain’s exposed surface [22]. These are used when performing an internal
brain surgery.
• They are expensive.

• They are bulky.
• They are prone to the formation of scar tissue, which
obstructs the signal when the body reacts to the foreign item.
Non invasive
EEG
MEG
Invasive
ECoG
SEEG
Intracortical
implant
Figure 1.5 Recording places in/on brain.
• Limited sampling time – Seizures may not be recorded with

EcoG [23, 24].
• The region of the exposed cortex and operation duration
restrict the number of electrodes that may be placed. Errors
in sampling are possible.
ECoG is a minimal invasive method. Stereotactic electroencephalogra-

phy (sEEG) also used electrodes to measure brain activity. sEEG provides
measurements from much deeper brain structures than ECoG, yet it has
received very less attention in BCI applications [25, 26]. All, the intracor-
tical, ECoG and sEEG are invasive methods and their placing in cortex is
as shown in the Figure 1.5. ECoG is sometimes referred as semi-invasive
method.
1.3.1.2 Non-Invasive Methods

a. EEG (Electroencephalogram)
EEG is a method of signal acquisition that records the electrical signals
of the brain by the help of metal discs(electrodes) that are attached to the
scalp [27]. There are four types of electrodes:
1) Traditional wet electrodes

2) Dry electordes
3) Active electrodes
4) Passive electrodes
Hardware concerns with EEG-based BCI equipment with wet electrodes:
• Maintenance and use of wet electrodes is cumbersome.

• Electrical impedance of the skin has its impact the signal
acquisition, that is the quality of recording the brain signals.
The water content in association with the electrodes reduces
electrical impedance whereas the air in association with the
electrodes increases the electrical impedance.
• The interface betweeen the skin and electrode causes noises
which considerably affect the signal.
• The setup of wet electrode is not well tolerated by subjects
over longer periods of recording a) because of the electrolytic
gel used which causes irritation to the subjects b) because of
the discomfort caused by the elastic straps to hold the eeg
cap in place [28].
• The electrical impedance also depends on various factors
like surface area of the electrode, room temperature, and the
interface layer.The people who were taking the EEG read-
ings must keep all these factors in check.
Hardware concerns with EEG-based BCI equipment with dry electrodes:
• The Quality of the signal obtained using dry electrodes is

low when compared to wet electrodes [29].
• For dry electrodes the electrical impedance deteriorate rap-
idly with use and generally should be replaced after 30 days
of usage.
• The electrode caps are prone to movement since there will
be no gel to hold the caps in place.
• Highquality electrode caps are generally made of gold and
titanium, for prolonged hours of usage change of electrode
caps is recommended so it will be costly to buy and maintain
the electrodes [30].
• Elastic straps are used to maintain the electric caps in place
which causes discomfort to the subject over longer periods
of time.
b. MEG (Magnetoencephalography)
It is an imaging test which reflects the activity of the brain by recording
the magnetic fields produced by electric currents occuring naturally in the
brain [31].
Hardware concerns with MEG-based BCI equipment:
• The MEG equipment is very expensive.

• MEG equipment requires liquid helium to maintain its
superconducting equipment.
• The equipment must be used in a magnetic shielded room
and the food used by the subjects and the examiner must
also be administered ad managed.
• The patients need to remain relatively still during a MEG
examination and the patients with a vagus nerve simulator,
pacemaker, or similar device may not be able to undergo an
MEG study [32].
c. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

This method acquires the brain activity parameters based on blood flow
changes. So, this method depends on cerebral blood flow coupled with
neuronal activation. When brain is in use, the blood flow varies depending
to the task being performed. Hence, the parameters also vary. fMRI is used
to detect and evaluate the brain abnormalities that could not be captured
in other imaging techniques like x-ray or MRI.
d. Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)

This method measures brain activity in frontal cortex. Here light absorp-
tion is used to calculate oxygen and hemoglobin levels.
Before extracting the features from the measured parameters, pre-
processing is required. Pre-processing generally consists of Referencing,
temporal filtering, and signal enhancement. Referencing is comparing the
measured brain signal to a standard or reference signal in the form of volt-
age. It can be common reference, average reference, or current source den-
sity. Temporal filtering removes unwanted noise signals that are present in
the measured brain signals. Signal enhancement techniques like Principal
component Analysis (PCA), Surface Laplacian, automatic enhancement
methods are used to enhance the parameters measured.
1.3.2 Feature Extraction

Based on the signal processing, the commands are generated. So, identi-
fication of correct features is an essential step. Feature extraction in BCI
is recognizing the events or useful properties that are captured by vari-
ous neuroimage methods. This will reduce the complexity and help in
classification. Generally used method is EEG and in feature extraction, fre-

quency information of each electrode and between electrodes is extracted.
The noise and the outliers are important features of brain signals. Along
with them, we also have to consider that brain signals are highly dimen-
sional, timely information, non-stationary and non-linear. Particularly for
EEG, the data collected is time series. There are EEG bands based on fre-
quency range. These bands are Delta for frontal lobe, theta for temporal
and parietal lobe, Alpha for occipital lobe, Beta for frontal central lobe, and
Gamma for parietal lobe [33]. These bands are used in feature extraction.
A cross correlation is analyzed between different frequency bands and
it helps to extracts few important properties. It is observed that Fourier
transforms are not efficient when the signals are non-linear and non-
stationary, so time-frequency methods are used in feature extraction, like
wavelet algorithm (based on the physiological activity knowledge) and
empirical mode decomposition.
Any EEG signal has features that are measured in time domain. These
parameters are referred as Hjorth parameters that basically are activity,
mobility, and complexity. In addition to this, parametric models are used
to model time series. Autoregressive parameters, Multivariate autoregres-
sive parameters, adaptive autoregressive parameters and these parameters
with exogenous input are considered [34].
There is another set of models called Inverse models. These models rep-
resent the brain as a set of volume elements called as voxels. Specific pat-
terns are identified in the regions associated with cognitive component.
These are the peak picking methods. Another method is the slow cortical
potentials calculation in which amplitudes are extracted, corrected, and
used as feedback.
Poor feature detection and extraction would reduce the accuracy and
efficiency of the BCI model. The feature extraction of brain signals directly
depends on the signal types being measured and recorded. Along with
the above mentioned feature extraction, commonly used features include
mean, slope, peak, signal minimum, skewness, and kurtosis, number of
occurrence of peaks, variance, root mean square, standard deviation,
median, power spectrum density (PSD), logarithmic band power and
common spatial patterns [13].
1.3.3 Classification
The signal patterns in the brain are dynamic stochastic processes because
of the biological factors and technical issues like amplifier noise and elec-
trode impedance changes. The identified signals before being translated
into commands have to be classified. That is grouping of the signals based

on their appropriate features. There are many categories of classification
algorithms used in BCI systems. With the advancements in Artificial
Intelligence, Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL), more
advanced algorithms for feature extraction and classification are in use.
There are four classifier taxonomies in contrast to each other.
• Generative/Informative and Discriminative classifiers

• Static and Dynamic classifiers
• Stable and Unstable classifiers
• Regularized classifier
1.3.3.1 Types of Classifiers

1. Linear Classifiers
These classifiers use linear algorithms to differentiate between two or more
classes. A hyper plane is used to distinguish the considered data falls in
first or second class. The classic examples of linear classifiers are Linear
Discriminant Analysis (LDA) and Support Vector Machine (SVM).
Linear Discriminant Analysis is a popular classification algorithm used

in BCI applications. It is a dimensionality reduction technique. LDA uses
single hyperplane to separate the data representing the two classes and sev-
eral hyperplanes if multiclass problems are used. The discrimination rules
used in LDA are “maximum likelihood”, “Bayes Discriminant Rule”, and
“Fisher’s linear discriminant rule”. This method is used because of its very
low computational requirement and as well provides good results.
Support Vector Machine was originally designed for binary classifica-
tion and to maximize the margin compared to LDA. SVM uses statistical
learning theory. It searches the maximum margin hyperplane between two
classes. Maximization of the margins extends the generalization capabili-
ties of the algorithm. The accuracy is improved by adjusting the parameters.
A variant in SVM is the Gaussian SVM that provides excellent accuracy in
classification.
2. Neural Networks Classifiers

A neural network is an arrangement of processing units in layers that con-
vert the input to output using weights associated with the nodes. These
are commonly used classifiers for BCI along with linear classifiers. Multi-
Layer Perceptron (MLP), Learning Vector Quantization, Adaptive Logic
Networks, Time Delayed Neural Network, Recurrent Neural Network are
few neural network classifiers. An MLP contains multiple layers of neurons

in the form of an input layer, either one or more hidden layers, and an out-
put layer. The neurons of the output layer determine which class the input
feature vector belongs to (that is classifying which class). MLP classifies to
any number of classes which makes neural network more flexible. It is also
called as universal classifier and can be applied to most of the BCI prob-
lems that have either two (binary) or multiple classes to discriminate [35].
3. Non-Linear Bayesian Classifiers

Bayes quadratic, Bayesian Graphical network (BGN) and Hidden Markov
Model (HMM) are the Bayesian classifiers used for BCI: Although Bayesian
Graphical Network (When compared BGN is slow compared to other two.
Hidden Markov Models are very efficient nonlinear techniques used for
the time series data or signal classification. HMMs are the dynamic classi-
fiers that are used for speech recognition. HMMs work on a probabilistic
automaton for a given sequence of feature vectors.
4. k-Nearest Neighbor Classifiers

k-NN classification is a non-parametric model in which a new feature
is assigned to a class depending on nearest neighbors. It is described as
instance-based learning where the model memorizes the training datasets.
It provides better accuracy in classification with less training and testing
datasets. Features of EEG signals can be extracted by Hjorth’s parameters
like activity, mobility and complexity are extracted and, on that k-NN clas-
sification would result in improved accuracy. First the number of near-
est neighbors is found and then data points are classified based on that.
Euclidean distance is used to find the neighbors. It selects k samples from
training set. This classifier is based on giving new samples to the class with
majority of votes [36, 37].
1.4 Applications of BCI

BCI has taken a big leap in its applications with the growth in modern
computing and cognitive levels of humans in understanding the brain. BCI
applications are making the unconquered world into reality. With BCI, it
is possible to manipulate the thoughts with computers. BCI, in its nascent
days involved recording brain signals, in contrast to designing implants
in today’s world. These implants act as a communication tool between the
brain and outside world. Implants are designed for some important brain
functions such as feeling, hearing and vision to name a few.
Earlier BCI was used for decoding the thoughts of the handicapped peo-
ple with speaking and mobility issues. These applications used methods
such as speech communications and spelling applications that aided as
an alternative means of communication. With modern computing, BCI is
even used for healthy people. Now days, BCI is used as measuring tool to
assess an individual’s physiological quotient involving emotions, cognitive
level and effectiveness.
Just as the brain functions in diverse areas, BCI applications span over
a diverse area such as Healthcare, Education, Smart environment, Security
and authentication, Marketing and advertising, Gaming and entertain-
ment. Since BCI acts as a medium between the brain and the outside world,
its application domains are infinite and very promising i.e., BCI applica-
tions are to be considered that are pertinent to specific business.
a) Healthcare
Healthcare applications of BCI have transformed to various clinical prod-
ucts used in daily life. BCIs can be classified under the clinical uses as the
direct assistive control technologies and neuro rehabilitation. These assis-
tive control BCI applications encircle areas of communication, locomotion
and movement control, environment control, prevention, detection and
diagnosis [38].
b) Communication
BCI is mainly used for communicating with people with locked-in syn-
drome. Three types of BCI systems based on EEG, that measure electro-
physiological features tested on humans for commination purpose are:
Slow Cortical potentials (SCPs), P300 event-related potentials and senso-
rimotor rhythms (SMRs) [38].
c) Movement Control and Locomotion

Paralyzed patients can restore their motor control with BCI. This scanty
clinical application is solely based on SMRs. These applications support
the controlled movement of motor neuro prosthesis in multidimensions
such as robotic arm. Also, for paralyzed patients with intact lower motor
neuron and peripheral nerve function, restoration of motor functions is
done with Functional electrical stimulation (FES). BCI driven wheelchairs
are used for restoring mobility for paralyzed patients. These wheelchairs
control mental activities of the patient with a shared control system which
use intelligent software for assisting the patient in navigating the wheel-
chair [38].
d) Prevention
BCI are used in various consciousness level detection system. These appli-
cations prevent loss of function and decrease in alertness level which are
the side effects of smoking of due to consumption of alcohol. BCI is also
used in detecting motion sickness, which arise due to confliction of sensory
generated between eyes, ear and brain during motion of the individual [39].
e) Detection and Diagnosis

BCIs are used in monitoring mental state for detecting and forecasting of
abnormal variations in the brain structure such as brain tumor, brain sell-
ing, seizure, and sleep disorders. BCI uses EEG in contrast to MRI and
CT Scan for discovering tumors, which develop basically because of self-
dividing of cells. Plantar pressure measuring systems exploit the relation-
ship between the human gait cycle and EEG signals for diagnosing dyslexia,
peripheral neuropathy and musculoskeletal diseases [39].
f) Rehabilitation
Patients with mobility issues are given physical rehabilitation for restoring
the lost functions and regain their previous mobility levels, so that they can
adapt to the disabilities. With these physical rehabilitations, patients suf-
fering from strokes can also recover fully. BCI uses mobile robots for eases
the daily life activities of such patients. BCI based neuro-prosthetic devices
are used for patients wherein their previous levels of communication or
mobility cannot be recovered. Nowadays BCI is diving into the arena of
virtual reality for monitoring and controlling the avatar movements gen-
erated from the brain waves. Augmented reality-based BCI system such
as augmented mirror box uses brain signals that are generated by incor-
porating both the injured as well as healthy limb. BCI driven therapeutic
tools have the potential to the aide patients with impaired neuro muscular
functions because of trauma, to re-learn the motor functions. These BCI
systems enable patient’s functional recovery and thus enhance their quality
of life [39].
g) Education
In BCI enabled education systems, brain signals are used to understand the
level of clarity in processing the information. Non-invasive BCI techniques
are used for self-regulating the learning experience and improve the cog-
nitive therapeutic methods. fMRI-based EEG BCI trainings are used for
emotional regulation, fight depressions and other neuropsychiatric disor-
ders [39].
h) Smart Environment
Severely disabled patient’s quality of life can be improved significantly
with BCI-based environment control system. These control systems
effectively manage their daily life environment around them such as
lighting systems in the house, room temperature, TV units and power
beds. Smart environment systems enhance the patient’s well-being
and relieve them from being dependent on others. Smart environ-
ments based on BCI enhance well-being, safety, and independence of
patients in daily life. Modern computing has tied up BCI technologies
and Internet of Things (IoT) that create smart houses, workplaces, and
transportations for monitoring the patient’s mental state and adapt
the surrounding environment appropriately. These functionalities are
extended to use of universal plug and play home networking. Working
conditions can be greatly improved by assessing the user’s cognitive
state. BCI systems are used for studying the impact of mental fatigue
and stress levels because of workload. Various BCI techniques are used
in assessing the user’s cognitive state. Even virtual audio-visual set-ups
are used for analyzing and evaluating the brain signals associated with
the user’s response [39].
i) Security and Authentication

Authentication in security systems is based on algorithms, objects, and
biometrics. Such systems are vulnerable to attacks because of the use of
insecure passwords, surfing, spoofing and data theft. Cognitive biometrics
is making space in the field of security and authentication, as they pos-
sess least vulnerabilities. Cognitive biometrics, also termed electrophysi-
ology, is the only modality that uses brain signals for identifying the data
in secured manner. Security is greatly enhanced in cognitive biometrics, as
brain signals cannot be acquired by the hackers. Cognitive biometrics are
difficult to synthesize and in turn enhance the biometric systems resistance
to spoofing attacks [39].
j) Marketing and Advertising

BCI technologies have also conquered the marketing and advertising
domain. BCI systems enable to measure a user’s attention when watching
a TV commercial or any other channels. These measures try to assess the
impact of user’s cognitive function in the neuromarketing and advertising
field. BCI systems are also used to estimate the user’s inclination for TV
commercials and use the same for advertising [39].
k) Gaming and Entertainment

Non-medical BCI has invaded the entertainment and gaming arena. The
brain controlling capabilities combined with the gaming features provide
experience of involving multiple brains. A game called Brain ball was
developed for reducing stress levels in individuals. This game involves a
user moving the ball only in relaxed mode. In this game, only a calm player
can win the game, as they need to control stress and play [39].
1.5 Challenges Faced During Implementation of BCI

In the recent years substantial research is seen to develop BCI assistive
technologies. In BCI invasive and non-invasive research is growing fast
and a number of challenges are to be resolved to have lower impact on
the patients. A number of neurosurgeons, neurologists, neuroscientists
and engineers are investigating in this field for a significant breakthrough.
There exist many challenges and issues in different areas such as technical,
ethical, etc.
Even in recent times people are not deploying BCI in an effective way
due to various obstacles faced such as ethical, legal, usability, and tech-
nical challenges. Challenges are also caused due to the signals received
from brain activity are liable for intrusion, can also cause harm to patients
controlling the device or an issue of protecting the data of the patient. In
this section let’s discuss the challenges that affect the advancement in this
technology.
A. Usability Challenges
It talks about the issue of acceptance by patients to use BCI technology.
These usability challenges can be either issues related to training process or
ITR (Information Transfer Rate) [1]. The user has to be trained to deal and
control with the system and is a time-consuming process. This training is
either in the preliminary phase or in the calibration phase. The most com-
mon available solution to this is to adopt single trial instead of multiple
trials. One of the solutions is to use zero training classifier.
Information Transfer Rate is the method used widely for evaluating BCI
systems. This parameter depends on the accuracy of detection, the num-
ber of trials and the average detection time taken. Increase of accuracy of
detection can be achieved by increasing signal to noise ratio and should be
considered in pre-processing phase. An approach called dynamic stopping
is use to reduce average detection time is certain applications. Another
method to reduce average detection time is to use single trail classifier

which uses machine learning. Healthier individuals’ groups have higher
data rates as compared to disabled.
B. Technical Challenges
These are related to recording of the electrophysiological properties of brain
signals. The technical challenges include the issues related to non-linearity,
noise, non-stationary, quality of the dataset, limited number of training
sets, data fusion, inability of data interpretation
i. Non linearity: The function of the brain cannot be thought as a serial

machine which reads the input from sensors and gives a corresponding
output. Brain is a complex machine which can be termed as a memory-
based predictive machine which by experience builds results depend-
ing on the relation between the inputs. Hence the signals from the brain
are an ensemble of neural behavior which can be characterized as non-
linear dynamic signals. Hence the machine representing a brain has to be
dynamic and non-linear which remains as a challenge.
ii. Noise: It is another unwanted signal which causes random variation of

the brain signals due to improper placement of electrodes, movement arti-
facts of skeletal muscles, blinking of eyes. This leads to improper analysis of
the pattern. Removal of noise is carried out by using frequency band filters
which will also remove the signal of interest lying in the same band.
iii. Nonstationary signals: The electrophysiological signals of the brain

change continuously make it from minute to minute. During the recording
session the emotional and mental state differ with different trials. Hence
the EEG signals obtained can have varied signal levels over different ses-
sions. Other nonstationary factors such as fatigue, concentration and stress
produce varied EEG signals.
iv. Quality of the data set: In BCI application the quality of the EEG sig-
nals depends on the quality of the headsets or electrodes used for the mea-
surements. The electrodes used for measurement usually requires gel or
liquid which cause discomfort to users. Practically when user’s comfort is
to be considered dry electrodes are preferred. Some investigations reports
that the data acquired from dry electrodes consists of more noise when
compared with wet electrodes whereas another set of studies reports that
the quality of data are almost same for both electrodes. There is a need
for further investigations on the usage and efficiency of electrodes for the
validation of the data. Another investigation infers that the performance of

water-based electrodes and dry electrodes are better than gel-based elec-
trodes in case of short hairs. Hence the challenge is to determine the type
of electrodes to be used by further investigations and validation [40].
There are numerous EEG head-sets available in the markets with differ-
ent number of electrodes. The number of electrodes used for BCI appli-
cations varies with different companies and are not compatible with each
other. Hence there is a need for standardization for number of electrodes.
The cost of these electrodes is very high, hence requiring cheaper elec-
trodes for BCI applications.
v. Limited number of training sets: The efficiency of the BCI system

depends on the number of training sets used in a model. Small data sets
can be used for training the model which has less complexity. Overfitting
occurs when limited number of training set are used which in turn reduces
the efficiency of the predicting models.
vi. Data analysis methods: There are numerous algorithms which are
used for removal of artifacts in data pre-processing. Different algorithms
have different limitations when used in analyzing the EEG data. Some
algorithms focus on the removal of certain artifacts some focus on increas-
ing the accuracy in the removal of artifacts. Different applications use
different algorithms like ICA algorithms are used for artifacts removal in
EEG recordings, CCA, and its combination for removal of muscle artifacts.
When artifacts overlap with the spectral components then Wavelet trans-
form fails completely. Hence the challenge arises for a single algorithm
which can be efficient and accurate to satisfy different conditions satisfac-
torily. Thus, the goal for future researchers would be to develop algorithms
which are application specific and has good accuracy and time efficiency
and standardize the methods for a particular application [40].
In context to feature extraction techniques CSP and its combination
algorithm gives encouraging results for EEG data. Based on the investi-
gations done by researchers SVM is considered as the most powerful clas-
sifier powerful classifier for classification of high dimensionality feature
vectors. Another study shows that the deep learning methods, CNN and
RNN are better when compared with other methods and the accuracy of
CNN is high for time-series values.
vii. Inability to interpret data: Another major challenge is to interpret

data that is extracted from brain activity. There are numerous methods to
extract information from the brain either through invasive or non-invasive
methods. Usually in most of the cases the obtained data is partial or noisy.
This may be due to unstable recording or due to built-in flexible nature of
brain. Hence learning of neural signal processing is essential to understand
the adaptive nature of the brain [41].
All BCI experiments are conducted in a controlled environment (lab)
where realistic target users are not considered. Studies show that heart
rate and cortisol influences characteristics of EEG data. EEG data varies
with sensory stimulus such as smell, sound, and movements which affect
the quality of EEG data. Hence in order to make BCI the system robust
the engineers should consider the environment where the BCI system is
applied along with the target set of users. For example, the design criteria
change for a user who stays at home most of the times and controls house-
hold articles and for a person who is taxi driver who drives in a heavy
traffic, the level of attention and concentration are different. Hence during
design phase, it is important to consider the environmental aspects and the
target user for a more efficient BCI system.
C. Psychophysiological and Neurological Challenges

The BCI performance depends on Psychological and neurological to a
greater extent. The neurological factors such as anatomy and functional
behavior vary from individual to individual. Similarly, the psychological
factors such as memory, attention span, fatigue and stress also vary from
individual to individual. Apart from these other characteristics such as
gender, lifestyle, age also influences the brain signals. Hence a generalized
approach to develop BCI without considering these aspects will decreases
the efficiency [42].
D. Ethical and Socioeconomic Challenges

The factors such as safety, data confidentiality, and social and economic
factors are to be considered to maximize the benefits to the users. The BCI
user’s physical and mental safety should be considered as the most import-
ant aspect. One of the invasive procedures such as deep brain stimulation
should not cause physiological and neurological effects. Bleeding and
infections are caused when electrodes are implanted which in turn leads
to behavioral changes. These invasive methods are sometimes potential
threats to memory and emotions.
The target application of most of the BCIs is the disabled people. Hence
the user’s expectation of attaining their freedom sometime may not be sat-
isfied. Even a small risk can rule out the usage BCI system. Creating aware-
ness in the users with advantages and disadvantages is an important social
responsibility. During the implementation of BCI there can be alteration in
human cognitive level is a serious ethical issue. During commercialization

of BCI ethical and legal policy has to be maintained between the user and
the service provider.
BCI has a lot of potential and growth opportunities. Its global market
size is huge and it is projected to be close to $4 billion by 2027. Many start-
ups and SMEs can pitch in this market with their innovative devices. The
advanced technological developments have paved a way for BCI extensively
in healthcare sector and other fields like entertainment, gaming and com-
munication. As with any technology, there are certain issues with this BCI
technology also, particularly ethical issues and we need to wait and watch
how this technology would be utilized for the betterment of human-kind.
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2
Introduction: Brain–Computer
Interface and Deep Learning
Muskan Jindal1, Eshan Bajal1* and Areeba Kazim2
Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Noida,

1
Uttar Pradesh, India

2
Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Abstract
Brain signals or radiations are a relatively new concept that works with informa-
tion collected via human brain and cognitive activity. These signals like human
brain are influenced by all the physical, geographical, emotional, and cognitive
activities around it, are individualistic in nature, and follow numerous patterns.
Complying with the same Brain–computer interface (BCI), is the area of science
where these signals are contemplated to advance the human-computer interac-
tion applications. This area of research ties the cord between human cognitive to
computer’s processing and speed, aiming to create a unique field in biomedical
sciences to introduce infinite applications like, neural rehabilitation, biometric
authentication, educational programs, and entertainment applications. Although
nascent, Brain–computer interface (BCI) has four major grades of processing
steps – signal acquisition, signal pre-processing, feature extraction, and classifi-
cation. This study firstly, thoroughly elaborates upon its various processing steps
while exploring the origin, need, and current stage of development of Brain–
computer interface (BCI) with respect to brain signals. Post complete under-
standing of basic concepts and terminologies of brain signals, Brain–computer
interface (BCI) and their interconnection along in the field of bio-medicine; this
study elucidates upon primordial methodologies of Brain–computer interface
(BCI) along with respective merits and demerits with intensive classification.
A differential based analysis is provided to insight into new age deep learn-
ing-based method in the field of Brain–computer interface (BCI) while com-
paring them with primordial techniques. A complete data intensive review is
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

M.G. Sumithra, Rajesh Kumar Dhanaraj, Mariofanna Milanova, Balamurugan Balusamy and Chandran
Venkatesan (eds.) Brain-Computer Interface: Using Deep Learning Applications, (25–62) © 2023
Scrivener Publishing LLC
25
performed for new era deep learning techniques while properly classifying the
same into multiple gradations based on deep learning framework and their vari-
ous versions implemented namely, neural networks (CNN) and recurrent neural
networks (RNN), long short-term memory (LSTM) architecture, U-net among
other. This chapter also aims to provide real world application, challenges, scope
of future growths, avenues of expansion and complete industry specific guide for
implementing insights gathered from brain signals in the nascent area of Brain–
computer interface (BCI). Lastly, to fathom the performance of Brain–computer
interface (BCI) this study also provides its application in multiple case studies
with desperate health hazards like brain tumor, Dementias, Epilepsy and Other
Seizure Disorders, Stroke and Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA), Alzheimer’s
Disease, Parkinson’s and Other Movement Disorders. This chapter aims to not
only provide background, current status, future challenges and case studies but
also an application specific perspective in Brain–computer interface (BCI) in the
field of bio-medical.
Keywords: Brain–computer interface (BCI), brain signals, convolutional

neural networks (CNN), recurrent neural networks (RNN), long short-term
memory (LSTM) architecture, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI),
electroencephalogram (EEG), electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
2.1 Introduction
Brain–Computer interface primarily thrives on brain signals, which is bio-
metric information that is compiled or processed by human brain. These
brain signals can be result of any kind of thoughts or activity that is result
of active and passive mental state. A normal human brain always emits
brain signals due to the constant state of activity that occurs even when the
physical body is at complete rest, i.e., brain emits signals when humans are
sleeping as well. Thus, there is no paucity of brain signals [1]. Psychologists
have often used the emotions or thoughts a human think to understand
or interpret the real meaning of these brain signals but often human mind
does not let complete visibility into these brain signals [2]. Thus, by the
implementation of precise brain signal decoding one can comprehend or
interpret the actual meaning of these brain signals without disturbing the
current mental and physical state of prospect’s psychology. These brain sig-
nals when interpreted correctly can improve the prospect’s quality of life
or provide insight into their inner mind-set or psychology [3]. Based on
the research done by various experts and psychologists, brain signals colla-
tion had two kinds of signals-invasive signals and non-invasive signals [4].
BCI and Deep Learning 27
Invasive signals require deeper penetration and can be collected via deploy-
ing electrodes on human scalp. While non-invasive signals are acquired
rather easily without any penetration or use of electrode as they are col-
lected over the scalp [5].
Brain–computer interface (BCI) systems uses certain mechanism to use
these brain signals to create a constant mode of communication between
human brain and computer, such that the messages, communication, com-
mands, and emotions of human brain are conveyed to computer without
any physical moment of either the human brain or the computer interface
[6]. This is done by the Brain–Computer Interface (BCI) systems via mon-
itoring the conscious electric brain activities by the application of elec-
troencephalogram (EEG) signals that can detect any impulse of thoughts
or activity that occurs in human brain [7]. These EEG signals have been
actively use by neurologists in the healthcare industry to diagnose mul-
tiple diseases, help identify any incumbent brain activity, medical proce-
dures like surgeries, provide insights into real anatomy and implications
of human brain and other medical and psychological applications [8, 9].
For Brain–Computer Interface (BCI) systems, EEG signals use captured
and then digitalized or processed by the use of various processing algo-
rithms, so that these EEG signals or brain signals are converted to real time
control signals [10]. This establishes a link between the prospect or the
human brain and the computer, such that all the active or passive activities
in the human brain can be detected by the computer system. This connec-
tion enables the computer to comprehend all the activities, emotions, or
demands that human brain exhibits, enabling many revolutionary tasks.
Like, help physically disabled people or people with temporary limb or
people with any kind of disability perform almost all the tasks [11]. This
makes them independent, self-sufficient, confident and improve their qual-
ity of life that medical science cannot even imagine to do [12–14]. Different
Brain–Computer Interface (BCI) systems control different types of brain
activity, considering there are diverse activities that the human brain per-
forms – classifying Brain–Computer Interface (BCI) systems into different
kinds based on the activities they perform or the organ replacement they
are responsible for [15]. Another way to classify Brain–Computer Interface
(BCI) systems is the kind of brain signals they use considering there are
multiple kinds namely, electroencephalogram (EEG), electrocardiogram
(ECG or EKG), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), or hybrid
input of any two or more brain signal [16]. A very established EEG based
Brain–Computer Interface (BCI) system is P-300, Steady State Visual
Evoked Potential (SSVEP), Event Related Desynchronization (ERD) and

other include slow cortical potential based Brain–Computer Interface
(BCI) System [17–20]. This research study based book chapter will eval-
uate classical Brain–Computer Interface (BCI) Systems like P300 and its
various hybrids due to its splendid user adaptability as compared to others,
plethora of applications and economic viability [20].
2.1.1 Current Stance of P300 BCI

This study has surveyed all the journey of P300 Brain–Computer Interface
(BCI). This was founded in the year 1988 [21], but the subsequent two
years saw no research publications in terms of recognized journals on the
topic. The next couple of years precisely from 2000 to 2005 saw some minor
increment on the published research publications, most of which were
focused around processing the data in different formats or from disparate
sources of data [22, 23]. However, the next decade witnessed some path
breaking work on P300 Brain–Computer Interface (BCI) with plethora of
studies continuously improving the previously released models in multi-
ple peer reviewed research publications. With each passing year, the new
models that were proposed were more efficient, robust, easy to implement,
economically viable and required less time or space complexity-running
on limited computation processing framework [24–26].
To provide a more factual and bigger picture, this has shown graphically
how many research publications were released on Google scholar that were
indexed by Scopus or any other reputed indexing criteria like SCI from the
year 2000 to 2020 in the graph attached below:
Research Publication on P300 Brain Computer Interface

(BCI) in the last decade
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2000-2005 20006-2010 2010-2015 2015-2020
Scopus SCI
BCI and Deep Learning 29
This study, firstly, thoroughly elaborates upon its various processing

steps while exploring the origin, need, and current stage of development
of Brain–computer interface (BCI) with respect to brain signals. Post com-
plete understanding of basic concepts and terminologies of brain signals,
Brain–computer interface (BCI), and their interconnection along in the
field of bio-medicine; this study elucidates upon primordial methodolo-
gies of Brain–computer interface (BCI) along with respective merits and
demerits with intensive classification. A differential based analysis is pro-
vided to insight into new age deep learning based method in the field of
Brain–computer interface (BCI) while comparing them with primordial
techniques. A complete data intensive review is performed for new era
deep learning techniques while properly classifying the same into multi-
ple gradations based on deep learning framework and their various ver-
sions implemented namely, neural networks (CNN) and recurrent neural
networks (RNN), long short-term memory (LSTM) architecture, U-net,
among others. This chapter also aims to provide real world application,
challenges, scope of future growths, avenues of expansion, and complete
industry-specific guide for implementing insights gathered from brain
signals in the nascent area of Brain–computer interface (BCI). To fur-
ther edify the application understanding, this study also aims to provide
an extended gradation based on the representation of technique used for
gathering brain signals namely, electroencephalogram (EEG), electrocar-
diogram (ECG or EKG), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
or hybrid input of any two or more brain signal capturing techniques, this
information aids the further classification of application to create industry
specific inputs.
2.2 Brain–Computer Interface Cycle

This section of the research study evaluates various steps with their respec-
tive details that are involved in the processing of a classical Brain–Computer
Interface (BCI) System as summarized in Figure 2.1. The significance of
this section increases as the rudimentary knowledge of various processes
are cardinal before getting into various approaches of Brain–Computer
Interface (BCI) Systems and their respective applications [27, 28].
Step 1: Task and Stimuli

If one considers an ideal Brain–Computer Interface system then the-
oretically user just needs to send strong and active brain stimuli, a
task that requires limited effort and the user does not fatigues his/her
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Gold, he did the story, Which Is Absurd, and saw occasionally
Edward VII., then Prince of Wales, who was enjoying a vacation as
plain Mr. Smith. After he had lost money he could ill spare one night,
a dazzling person with large violet eyes told him to follow her, and he
did with a five-franc piece, winning back all he had lost and 100
francs besides. She was Lily Langtry. Back in London and waiting for
the publication of his story, he seized on a novel of Robert Barr’s and
made it into a four-act play. Compton Mackenzie’s father, the actor,
Edward Compton, played it in the English provinces for a year (after
drastic alterations) and it made enough money to enable Hamilton to
take rooms in London. Whereupon, for a while, everything he wrote
came back with a rejection slip.
Which Is Absurd, whatever its demerits, had the quality of
provocation. An evening paper, reviewing it, asked: “Who is Cosmo
Hamilton?” and answered: “Either a very bitter old man who is
bankrupt of every hope, or an unkissed girl in a boarding school who
ought to be spanked with a brush.” Now with the fewest exceptions,
book reviews do not sell books; but this is the type of review that
infallibly sells a book. And shortly Mr. Hamilton found himself writing
for the Pall Mall Gazette, along with Mrs. Humphry Ward, Alice
Meynell, and others well-known and doing a syndicated London
letter which required his presence in the high places.
His play, “The Wisdom of Folly,” lived two weeks, and after a spell
as editor of a short-lived weekly paper he became one of a brilliant
company of contributors to the World. William Archer as dramatic
critic, Richard Dehan as fictionist, Robert Hichens as dialogist,
Gilbert Frankau, Philip Gibbs and Max Beerbohm were some of the
staff. Before Cosmo Hamilton was thirty he was to become editor of
this paper. But meanwhile a variety of fates awaited him. He
dramatized Kipling’s The Story of the Gadsbys in a fashion
satisfactory to the author; had a close shave from dishonor as one of
the directors of a speculative mineral exploration enterprise which
had trapped various well-known names to aid it; and faced
bankruptcy. This last adventure resulted from the failure of his first
wife, the actress, Beryl Faber, in a theatrical season; and after Mr.
Hamilton had taken on the debts he retired to the country to cope
with them by writing.
What then occurred was dramatic enough, as life has a fashion of
being. A telegram came from a man Hamilton didn’t know. It read:
“Kindly see me tomorrow twelve o’clock Savoy Hotel Charles
Frohman.” Mr. Hamilton kept the appointment, which marked the
beginning of a long association with the famous American theatrical
manager. In five consecutive years there was no time when one or
more of his plays was not running in London. Probably the best-
remembered is “The Belle of Mayfair,” in which Edna May was
succeeded by Billie Burke, and which ran for three years.
iii
At a time when he most urgently needed money, Mr. Hamilton had
had a series of conversations with an actor manager known on both
sides of the Atlantic. This man needed a new play and Hamilton had
the necessary idea, but there was a difficulty. “If I were prepared to
give him all the best scenes, all the best lines and build the play not
round the boy and girl but all about himself, make him suffer as the
boy was to suffer, love as the girl was to love, and, as he was to be a
clergyman, undergo a momentary shattering of faith which would
give him a first-class opportunity to show how supremely he could
touch the tragic note, a check on account of royalties would be paid
at once and a contract signed.” Mr. Hamilton refused, thereby
sacrificing all future chances in this quarter, but “when that play was
offered to the public in 1911 word for word as I had described it to
the man who subsequently forgot my face, it was called ‘The
Blindness of Virtue.’ Can’t you imagine how I love to say that it has
been running ever since?”[63]
It was first written as a novel, however, under that title. The novel
was well-received and when Mr. Hamilton’s younger brother, Arthur
Hamilton Gibbs, came down from Oxford for some golf he suggested
that a play be done from the novel. Cosmo’s reply can be imagined,
but the old idea took instant hold, and the manuscript of the play was
ready precisely when an actor who had taken the lease of the
Adelphi Theatre, meeting Hamilton on the street, asked: “Why don’t
you make a play of The Blindness of Virtue?” C. H.’s reply was to
hand him the typed play.
This novel and play mark a decisive point in the author’s career. It
appeared in 1911 and the following year Mr. Hamilton made his first
visit to America. On his return he was inevitably asked: “Are you
going to use your novels for the ventilation of vital questions or are
you going to revert to the entertaining novel of society life?” He
answered: “I believe that I have now lived long enough, suffered
enough, observed enough and studied enough to try and rise a little
above the level of a merely entertaining writer,—one content to give
his readers satirical pictures of men and women of the world, their
surroundings, their little quarrels and their little love affairs. I believe
that I have it in me to put into my work something that is of value
apart from any pretensions to literary merit that it may have; that will
cause the people who read it to ask themselves whether the world
and the social system is as perfect as they imagined it to be, if they
ever thought about these things. I don’t think I can better describe
my intentions than by saying that I am going to write human stories
for human beings and no longer light sketches of people who are
afraid to think and do not desire to remember their great and grave
responsibilities.”
Book, play and motion picture must have made everyone familiar
with The Blindness of Virtue as a sermon on sex education
powerfully implied by the engrossing story of an innocence that was
merely ignorance. A glance at Mr. Hamilton’s succeeding novels will
show how consistently he has stuck to his determination not to write
mere light fiction.
The Door That Has No Key (1913) is a story of married life. A man
has given a woman his name but has never found the key to her
mind. The Miracle of Love (1915) is the story of an English duke with
a conscience and a sense of duty. He faces the necessity of
marrying for money in order to restore family fortunes, although he is
already in love with a girl whom it is quite impossible for him to
marry, even though he sacrifice, for her sake, title and estates. The
Sins of the Children (1916) is more strictly in succession to The
Blindness of Virtue. This is a novel of American family life illustrating
the danger to young people coming from ignorance of sex truths,
and showing that the children’s sins are principally due to the failure
of parents to tell them what they should know.
Scandal (1917) is an exceptionally good illustration of Cosmo
Hamilton’s ability to write a dramatically interesting story, freighted
with moral and ethical teachings, but fictionally buoyant, and with the
story uppermost all the time. Beatrix Vanderdyke is the beautiful
daughter of wealthy parents. She is also the typical American spoiled
child. A flirtation in which she throws conventions aside gives the
occasion for scandalous talk; and to enable her to cope with the
situation she asks Pelham Franklin, an acquaintance, not to show
her up when she announces that he and she have been secretly
married. Franklin has his own idea as to the lesson she needs; he at
once acknowledges her as his wife and proceeds to treat her as if
she were. It is the way, with such a girl, to a happy ending.
Who Cares (1919) is the story of a boy and girl, high-spirited,
healthy, normal and imaginative, flung suddenly upon their own
resources, buying their own experiences, and coming finally out of a
serious adventure hurt and with a price to pay, but not damaged
because of the inherent sense of cleanness that belongs to both. His
Friend and His Wife (1920) describes the tragic repercussions in
tranquil homes of one moral misstep. The Blue Room (1920) is the
story of a young man whose reformation took place too late to avoid
giving a shock of keen mental anguish to his prospective bride on
the eve of their marriage. These two people achieve happiness not
without scars, and the novel is a sharp stroke at the double standard
of morality or sex ethics.
The Rustle of Silk (1922) is a presentation of political and social
life in after-war London. Lola Breezy, a reincarnation in a shabby,
lower middle class environment of the famous and alluring Madame
de Breze of eighteenth century France, lifts herself out of her
surroundings by sheer force of personality and becomes the friend
and confidante of England’s Home Secretary, the “coming”
statesman.
Another Scandal (1923) is an extension of Scandal and deals with
Beatrix Vanderdyke and Pelham Franklin after their marriage. Mr.
Hamilton, describing the genesis of the novel, explains: “Here was
this astounding creature, Beatrix, not only married but about to have
a baby. Sentimental cynic that I am, I hoped that she had settled
down. At the same time, I dreaded a tangent. I hadn’t long to wait.
Hardly had Franklin II. time enough to open his eyes when Beatrix
suffered the inevitable reaction, finding that the ‘girl stuff,’ as she had
an irritating way of calling that pathetic-tragic-romantic thing in her,
had not worked itself out.” There is some extremely sound
philosophy on the whole subject of marriage in this novel.
iv
Scandal, like The Blindness of Virtue, made an effective play; the
number who will recall Francine Larrimore in the rôle of Beatrix
Vanderdyke is large. Rather better, except for those who have the
empty prejudice against reading plays, than any of Mr. Hamilton’s
novels is his Four Plays (1924), containing “The New Poor,”
“Scandal,” “The Silver Fox,” and “The Mother Woman.” It is amusing
to read the note in connection with “The Mother Woman”:
“Misproduced in New York under the title of ‘Danger’ in 1922.” Mr.
Hamilton, in a long experience with the theater, has suffered much
and most of it with sportsmanship and cheerfulness; he is entitled to
this calm and rather deadly comment.
“The New Poor” is social satire, a comedy in which actors
impersonate the servants; but the other three plays are in line with
Mr. Hamilton’s recent novels. “The Silver Fox” is a comedy of
marriage and divorce; but unquestionably the most powerful play of
the collection is “The Mother Woman.” Dealing with the question of
children in a marriage which is a social contract rather than a
sacrament, at least, from the wife’s viewpoint, its strength lies in the
hardness and the consistency with which the wife is characterized. In
its thesis the play bears wholly in one direction—not a weakness in
the theatre, of course; but Mr. Hamilton has the wisdom to give Violet
Scorrier good speeches and to let her walk off the stage, at the end
of the last act, unchanged, unchanging, and satisfied with her
unshared ego.
The history of these plays and various others, together with much
of the history of his novels will be found in Mr. Hamilton’s extremely
readable Unwritten History. This, if it must be classed, can only be
put into the list of informal and anecdotal autobiographies. It has all
the good humor, the respect for human interest and the relative
disregard for the claims of mere importance which should pervade a
book of its sort. In other words, it has the exhilaration of talk devoted
to one’s liveliest recollections, with no special regard for chronology
and with only the spur of mood. And the mood? It is throughout
humorous, even self-humorous, democratic and impartial. Mr.
Hamilton does not go out of his way to express his opinions, but
neither does he dodge a natural comment when the occasion
comes. You gather, for example, his very definite and not favorable
view of David Lloyd George. The book is exceptional for its range of
portraits. In anything from a sentence or two to several pages there
is something about Kipling, Barrie, Conrad, Sinclair Lewis,
Coningsby Dawson, Gilbert K. Chesterton, Heywood Broun and W.
J. Locke among writers; the King and Queen, Lord Roberts, Colonel
E. M. House, Mr. Asquith, Admiral Beatty, J. Pierpont Morgan, Lord
Balfour, Melville Stone and the Prince of Wales among the figures of
public life; John Drew, Owen Davis, Pinero, Augustus Thomas,
George Arliss, William Archer, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks,
Charlie Chaplin and Granville Barker among the people of the
theater. The twelve caricatures, particularly those of Bernard Shaw,
Charles Frohman, George Grossmith, Sir Martin Harvey, Mr. Lloyd
George and Lytton Strachey are the first public disclosure of Cosmo
Hamilton’s decided talent as an artist.
But perhaps the interest and engaging quality of Unwritten History
can best be shown by quoting, not an anecdote of some personage,
but some such incident as that of the first trip Mr. Hamilton made to
this side:
“Before the ship had left Southampton I was flattered by the
attention of an extremely good-looking, athletic, well-groomed
youngish man, who insisted on walking the deck with me. He took
the trouble to let me know, very shortly after we had broken the ice,
that although that trip was not his maiden one he had only made the
Western crossing once. But when, an hour before the bugle sounded
for dinner, the purser touched me on the arm as I was following him
into the smoking-room and murmured the one word ‘card-sharp,’ I
still went on utterly disbelieving this brutal summing up of a delightful
man’s profession. Those were the old bad days when America was
free, and never dreamed of interfering with the rights of foreign
vessels, and so we had a sherry and bitters together in what is now
an easy though a criminal way of encouraging an appetite. After
which, his hand closing familiarly on a box of dice, he suggested with
a naïve smile that we should kill an awkward half an hour by
throwing for five pound notes, and I saw, in a disappointed flash, the
reason of his flattery. The purser was right, as pursers have a knack
of being. And so as much to retrieve myself from his obvious
assumption that I was an ‘easy mark,’ as to be able to continue a
pleasant acquaintanceship without having again to back out of future
invitations of the same expensive sort, I made ready to dodge a
knockout blow and told him that I not only had no spare fivers to lose
but had a peculiar aversion to losing them to a card-sharp. After a
second or two of extreme surprise at my character reading and
temerity he burst out laughing, and we walked the deck together with
perfect affability during the whole of the rest of the voyage. He was
one of the most interesting men that I have ever met, a student of
Dickens and Thackeray with a strong penchant for the Brontës, and
as devoted a lover of Italy as Lucas is, with much of the same feeling
for its beauty and its treasures. At no cost at all I greatly enjoyed his
company and when, six months later, I met him by accident in
Delmonico’s, with the ruddy color that comes from sea air and
shuffleboard, I was charmed by his eager acceptance of my
invitation to dine. In the meantime he had read Duke’s Son and
although he liked my story very much and said so generously
enough, at the same time assuring me that he was not much of a
hand at modern books, he wound up by regretting that I had not met
him before I wrote about cheating at cards, because he could have
put me right on several points. He died fighting gallantly, and
probably as humorously, in the war.”
v
Readers of Unwritten History may look upon a photograph of Mr.
Hamilton’s home, an English cottage of that idyllic air which seems
to be the special property of all English cottages belonging to all
English authors. Mr. Hamilton and a young son (now somewhat
older) are on the brick steps that lead to the house, for the cottage is
on a hill. Beside the steps and in front of the house is what we call
an “old-fashioned garden”—flowers and plants in a profuse,
unordered growth, with the tall spikes of flowering hollyhocks making
the garden three-dimensional. Mr. Hamilton’s second marriage, after
the death of Beryl Faber, was with a Californian; and he now resides
here rather more than abroad, although he endeavors to spend his
summers in England and on the Continent. In the war, of course, he
was in service, first with the anti-aircraft corps (when he was finally
detailed to Sandringham, for the protection of the King and Queen
during their stay) and then as a British publicist and propagandist in
America. American audiences like him, and he reciprocates.
There is, indeed, about him personally a simplicity, directness and
fundamental unsophistication that may be perceived in his fiction but
which is missed by the casual reader and auditor and observer and
acquaintance. Accident, marked talents and a variety of surface
tastes and social interests have constantly brought him into what has
been well described as “the world where one bores oneself to death
unless one is in mischief.” But both boredom and mischief are
impossible if one continues, as C. H. has continued, to care only for
the same handful of essentials. One thinks of him, for example, as
the very antithesis of W. L. George. Less poetic than his brother,
Philip Gibbs, he has his share of the same moral earnestness (a
family trait) and gifts as great or greater as a storyteller, especially a
story of drama all compact.
BOOKS BY COSMO HAMILTON

Which Is Absurd
Adam’s Clay
Brummell
Duke’s Son (also adapted as a play in French, written with
Mme. Pierre Burton, and produced in Paris under the
title, “Bridge”)
Plain Brown—A Summer Story
The Infinite Capacity
Keepers of the House
1911 The Blindness of Virtue
1912 The Outpost of Eternity
1912 A Plea for the Younger Generation
1913 The Door That Has No Key
1915 The Miracle of Love
1916 The Sins of the Children
1917 Scandal
1919 Who Cares?
1920 His Friend and His Wife
1920 The Blue Room
1922 The Rustle of Silk
1923 Another Scandal
1924 Unwritten History (autobiographical)
1924 Four Plays: The New Poor, Scandal, The Silver Fox, and
The Mother Woman
SOURCES ON COSMO HAMILTON

Unwritten History, by Cosmo Hamilton. Autobiographical
throughout. A list of Mr. Hamilton’s plays will be found on page 351
of his Four Plays, to which the plays in the volume must be added.
The history of most of them is given in Unwritten History.
“Cosmo Hamilton, the Man.” Booklet published (1923) by Little,
Brown and Company.
“Cosmo Hamilton: His Ambitions and His Achievements.” Booklet
published (1916) by Little, Brown and Company.
Reference is made in a footnote to the text of this chapter to Philip
Gibbs’s Adventures in Journalism.
12. Lest They Forget
i
In the short preface to his Eminent Victorians, Mr. Lytton Strachey
speaks of the great biological tradition of the French, of “their
incomparable éloges, compressing into a few shining pages the
manifold existences of men.” And he speaks of biography as “the
most delicate and humane of all the branches of the art of writing.”
The tribute of a distinguished master of biographical literature was
recalled to me as I read André Maurois’s Ariel, The Life of Shelley,
so ably translated by Ella D’Arcy. Here are a comparatively few, but
gloriously shining pages. This biography has burst upon us with an
effect as surprising and luminous as Shelley himself. It is written on
gauze and its transparency shows opaline colors. The picture it gives
us is of Matthew Arnold’s “beautiful and ineffectual angel beating his
wings in a luminous void”; but I should delete the word “ineffectual.”
If Shelley was ineffectual, then the soul goes out of the world.
It needed a Frenchman, perhaps, to do the subject justice. Mr.
Strachey, as Aldous Huxley has remarked, is congenitally incapable
of penetrating the mystical mind. André Maurois was already known
to some English and American readers by the humorous and
profound novels studying an inarticulate English army officer. No one
who read The Silences of Colonel Bramble can have forgotten its
delicate portraiture. But such fiction was a pastime beside Ariel.
I could, of course, quote the praise of Arnold Bennett and other
acute judges, but it seems to me a lame thing to do. Nor is there
space to quote from Maurois’s book, and it hurts me not to be able to
transcribe some things he has written. Any attempt to convey the
quality of his book reduces me to despair; and yet I am used—
perhaps too well used—to such attempts. Maurois is gleeful, tender,
ironical; he recalls in his delicate but firm art Mr. Strachey more than
anyone else, but he is more sympathetic, and so more just, than
Strachey. This perhaps is because he has that side which Strachey,
with his Voltaire-like intellect, quite lacks. Shelley’s pathetic youth,
his three-cornered marriage, his elopement with Mary Godwin, his
few life-long friendships, his strange contacts with Byron, the brief
happiness in Italy and the ultimate, tragic release of the captive soul
to its flight in immortality—all these are told with a sense of
proportion and an effect unsurpassable. The incidental portrait of
Byron is more clear than any—yes, any!—of the ponderous
biographies that have saluted his centenary.
ii
Besides the large number of sketches and impressions of
Woodrow Wilson embedded in various recent books, there have
already been published several biographies; but The True Story of
Woodrow Wilson, by David Lawrence, seems to me distinctly the
best of these, and probably the best immediate life of Wilson we
shall have. Mr. Lawrence sat under Mr. Wilson when Wilson was
professor of jurisprudence and politics at Princeton; he was with him
at the time of nomination for Governor of New Jersey; he knew
intimately the dissension at Princeton over the Wilson policies as
President of the University; and from the time of Mr. Wilson’s
nomination for the Presidency of the United States, Mr. Lawrence
saw him continuously and at close range. For the younger man had
quickly become one of the most brilliant of the Washington
correspondents. His daily despatches then, as now, appeared in
newspapers throughout America. He was in Washington, covering
the White House, during Mr. Wilson’s terms; went with him on his
campaign tours; went with him through Europe and watched him at
Versailles; and finally was with him on the tour on which Mr. Wilson
suffered the physical collapse leading to his death. The result of this
prolonged contact is a book in which nothing relevant is omitted or
evaded. Mr. Lawrence begins with a striking chapter summarizing
the paradoxical qualities of the war President—in some respects the
most satisfactory portrait yet painted. He continues with the same
impartiality and a frankness which no one else has ventured; and not
the least valuable feature is the correspondent’s ability to throw light
on certain public acts of Wilson which have heretofore gone
unexplained.
One or two other volumes in which the political interest is
predominant deserve mention while our minds are on recent history.
Maurice Paleologue was the last French ambassador to the Russian
Court, serving about two years, from 3 July 1914 to mid-1916. The
three volumes of his An Ambassador’s Memoirs constitute the most
interesting account we have had of the imperial decline, chiefly
because M. Paleologue, with all the genius of French writing,
pictures the slow downfall with a kind of terrible fidelity. The
despairing vividness of this history is mitigated by many delightful
asides on aspects of Russian character and psychology, art and life,
written with an equal brilliance and a keen enjoyment.
Twelve Years at the German Imperial Court, by Count Robert
Zedlitz-Trützschler, is by the former controller of the household of
William II., then German Emperor. Its predominant interest is its
gradually built up character portrait of the ex-Emperor in the days of
his power. I say “gradually built up,” for the book consists simply of
private memoranda made by Zedlitz-Trützschler through the years of
his service. It seems that the unhappy Count felt keenly the inability
to say what he thought or to express his real feelings with safety to
anybody. At first, like every one else, he was fascinated by his royal
and imperial master. As he says in his preface: “There is a tendency
today to underrate the intellect of the Emperor very seriously. There
can be no dispute that his personality was a dazzling one.... He
could, whenever it seemed to him worth while, completely bewitch
not only foreign princes and diplomats, but even sober men of
business.” The spell waned because William lost interest. Zedlitz-
Trützschler’s book is the soberest and in some respects the frankest
book about William that I have seen. Its publication has put the
author in hot water with his family and all his class.
Charles Hitchcock Sherrill’s The Purple or the Red, based on
personal interviews with Mussolini of Italy, Horthy of Hungary, Primo
de Riveira of Spain and other statesmen, as well as most of the
surviving European monarchs, contains much interesting material
about after-war Europe. It is ultra-conservative in its political attitude,
but General Sherrill makes an effective case for his idea that the
Crown, in European countries, has served as a rallying point for
patriotism and by its place above factions has been a bulwark
against revolution with bloodshed.
iii
Two very exceptional autobiographies are Sir Arthur Conan
Doyle’s Memories and Adventures and Constantin Stanislavsky’s My
Life in Art. Both are ample, lavishly illustrated volumes; and far apart
as are the lives they record, I hesitate to say that either exceeds the
other in charm.
The creator of Sherlock Holmes is a big, amiable man, a person of
great simplicity of manner and almost naïve in his enjoyment of
people, places and events. His book is inevitably one of a very wide
popular appeal, the more so as Sir Arthur is entirely without conceit.
In Memories and Adventures he tells of his education at Stoneyhurst,
in Germany, and in Edinburgh, where he got his doctor’s degree. He
relates his early medical experiences and tells of his first attempts at
writing. A memorable voyage to West Africa as a ship’s surgeon, his
earlier religious ideas and beliefs and the changes they underwent,
and his marriage are all dealt with.
Then comes the story of his first real success as an author, made
with the novel, A Study in Scarlet. He had resounding subsequent
successes with Micah Clarke, The Sign of the Four, and The White
Company. The creation of Sherlock Holmes was a great milestone in
Conan Doyle’s life. This is without question the most famous
character in English fiction. Visits to America and Egypt and political
adventures are chronicled. There are reminiscences and anecdotes
of Roosevelt, George Meredith, Kitchener, Lloyd George, Balfour, Mr.
Asquith, Henry Irving, Kipling, Bernard Shaw, Barrie and many
others, living and dead, sprinkled through these extremely readable
chapters. The closing chapter is devoted to the author’s amazing
experiences in psychical research; and it must be said for him that
he writes more persuasively of his experiences and beliefs in this
affair than anyone else has ever managed to do. Altogether
Memories and Adventures will engross anyone who opens it.
Very different, with its own style and an accent of enthusiasm
throughout, is Constantin Stanislavsky’s My Life in Art. This man has
been the stage director of the Moscow Art Theater since its
establishment in 1898; and although that theater is now known
throughout the world, and is frequently hailed as the world’s foremost
playhouse, Stanislavsky’s reputation outside Russia has naturally
been confined to the circles of dramatic art. His autobiography
depended for its American publication wholly on the intrinsic interest
of what he had to tell. You may infer that that interest is
considerable. It is.
I spoke of the book’s style. It is peculiar, individual; sincere and
unskilled, awkward and yet masterful; admirable because so
evidently a part of the author. Born in 1863, the son of a wealthy
Russian merchant family and the grandson of a French actress,
Stanislavsky as a boy showed stage talents in family theatricals; and
though he later slaved over accounts in his father’s counting-house,
his nights were nights of feverish absorption in the theater. His birth
placed him in the thick of the social and intellectual life of Moscow,
for he belonged to the class which has created the arts of Russia. At
twenty-five he became director of the Society of Art and Literature, a
group of young people with serious ideas about the stage and a
great dissatisfaction with the current Russian theater. When
Stanislavsky met Nemirovich-Danchenko, the Moscow Art Theater
was founded.
The first half of My Life in Art is therefore chiefly personal, a rich
slice of Russian life with plum-like impressions and reminiscences of
Rubinstein, Tolstoy, Tommaso Salvini the elder and other great
artists of that time. The second half deals with the Moscow Art
Theater, in which Stanislavsky made for himself a reputation as one
of Russia’s greatest actors, particularly in the rôles of Othello,
Brutus, and Ivan the Terrible. This part of My Life in Art is crammed
with material of interest and value not only to those who follow the
theater but to all whose great interest is art. Chekhov, Tolstoy,
Maeterlinck and others in person are delightfully mixed with
interpretative experience in their plays and in the plays of
Shakespeare, Molière, Pushkin and other immortals. The book
closes with a description of the present work of the Moscow Art
Theater, including the Soviet régime in Russia and the visit to
America.
At last we have a biography of Clyde Fitch, achieved in that most
satisfactory of ways, by means of his letters. Mr. Montrose J. Moses
and Miss Virginia Gerson, who edited the memorial edition of Clyde
Fitch’s plays, have been engaged for some time in collecting the
Fitch letters and the result of their labor is now published in one
volume. Clyde Fitch and His Letters reflects well a personality which
people never forgot, since meeting him was, as some one said, like
meeting a figure in fiction. Fitch had a genius for friendship. His
letters were always unstudied, without pretension to literary style,
and brimful of a strongly impressionist reaction to the place or the
event. He dashed them off as the spirit prompted—on board ship, by
an open window of a Continental hotel, on the terraces of his country
house; notes of appreciation, notes of invitation, long, impulsive
descriptions of European festivities (some processional in Spain or
some picturesque account of Venetian gondoliering). They breathe,
these letters, of his warm association with the novelist, Robert
Herrick; they show a light-hearted friendship with Maude Adams and
Kate Douglas Wiggin; they show interchanges of appreciation
between Fitch and William Dean Howells. Again, the reader sees the
evidence of the personal concern and interest Fitch showed in the
actors and actresses engaged for his plays. From the incipient idea
of a plot for a play to the play’s first night, the letters enable the
reader to follow breathlessly the climb of Clyde Fitch to the position
of America’s most successful playwright. But he remained a simple,
unaffected sort of person.
One cannot say more, I suppose, than that from the day when
Richard Mansfield asked him to write “Beau Brummell” to the day of
Clyde Fitch’s death, when he had taken “The City” abroad for a final
polishing which death prevented, Clyde Fitch and His Letters is full of
the live rush of the man. A very sane and fundamentally enthusiastic
attitude was his toward American life, and those who read the book
will not miss that part of it.
iv
Of two books by women, one, Sunlight and Song, by Maria Jeritza,
is the great singer’s autobiography; while Frances Parkinson Keyes’s
Letters from a Senator’s Wife is autobiographical only incidentally.
Mme. Jeritza is not only the foremost feminine personality in grand
opera in America today, but by her concert tours she has become
known throughout the United States. Her Sunlight and Song is a
book pretty certain to interest everyone who has heard her—or
heard of her. It is written with directness, in a thoroughly popular
vein, and is utterly free from affectations or pose. An Austrian by
birth, she sang in Olmütz while in her teens, living on the hope of an
engagement in Vienna. At length she came to the capital and waited
her turn in the trying-out of voices. She was engaged for the
municipal opera and afterward for the Court Opera House. Her rôles
from operas by Richard Strauss and Puccini were rehearsed under
the personal direction of the composers; she met Caruso and
dozens of other musical celebrities; she sang before and met the
Emperor; and in 1921 she came to America. One of the most
interesting bits of her book concerns a rehearsal of “Tosca” at which
she slipped and fell. She sang “Vissi d’arte” where she lay, exciting
Puccini’s enthusiasm. He exclaimed that always he had needed
something to make the aria stand out and command attention; and
this did it! When it was announced that Jeritza was to sing in “Tosca”
in New York, there was a noticeable wave of hostility from those who
associated the rôle exclusively with Geraldine Farrar. It vanished
after she had appeared.
Among the photographs with which Jeritza’s book is illustrated are
many extremely beautiful pictures of the singer in her various rôles.
The chapters on “How an Opera Singer Really Lives,” “Studying with
Sembrich,” “Singing for the Phonograph,” and “Some Guest
Performances” will especially repay students of the voice.
The book by Mrs. Keyes, wife of the United States Senator from
New Hampshire, is in a class by itself. Letters from a Senator’s Wife
consists entirely of actual letters written to old friends who were
some distance away from Washington and who had a full feminine
curiosity about life there. Taken as they stand, Mrs. Keyes’s letters
form a pretty complete record of social and political life in the capital
as seen from the inner official circle. Beginning with her first
impressions of Washington, Mrs. Keyes goes on to describe the
Harding inauguration, the burial of the Unknown Soldier, the arms
conference, the agricultural conference in 1922 and the industrial
conference in 1923; the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial; the
presentation of a gram of radium to Madame Curie; the diplomatic
and New Year’s receptions at the White House; the convention of
women’s organizations at which Lady Astor was conspicuous;
dinners, teas, an afternoon cruise as Mrs. Harding’s guest on the
Mayflower and social affairs innumerable.
The result is a picture of Washington exactly as a woman in Mrs.
Keyes’s place would be privileged to see it; women readers will have
a sense of participating in the things described. It is, I should say,
exclusively a woman’s book; but no one who appreciates the
average woman’s enjoyment of social detail will underestimate what
Mrs. Keyes has accomplished. But in addition to telling the reader
what she would have to do, whom she would meet, and what
functions she would attend if she were in the Washington circle, the
book does really constitute an attractive record of current history in
the making and as made. Women who read it can scarcely fail to
become more intelligent than before.
v
Fortunately Maurice Francis Egan, one of the most beloved of
Americans, lived to complete for us his Recollections of a Happy
Life. The author of Everybody’s St. Francis, Ten Years Near the
German Frontier, Confessions of a Book-Lover and other volumes
had a scroll of memories which began in Philadelphia in the 1850s
and which included political and social Washington in the Civil War
period. In Recollections of a Happy Life the New York of the Henry
George era is touched in with delightful anecdotes of Richard
Watson Gilder and the group that surrounded him; there is a crisp
picture of Indiana where Dr. Egan was professor of English at Notre
Dame; and the book fairly launches itself with a full record of life in
Washington and of the author’s close association with Presidents
McKinley, Roosevelt, Taft and Wilson, under the last three of whom
Dr. Egan held the post of Minister to Denmark. Scholar, poet, critic,
and most winning of companions, Dr. Egan’s autobiography reflects
a good deal of America in the past half-century as well as his own
varied experiences here and abroad.
Of even more definitely literary interest is C. K. S. An
Autobiography, by Clement K. Shorter. An indefatigable book
collector whose library is rich in first editions, original manuscripts,
and autograph letters, Mr. Shorter is probably best known as an
editor and dramatic critic. He has had thirty years in each rôle, and
still writes weekly causeries which carry, on occasion, a provocative
sting. George Meredith, Stevenson, Andrew Lang, Thomas Hardy,
and Gissing each are the subject of a chapter founded primarily on
personal impressions of the man.
Such personal impressions, mixed with estimates of the writer’s
work, form the substance of The Literary Spotlight, edited, with an
introduction, by John Farrar, editor of The Bookman. These
anonymous literary portraits have been aptly called “Mirrors of
Literature.” The anonymity has made possible a great deal of
frankness, humor, and penetration worth having, and Mr. Farrar has
added bibliographies, biographical facts and such data as make the
volume handy for reference. Edna Ferber, Sinclair Lewis, F. Scott
Fitzgerald, Floyd Dell, Mary Johnston, Edwin Arlington Robinson and
others of high contemporary interest are presented.
The Truth at Last!

Robert Louis Stevenson: A Critical Biography, by John A. Steuart.
Two volumes. This new biography, by an English writer, will throw
much new light on Stevenson. From unpublished documents in
Edinburgh and elsewhere, and from several people who knew
Stevenson, Mr. Steuart has obtained facts never before printed—so
the portrait he draws is somewhat different from those which have
already appeared. This biography will be of much interest to the
many admirers of Stevenson’s work who are not afraid to see the
man as he actually was in his strength and his weakness, his gaiety
and his gloom. Photogravure frontispieces.
The Truth at Last, by Charles Hawtrey, edited, with an introduction,
by W. Somerset Maugham. The amusing, frankly self-revealing
memoirs of a famous English actor, well remembered in America for
his tours in “A Message from Mars” and “The Man from Blankley’s.”
Illustrated.
Forty Years in Washington, by David S. Barry. Reminiscences of
Presidents, Cabinet members, Senators and Congressmen, by the
Sergeant-at-Arms of the Senate, who was Washington
correspondent of The Sun, New York, when Charles A. Dana was its
editor. Illustrated.
The Life of Olive Schreiner, by S. C. Cronwright-Schreiner. The
biography, by her husband, of the brilliant author of Dreams and The
Story of an African Farm, a woman of extraordinary personality who
was not only a writer of genius but a pioneer advocate of woman’s
freedom. Illustrated.
Remembered Yesterdays, by Robert Underwood Johnson. Mr.
Johnson’s reminiscences are unusually entertaining and novel, and
their diversity is exceptional. As a stripling he went to New York to
join the staff of Scribner’s Monthly, afterward known as the Century
Magazine, with which he was connected for forty years, as associate
editor and as editor-in-chief. Highly interesting are his touch-and-go
reminiscences of famous Americans and foreign visitors, his
anecdotes of travel abroad, and the account of his service as
Ambassador to Italy in Wilson’s second term. The portraits of
American men of letters from the Civil War to the present are vividly
drawn. No recent volume of American recollections keeps the reader
in a more tolerant and gracious atmosphere. Illustrated.

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Brain-Computer Interface M.G.

eTextbook 978-0134380384 Designing the User Interface:

Cicatrices: Romance lésbico 1ª Edition Andrea M.G.

Brain-Computer Interfaces (Volume 168) (Handbook of

Interface Engineering in Organic Field-Effect

Conscious Mind, Resonant Brain: How Each Brain Makes a

Computer Science Illuminated

Scattering Methods and their Application in Colloid and

Brain-Wise: Studies in Neurophilosophy

Using Deep Learning Applications

Wiley Global Headquarters

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cover image: Pixabay.Com

Printed in the USA

2.3.5 Hybrid Methodologies 40

5 A Review of Innovation to Human Augmentation

6.2 Brain Connectivity 129

7.4 Taking Care of Children with Seizure Disorders 172

9.2.2 Mental Strategies 209

10.4.1 Data Collection 243

12.2 Related Works 281

The Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) is an emerging technology that

epileptic seizure using deep learning algorithms. Chapter 8 describes the

ECE, BNM Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Temporal lobe Brainstem

Figure 1.1 Brain parts.

1.2 The Brain – Its Functions

1.3 BCI Technology

Normal Minor problem Major problem No Response

Figure 1.2 BCI domain.

Figure 1.3 Block diagram of BCI.

Locked-in syndrome is a neurological disorder also known as pseudo

1.3.1 Signal Acquisition

Figure 1.4 Types of BCI signal acquisitor.

1.3.1.1 Invasive Methods

• They are limited because of recording failures and FBR

ii. Micro-Machined Micro-Electrodes

The limitations are as follows:

• They degrade with time.

iii. Polymer Microelectrodes

• The accuracy and depth of implantation of soft and flexible

• They are expensive.

Figure 1.5 Recording places in/on brain.

• Limited sampling time – Seizures may not be recorded with

ECoG is a minimal invasive method. Stereotactic electroencephalogra-

1.3.1.2 Non-Invasive Methods

1) Traditional wet electrodes

Hardware concerns with EEG-based BCI equipment with wet electrodes:

• Maintenance and use of wet electrodes is cumbersome.

Hardware concerns with EEG-based BCI equipment with dry electrodes:

• The Quality of the signal obtained using dry electrodes is

Hardware concerns with MEG-based BCI equipment:

• The MEG equipment is very expensive.

c. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

d. Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)

1.3.2 Feature Extraction

classification. Generally used method is EEG and in feature extraction, fre-