EDU 531 REVIEW

Module 2
 AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA) in early 1990s to conduct
studies that could further enhance the current understanding of educators on the nature
of the learners about teaching and learning process.
 LEARNING CENTERED Is the perspective that couples a focus on individual learners,
their heredity, experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capabilities, and
needs.
 The 14 principles are divided into those referring to: Cognitive and metacognitive,
Motivational and affective, Developmental and social, Individual difference factors

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTOR

1. Nature of Learning Process
the learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an international
process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
2. Goals of the Learning Process
the successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of Knowledge
the successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new
information and experiences and their existing knowledge base.
4. Strategic Thinking
the successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Successful learners use in their approach to learning reasoning, problem solving, and
concept learning.
5. Thinking about thinking
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performances goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and
monitor their progress towards these goals.
6. Context of Learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and
instructional practices.
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTOR
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
the rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectation for success or
failure can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information
processing.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant
to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex
knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and
strategic effort, along with persistence over time.
DRVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTOR
10. Developmental influences on learning
learning is most effective when differential developmental within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is
presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.
11. Social influences on learning
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on instructional tasks.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTOR
12. Individual differences in learning
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or
modify them, if necessary.
13. Learning and diversity
the same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all
learners.
14. Standards and assessment
Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all
stages of the learning process.

MODULE 3
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into
five areas:
1. The knowledge base
One’s knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning.
2. Strategic processing and control
Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in
order to learn more effectively.
3. Motivation and affect
Factors such as intrinsic motivation, reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals and
enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences
Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner has his own unique
combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context
Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an individual.

MODULE 4
 What is Metacognition? Flavell said that metacognition is the knowledge you have of
your own cognitive processes (your thinking). Flavell (1979). It is your ability to control
your thinking processes through various strategies, such as organizing, monitoring, and
adapting.
 Metacognitive Knowledge Describes anything one knows about thinking, especially one's
own.
 Declarative knowledge - Knowledge about oneself as a learner and what can influence
one's performance.
 Procedural knowledge - Skills, heuristics, and strategies. Knowledge about how to do
things.
 Conditional knowledge - Knowledge about when and in what conditions certain
knowledge is useful.

MODULE 5
 Metacognitive Regulation
The process of managing one's own learning; includes planning, monitoring, and
evaluating.
 Metacognitive regulation is how we control our thinking to facilitate our learning. For
example, students with effective metacognitive-regulation skills can select appropriate
learning strategies for a task and modify their approaches based on outcome.
 During the planning phase, learners think about the learning goal the teacher has set and
consider how they will approach the task and which strategies they will use. At this stage,
it is helpful for learners to ask themselves:

 ‘What am I being asked to do?’
 ‘Which strategies will I use?’
 ‘Are there any strategies that I have used before that might be useful?’

 During the monitoring phase, learners implement their plan and monitor the progress they
are making towards their learning goal.
 Students might decide to make changes to the strategies they are using if these are not
working. As students work through the task, it will help them to ask themselves:

‘Is the strategy that I am using working?’

‘Do I need to try something different?’

 During the evaluation phase, students determine how successful the strategy they used
was in helping them to achieve their learning goal. To promote evaluation, students could
consider:

 ‘How well did I do?’
 ‘What didn’t go well?’ ‘What could I do differently next time?’
 ‘What went well?’ ‘What other types of problem can I use this strategy for?’

MODULE 6

PRINCIPLES OF
METACOGNITVE
INSTRUCTIONS
• Developing metacognitive
thinking among students
needs the creativity of the teacher.
• Using metacognitive strategies
facilitates how learners
learn.
• Metacognitive teaching
practices
– enhance the learners’
capabilities to transfer their
competencies in learning new tasks
in new contexts
also
– make learners aware of their
strengths and
weaknesses as they learn
– Knowing their strengths give
them confidence to
pursue a task
– Knowing their weaknesses
lead them to strategize
on how to overcome their limited
knowledge and
how to source out the needed
information for the
task
• Three Fundamental Principles
to effectively develop
metacognitive skills among
learners according to
Veenman et al. (2012)
1. Metacognition instruction
should be embedded in the
context of the task at hand in order
to allow for
connecting task-specific
knowledge (the IF-side) to the
procedural knowledge of “How”
the skill is applied in the
context of the task (the THEN-side
of production rules)
2. Learners should be informed
about the benefit of
applying metacognitive skills in
order to make them exert
the initial effort.
3. Instruction and training should
be stretched over
time, thus allowing for the
formation or production rules
and ensuring the smooth and
maintained application of
metacognitive skills.
• Leading learner to think
metacognitively gradually leads
to become self-regulated learners
PRINCIPLES OF METACOGNITVE INSTRUCTIONS
•Developing metacognitive thinking among students needs the creativity of the teacher.
•Using metacognitive strategies facilitates how learners learn.
•Metacognitive teaching practices –enhance the learners’ capabilities to transfer their
competencies in learning new tasks in new contexts also –make learners aware of their
strengths and weaknesses as they learn –Knowing their strengths give them confidence to
pursue a task–Knowing their weaknesses lead them to strategize on how to overcome
their limited knowledge and how to source out the needed information for the task
•Three Fundamental Principles to effectively develop metacognitive skills among
learners according to Veenman et al. (2012)
1. Metacognition instruction should be embedded in the context of the task at hand in
order to allow for connecting task-specific knowledge (the IF-side) to the procedural
knowledge of “How” the skill is applied in the context of the task (the THEN-side of
production rules)
2. Learners should be informed about the benefit of applying metacognitive skills in order
to make them exert the initial effort.
3. Instruction and training should be stretched over time, thus allowing for the formation
or production rules and ensuring the smooth and maintained application of metacognitive
skills.
•Leading learner to think metacognitively gradually leads to become self-regulated
learners

Metacognitive Strategies
Think-Aloud (for reading comprehension and problem solving)
Journaling is to enter or record dailty thoughts, experiences, etc.
Organizational tools (such as checklists, rubrics, etc for solving word problems.)
A graphic organizer, also known as a knowledge map, concept map, story map, cognitive
organizer, advanced organizer, or concept diagram is a pedagogical tool that uses visual
symbols to express knowledge and concepts through relationships between them.
Explicit teacher modelling (for math instruction)
Error analysis is a systematic process of providing constructive feedback

Module 7
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development includes the concept of Accommodation.
This cognitive process involves the development and alteration of mental representations,
schemas, as individuals encounter new situations. It is the process by which we learn and
develop our cognitive abilities.
Assimilation meant integrating external elements into structures of lives or environments,
or those we could have through experience. Assimilation is how humans perceive and
 adapt to new information. It is the process of fitting new information into pre-existing
cognitive schemas.

The Sensorimotor Stage of

Cognitive Development
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge
through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest
period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.

Birth to 2 Years

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

 Know the world through movements and sensations

 Learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening
 Learn that things continue to exist even when they cannot be seen (object permanence)
 Realize that they are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 Realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

During the sensorimotor stage, children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As
kids interact with their environment, they continually make new discoveries about how the world
works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short time
and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions
such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with
whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage down into substages. Early representational
thought emerges during the final part of the sensorimotor stage.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding that
objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point
of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their
own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words
to objects.
The Preoperational Stage of
Cognitive Development
The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but the
emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of
development.3

2 to 7 Years

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

 Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects
 Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others
 Getting better with language and thinking, but still tend to think in very concrete terms

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of
view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet they
continue to think very concretely about the world around them.

For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then
give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a
compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Because the flat
shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece, even though the two
pieces are exactly the same size.

The Concrete Operational Stage of

Cognitive Development
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development,
they become much more adept at using logic.2 The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to
disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.

7 to 11 Years

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

 Begin to think logically about concrete events

 Begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short,
wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
  Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be
very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical
concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other
people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that
their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts,
feelings, and opinions.

The Formal Operational Stage of

Cognitive Development
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this point, adolescents and young adults
become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically
about the world around them.

Age 12 and Up

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this time:

 Begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems

 Begins to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that
require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal
operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and
reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage.

Module 8
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of human learning describes learning as a social process
and the origination of human intelligence in society or culture. The major theme of
Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the
development of cognition.
 the zone of proximal development (ZPD) allows instructors to assess the range of tasks
that a child can perform independently and with the help of an advanced other.
 Scaffolding is a process that supports students as they learn to perform a task
independently.
1st stage- Social speech (or external speech)
 "In no way is this speech related to intellect or thinking."(Luria, 1992) In this stage a
child uses speech to control the behavior ofothers. A child uses speech to express simple
thoughts and emotions such ascrying, laughter and shouting.
 An example of speech in this stage is "Iwant milk."

 2nd stage- Egocentric Speech

 This is typically the type of speech found in a three- to seven-year-old. "Itserves as a
bridge between the primitive and highly public social speech of thefirst stage and the
more sophisticated and highly private inner speech of thethird stage." (Lefrancois, 1994)
In this stage, children often talk tothemselves, regardless of someone listening to them.
They things out loud in anattempt to guide their own behavior. They may speak about
what they are doingas they do it. They reason that language must be spoken if it is to
directtheir behavior.
 Ex. A child in school who counts out loud one block at a time saying each number as
he/she goes along to get five.

 3rd stage- Inner Speech
 This is the final stage of speech development. It is inner, soundlessspeech. This is the
type of speech used by older children and adults. Thistype of speech allows us to direct
our thinking and behavior. Once one hasreached this final stage they are able to engage in
all forms of higher mentalfunctions. In this stage one can "count in one's head, use
logicalmemory- inherent relationships, and inner signs.

MODULE 10
 Information processing theory is a cognitive psychology theory that studies mental
processes involved in acquiring, storing, and using knowledge. It focuses on the flow of
information as it is passed from one stage to another within a person's mind.
 Developed by American Psychologists including George Miller in the 1950s.Processing
theory has been compared to human brain to a computer, The “input” is the information
we give to the computer or to our brains while the CPU is likened to our short-term
memory and the hard drive is our long-term memory.
 Sensory memory is the first stage of Information Processing Theory. It refers to what we
are experiencing through our senses at any given moment. This includes what we can see,
hear, touch, taste, and smell. Sight and hearing are generally thought to be the two most
important ones.
 Short-term memory is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory
memory; sometimes it is called working memory. Short-term memory takes information
 from sensory memory and sometimes connects that memory to something already in
long-term memory. Short-term memory storage lasts about 20 seconds.
 Long-term memory (LTM): Important information from STM is encoded and transferred
to LTM, where it can be stored indefinitely. LTM, with its unlimited capacity, serves as
long-term storage for information throughout our lifetime.

Encoding information into long-term memory

 Breaking up information into smaller parts: there’s only so much information we can take
on board at once, so when you’re training you should move at an appropriate pace, giving
your learners plenty of breaks and opportunities to process the information.
 Make it meaningful: Trainees are more likely to retain information that’s meaningful to
them by connecting it to real-life scenarios and to their own personal experiences.
 Connect the dots: To optimize the chances of material being retained in long term
memory, you should layer the material by providing sufficient background information
and connecting current lesson to what was previously learned, and to what will be learned
next.
 Repeat, repeat, repeat: One of the simplest ways to encode new facts into long term
memory is to present it more than once.

MODULE 11
 Problem Solving is cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal when no solution
method is obvious to achieving a goal to the problem solver.

TYPES OF PROBLEMS

 Well-defined problems have clearly specified given (problem) states, goal (solution)
states and problem-solving spaces.
 Ill defined problems, the given state, goal state, or problem solving space might be
unclear.

PROBLEM SOLVING CYCLE

 Step 1: Identify the problem
What is the problem? The first step consists in recognizing the existence of a problem
that needs to be solved
 Step 2: Explore possible strategies
The next stage is to research the problem as fully as possible and to explore possible
problem solving strategies.
 Step 3: Set goals
Goal setting is crucial to reach your strategic objectives, goal setting is a powerful
process for thinking about
 Step 4: Look at alternatives
 How many different approaches can you think of that will solve the problem? What are
the pros and cons of each approach? When you have decided what your goal is you need
to look for possible solutions, the more possible solution you find the more likely it is
that you will be able to discover an effective solution.
 Step 5: Select a possible solution
Decide which of the available options you will choose. You should be prepared to give
reasons why and be able to show that this is the best of all options available.
 Step 6: Implement a possible solution
Once you have selected a possible solution put your plan into action
 Step 7: Evaluate the result
After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if it
is the best possible solution to the problem.

MODULE 12
 Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is learning
through association and was discovered by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple
terms, two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or
animal.
 An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that leads to an automatic response.
 An unconditioned response is an automatic response to a stimulus.
 A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response.
 A conditioned response is a behavior that does not come naturally, but must be learned by
the individual by pairing a neutral stimulus with a potent stimulus.

Stage 1: Before conditioning: In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus generates an

unconditioned response. The response is natural and does not require any training. For
example, a perfume could create a response of happiness or desire.
Stage 2: During Conditioning
During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral
stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing,
an association between the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed.

Stage 3: After conditioning:

The conditioned stimulus in association with unconditioned stimulus creates a new
conditioned response. For example, a person who has been associated with sweet-
smelling perfume is now found attractive.
 MODULE 13

 Connectionism is the philosophy of Edward Thorndike, which says that learning is a

product between stimulus and response. A stimulus is something that causes a reaction,
while a response is the reaction to a stimulus. The connection between the two is called
an S-R bond, or stimulus-response bond.
 Connectionism theory is based on the principle of active learning and is the result of the
work of the American psychologist Edward Thorndike. This work led to Thorndike's
Laws. According to these Laws, learning is achieved when an individual is able to form
associations between a particular stimulus and a response.

 1) Law of Readiness
This law states that learning can only take place when a person is ready to learn. When
employees feel ready, they learn more effectively and with greater satisfaction than when
not ready.
 2) Law of Exercise
The second law of learning is the 'Law of Exercise' according to Thorndike's S-R Bond
Theory, which means that drill or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of
learning and, the connections are strengthened with trial or practice and the connections
are weakened when trial or practice.
 3) The law of effect
states that a rewarding response that follows a specific stimulus is more likely to be
repeated than an unsatisfying response.

MODULE 14
 Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian
conditioning, is a method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify
behavior. Through operant conditioning, behavior that is rewarded is likely to be
repeated, while behavior that is punished is prone to happen less.
 Operant conditioning was first described by psychologist B.F. Skinner. His theory was
based on two assumptions. First, the cause of human behavior is something in a person's
environment.
THREE TYPES OF RESPONSES OR OPERANT
 Neutral operant: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the
probability of a behavior being repeated.
 Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior
being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
 Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior
being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

 Positive reinforcement is the act of rewarding a positive behavior in order to encourage it

to happen again in the future, as in Getting an A on the test was the positive
reinforcement I needed to continue studying.

 Negative reinforcement occurs when something unpleasant or uncomfortable is removed

or taken away in order to increase the likelihood of the desired behavior. Kids want to
avoid the nagging, so they do what needs to be done.

 Schedules of reinforcement are the rules that determine how often an organism is
reinforced for a particular behavior. The particular pattern of reinforcement has an impact
on the pattern of responding by the animal. A schedule of reinforcement is either
continuous or partial. The response rate, the rate at which the rat pressed the lever (how
hard to rat worked). The Extinction rate, the rate which lever pressing dies out (how soon
the rat gave up).

 Continuous reinforcement is the repeated reinforcement of a behavior every time it

happens. This can involve positive (adding a stimulus) or negative (removing a stimulus)
reinforcement, with the goal of encouraging certain actions.

 Fixed ratio is a schedule of reinforcement. In this schedule, reinforcement is delivered

after the completion of a number of responses. The required number of responses remains
constant. The schedule is denoted as FR-#, with the number specifying the number of
responses that must be produced to attain reinforcement.
 A fixed-interval reinforcement is when the reward only happens after a certain amount of
time. For example, every 5 minutes, a reward will be given when the right action occurs;
participants do not get a reward between intervals.

 Variable ratio reinforcement, behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of

times, for example gambling or fishing Response rate is fast, extinction rate is slow (very
hard to extinguish because of unpredictability)

 Variable-interval reinforcement, the reward is given at irregular intervals. A fixed-interval

schedule, however, rewards the behavior every time. Many training programs and plans
include variable reinforcement schedules, as they work well to increase desired
behaviors.

 Punishment means you are decreasing a behavior. Reinforcement can be positive or

negative, and punishment can also be positive or negative. All reinforcers (positive or
negative) increase the likelihood of a behavioral response.

MODULE 15
 NEO BEHAVIORISM: an approach to psychology influenced by logical
positivism that emphasized the development of comprehensive theories and
frameworks of behavior, such as those of Clark L. Hull and Edward C. Tolman,
through empirical observation of behavior and the use of consciousness and
mental events as explanatory devices. It thus contrasted with
classical behaviorism, which was concerned with freeing psychology of
mentalistic concepts and explanations. According to Sigmund Koch,
neobehaviorism replaced classical behaviorism as the dominant 20th-century
program for experimental psychology around 1930; its influence began to wane
in the 1950s. See also radical behaviorism. —neobehaviorist adj., n.

 Purposive behaviorism is a branch of psychology that was introduced by Edward Tolman.

It combines the study of behavior while also considering the purpose or goal of behavior.
Tolman thought that learning developed from knowledge about the environment and how
the organism relates to its environment.

TOLMAN’S KEY CONCEPTS:

 1.) Learning is always purposive and goal- directed -Individuals act on beliefs, attitudes,
changing conditions, and they strive towards goals. Tolman saw behavior as
holistic,purposive,and cognitive.

2.) Cognitive map Learning the Location of Reward -Once an individual has learned
where a given kind of reward is located, that location can often be reached by means
other than those originally used.

3.) Cognitive Maps in Rats -From his experiment called “Cognitive Maps in Rats” where
rats are placed in different locations but the food was on the same location. While on the
other group, foods were placed in different directions. As the result, the group that had
the food in the same location performed much better. He find out that organisms will
select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.

4.) Latent Learning-Whenever learning goes on without its being evident in performance
at the time.

5.) The concept of intervening variable These are not readily seen but serve as
determinants of behavior. Learning is mediate or influenced by expectations,
perceptions, representations, needs and other internal or environmental variables.

6.) Reinforcement not essential for Learning -Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not
essential for learning, although it provides an incentive for performance.

ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY “most human behaviour is

learned observationally throughmodeling: from observing others one forms an idea of
how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves
as a guide for action” (Bandura, 1977).

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:

1.Learn by observing.
2.Learning can happen through observation entirely without a change in behaviour.
3.Cognition plays a role in learning.

MODULE 16
 Jerome Bruner's Constructivist Theory suggests that learning is an active process and that
learners construct meaning from their previous experiences.
 Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than just
passively take in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those
 experiences, they build their own representations and incorporate new information into
their pre-existing knowledge (schemas).
The Principles of Constructivism
1. Learning is an active process.
The passive view of teaching views the learner as an empty vessel to be filled
with knowledge.
2. All knowledge is socially constructed
Learning is a social activity – it is something we do together, in interaction with
each other, rather than an abstract concept.
3. All knowledge is personal
Each individual learner has a distinctive point of view, based on existing
knowledge and values.
4. Learning exists in the mind
The constructivist theory posits that knowledge can only exist within the human
mind, and that it does not have to match any real world reality.
5. Constructivist approaches to teaching
Constructivist learning theory underpins a variety of student-centered teaching
methods and techniques which contrast with traditional education, whereby
knowledge is simply passively transmitted by teachers to students.

MODULE 18
 Gestalt theory emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts. That is, the
attributes of the whole are not deducible from analysis of the parts in isolation. The word
Gestalt is used in modern German to mean the way a thing has been “placed,” or “put
together.” There is no exact equivalent in English.

GESTALT LAW
 Law of proximity
The principle of proximity states that we perceive objects which are close to one another
as a group. This is true even if the color, size, or shape of the objects differ.
 Law of similarity
The principle of similarity states that when things appear to be similar to each other, we
group them together.
 Law of closure
The principle of closure states that people will fill in blanks to perceive a complete object
whenever an external stimulus partially matches that object.
 Law of continuity
The first such principle, the principle of Continuity, states that when visual elements are
aligned with each other, our visual perception is biased to perceive them as continuous
forms rather than disconnected segments.
  Law of common region
he principle of common region says that items within a boundary are perceived as a
group and assumed to share some common characteristic or functionality.
 Law of pragnanz or the law of good figure
The law of Pragnanz says humans prefer experience and stimuli that are simple and
orderly. what's more, when we're faced with complexity, our brains will naturally
simplify what we perceive. This means that to bring order to chaos, we'll do things like
look for shapes in passing clouds.

MODULE 19
 The Quintessential of subsumption theory
The subsumption learning theory was developed in 1963 by the American psychologist
David Ausubel.
According to the concept set forth by Ausubel, the acquisition of knowledge is based on
the actual processes that occur during learning.

The 2 types of subsumption theory

1. Correlative Subsumption
The new material is an extension of the already grasped knowledge.
2. Derivative subsumption
The new material derives from the existing structure, and can be linked to other
concepts or lead to new interpretations.

The 4 key principles of Subsumption theory

 Learners should be presented with the most general concepts first, and then their analysis.
 The instructional materials should include new, as well as previously acquired
information.
 Existing cognitive structures should not be developed, but merely reorganized within the
learner’s memory.
 The role of the instructor is to bridge the gap between what’s already known and what is
about to be learned.
The 4 types of advanced organizers
 Expository Organizers that provide a description of the new knowledge
 Narrative organizers that present the new information in a story format
 Skimming organizers that flick through the information.
 Graphic organizers that include pictographs, descriptive or conceptual patters and concept
maps.
 MODULE 20
 Cooperative learning theory is the instructional use of small groups so that students work
together to maximize their own and each other's learning. Cooperative learning is based
on two theories: Structure-Process-Outcome theory and Social Interdependence theory.
Johnson and Johnson identified five variables that influence the effectiveness of
cooperation.
 Positive interdependence
Students must fully participate and put forth effort within their group, each group
member has a task/role/responsibility and therefore must believe that they are responsible
for their learning and that of their group.
 Individual and group accountability
Each student must demonstrate mastery of the content being studied, Each student is
accountable for their learning and work and their own contribution to the group.
 Face to face Interaction
Members promote each other’s success. Students explain to one another what they have
or are learning and assist one another with understanding and completion of assignments.
 Group processing
Group processing occurs when group members reflect on which member actions were
helpful and make decision about which actions to continue or change.
 Social skills
Social skills must be taught in order for successful cooperative learning to occur, skills
include effective communication, interpersonal and group skills
1. Leadership
2. Decision making
3. Trust building
4. Friendship development
5. Communication
6. Conflict management skills

MODULE 21
 Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, as articulated in the second half of the
20th century by Erik Erikson in collaboration with Joan Erikson,[1] is a comprehensive
psychoanalytic theory that identifies a series of eight stages that a healthy developing
individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood.

 Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and
influential theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst
 Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather
than psychosexual development.
 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and
1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly
dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's
caregivers.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during
early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At
this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control
over the world through directing play and other social interactions.

Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who
fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from
approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a
sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.

Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense
of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This
stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will
continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need
to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to
yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.2
Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel
insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads
to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers
the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.

Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with
other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are
enduring and secure.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or
creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of
usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the
world.

During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the
world by being active in their home and community.2 Those who fail to attain this skill
will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

tage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on
life.2 At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and
determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they
did or didn't do.

Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout
the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a
sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure
results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

At this stage, people reflect on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look
back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their
lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel
fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel they should
have.

MODULE 22
 Psychosexual Stages of Development. Freud's psychosexual theory states five stages of
human development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. These psychosexual stages
capture the main growth points of a person from infancy to adulthood and focus on
different facets of wants, needs, and desires.

 The Oral Stage

 Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
 Erogenous Zone: Mouth
 During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth,
so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating,
and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as
tasting and sucking.

 Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding
the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral
stimulation.

 The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual
would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems
with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

 The Anal Stage

 Age Range: 1 to 3 years
 Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
 During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet
training—the child has to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this control
leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

 According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents
approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the
appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and
productive.

 The Phallic Stage

 Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
 Erogenous Zone: Genitals
 Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the
genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and
females.
 Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affection. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother
and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished
by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.

 The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced
by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.

 Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of
vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis
envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.

 Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and
demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of
inferiority because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred to as womb
envy.

 The Latent Period

 Age Range: 6 to Puberty
 Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
 During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are
suppressed. Children develop social skills, values, and relationships with peers and adults
outside of the family.

 The development of the ego and superego contributes to this period of calm. The stage
begins around the time that children enter school and become more concerned with peer
relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

 The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is repressed or
dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as
intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of
social and communication skills and self-confidence.

 As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to
become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and
an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

 The Genital Stage

 Age Range: Puberty to Death
 Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
 The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage
of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the
opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's
life.

 Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of
others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the
various life areas.

 If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-
balanced, warm, and caring.

 Unlike many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and
superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by
the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants.

 Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges
against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

MODULE 23
 Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that focuses on how children develop
morality and moral reasoning. Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral development occurs
in a series of six stages and that moral logic is primarily focused on seeking and
maintaining justice.
KOHLBERG’S THEOR OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
 STAGE 1 Obedience and Punishment orientation
Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For
example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the
worse punishment for the act is the more bad the act is perceived to be.

 STAGE 2 Instrumental orientation

Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined
by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest.

 Level 2 Conventinal
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures.

 STAGE 3 Good boy, nice girl orientation

 In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being nice to others/

 STAGE 4 Law and order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and
obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed to do is seen as valuable and important.

 Level 3 Post conventional

Throughout the post conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms
of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and
should be changed or eliminated.

 STAGE 5 Social contract orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such as
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community.
 STAGE 6 Universal ethical principal orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical
principles, generally the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on
ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect.

MODULE 24-25
 Learning and Multiple Intelligences

 Learning styles can be defined, classified, and identified in many different ways.
Generally, they are overall patterns that provide direction to learning and teaching. Styles
influence how students learn, how teachers teach and how the two interact.

 KOLB’S LEARNING STYLE

 David Kolb published his learning styles in 1984 from which he developed his learning
style inventory.
 Concrete experience – a new experience or situation is encountered, or a reinterpretation
of an existing experience.
 Reflective observation of the experience – of particular importance are any
inconsistencies between experience and understanding.
 Abstract conceptualization – reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an
existing abstract concept. (the person has learned from their experience)
 Active experimentation – the learner applies their ideas to the world around them to see
what happens .
  A typical presentation of Kolb’s two continuums is that the east-west axis called the
Processing continuum (How we approach a task) and the north-south axis called the
Perception continuum (our emotional response or how we think about it.)

 Diverging (Feeling and watching- CE/RO)

These people are able to look at things from different perspective, they are sensitive, they prefer
to watch rather than do tending to gather information and use imagination to solve problems.
They are best at viewing concrete situations from several different viewpoints.
 Assimilating (watching and thinking – AC/RO)
The assimilating learning preference involves a concise, logical approach. Ideas and concepts are
more important than people. These people require good clear explanation rather than a practical
opportunity. People with assimilating learning style are less focused on people and more
interested in ideas and abstract concepts.

 Converging (doing and thinking – AC-AE)

People with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to find
solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and
interpersonal aspects.

* Accommodating (doing and feeling- CE/AE)

- The Accommodating learning styles is hands-on and relies on intuition rather than logic.
These people use other people’s analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential approach.

Multiple Intelligence theory

 Howard Gardner is a psychologist and Professor at Harvard University 's Graduate
School of Education. Based on his study of many people from many different walks of
life in everyday circumstances and professions, Gardner developed the theory of multiple
intelligences. In short, this theory states that each person has different ways of learning
and different intelligences they use in their daily lives. While some can learn very well in
a linguistically based environment (reading and writing), others are better taught through
mathematical logic-based learning.
 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
 Visual-Spatial Intelligence
 People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These
individuals are often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.

 Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence
People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence can use words well, both when
writing and speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories,
memorizing information, and reading.

 Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning,
recognizing patterns, and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think
conceptually about numbers, relationships, and patterns.

 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body
movement, performing actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area
tend to have excellent hand-eye coordination and dexterity.

 Musical Intelligence
People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms,
and sounds. They have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical
composition and performance.

 Interpersonal Intelligence
Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and
interacting with other people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions,
motivations, desires, and intentions of those around them.

 Intrapersonal Intelligence
Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their
own emotional states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and
analysis, including daydreaming, exploring relationships with others, and assessing their
personal strengths.

 Naturalistic Intelligence
Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has been met with more
resistance than his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who
are high in this type of intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interested
in nurturing, exploring the environment, and learning about other species. These
individuals are said to be highly aware of even subtle changes to their environments.
May our paths cross again traveler, good luck on your quest
to ‘College life’.