SPECIAL REPORT

N O . 4 9 2 | A pril 2 0 2 1 UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE www.usip.org

Extending Constitutional Rights

to Pakistan’s Tribal Areas
By Umar Mahmood Khan, Rana Hamza Ijaz, and Sevim Saadat

Contents
Introduction....................................3
Overview of the
Reform Process. . ........................... 5
Capacity Shortfalls
in the NMDs. . .................................. 7
Perceptions of the Former
and New Legal Systems............. 10
Constitutional Guarantees
and Case Law in the NMDs. . ...... 14
Conclusion and
Recommendations. . ..................... 18

Supporters of the FATA youth jirga celebrate the merger of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province and the
Federally Administered Tribal Areas in May 2018. (Photo by Bilawal Arbab/​EPA-EFE/​Shutterstock)

Summary
• The inability to access formal jus- wa Province has created chal- greater protection of their rights
tice has long been a driver of con- lenges in terms of the capacity of and civil liberties.
flict in Pakistan’s tribal communities. various justice sector institutions. • Women’s access to justice has in-
The merger of the former Federally • Even though informal jirgas have creased dramatically, but sizable
Administered Tribal Areas into been declared unconstitutional by investment is needed to make legal
Pakistan’s formal judicial system the Supreme Court, they remain an institutions more gender sensitive.
in 2018–19 has the potential to integral (but informal) part of the jus-
promote both justice and peace. • The population of the NMDs
tice system, providing speedy jus- needs greater information about,
• Recent research suggests that the tice that resonates with local values. awareness of, and access to the
reform process in what are now • However, case files from courts formal justice system, and access
known as the Newly Merged Dis- established in the NMDs indicate to legal aid and counsel needs to
tricts (NMDs) of Khyber Pakhtunkh- that most litigants now enjoy much be improved.

S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492
 SPECIAL REPORT
N O . 4 9 2 | A pril 2 0 2 1

ABOUT THE REPORT

This report assesses the provision of constitutional guarantees and protections
related to the formal criminal justice system in Pakistan’s former Federally
JUSTICE, Administered Tribal Areas. Commissioned by the South Asia program at the
SECURITY &
RULE OF LAW United States Institute of Peace, the report is based on an analysis of case files
from the districts of Khyber and Mohmand, supplemented by surveys of and
interviews and focus groups with litigants, lawyers, and government stakeholders.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Barrister Umar Mahmood Khan is director for law and policy at the Lahore-based
research organization Musawi. He has worked with the Justice Sector Support
Program in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa since 2017. Rana Hamza Ijaz, a public policy and
governance expert, is director of research at Musawi. Sevim Saadat is director of
programs at Musawi and also serves as clinical professor for the Human Rights
Clinic at the Centre for Human Rights at University College Lahore.

The views expressed in this report are those of the authors alone. They do not necessarily reflect the views of
the United States Institute of Peace. An online edition of this and related reports can be found on our website
(www.usip.org), together with additional information on the subject.

© 2021 by the United States Institute of Peace

United States Institute of Peace

2301 Constitution Avenue NW
Washington, DC 20037

Phone: (202) 457-1700

Fax: (202) 429-6063
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.USIP.org

Special Report No. 492. First published 2021.

ISBN: 978-1-60127-846-3

2 S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 U S I P.O RG
 Police officers stand guard outside the assembly building in Peshawar, Pakistan, during a demonstration against the constitutional amendment
bill for the merger of Federally Administered Tribal Areas with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province on May 27, 2018. (Photo by Fayaz Aziz/Reuters)

Introduction
On May 28, 2018, the parliament of Pakistan passed the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the
Constitution of Pakistan, resulting in the merger of the former Federally Administered Tribal
Areas (FATA) with the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. This merger is one of the most conse-
quential reforms in Pakistan’s constitutional history, extending constitutional rights to roughly
five million citizens. The subsequent extension of the formal judicial system to the former FATA
(now also referred to in government documents as the Newly Merged Districts, or NMDs) began
in March 2019, but the system still faces significant organizational, political, and basic infrastruc-
tural challenges.
This study, based on field research carried out in September, October, and November 2019 in
two former FATA districts—Khyber and Mohmand—explores the status of the formal justice sys-
tem’s expansion into these districts since March 2019 and highlights areas for further focused
reform. The study assesses the effectiveness of the rollout strategies, the degree of buy-in from
the local population, and the sociopolitical and resource constraints that may adversely affect
the extension of constitutional guarantees.
FATA has long suffered from armed conflicts, terrorist insurgencies, and a lack of political and
socioeconomic development, and it ranks lowest among Pakistan’s eighteen regions in terms
of human development indicators.1 This lack of development was underlined by the fact that
for over a century FATA was governed by a colonial law dating back to 1901. In recent years,

U S I P.O RG S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 3
 FORMER TRIBAL
TURKMENISTAN CHINA AREAS AND KHYBER
Gilgit- Aksai Chin
Khyber Baltistan PAKHTUNKHWA
Pakhtunkhwa PROVINCE
Azad Jammu Adapted from artwork by Rainer
Federally Administered and Kashmir Lesniewski/Shutterstock. The boundaries
Tribal Areas Islamabad shown on this map are approximate and
do not imply official endorsement or
Jammu acceptance on the part of the authors or
AFGHANISTAN Punjab
and Kashmir
the United States Institute of Peace.

INDIA
PAKISTAN FATA residents increasingly real-
ized that they did not enjoy the
Area same constitutional rights and
Balochistan enlarged
IRAN safeguards as other Pakistani cit-
izens. This awareness led in turn
Sindh
to the rise of sociopolitical move-
200 km ments demanding equal rights,
Arabian Sea 200 miles
especially with regard to justice
and equality before the law.2
Policymakers and scholars around the world have recognized that weak rule of law and lack of
access to justice can push fragile and post-conflict societies into, or back into, chaos and conflict.3
Few in Pakistan would dispute this, given the country’s own recent experience in the Malakand
region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, where the absence of an effective and efficient justice system is
a key driver of conflict, not least in tribal communities.4 In the 1990s and 2000s, delayed, costly,
inequitable, and ineffective informal and formal justice systems fueled the growth of a fundamen-
talist insurgency in the district that promised swift, effective, and free justice.5 The UN Humanitarian
Coordinator calculated that the failure of the legal system in Malakand brought armed conflict,
displaced 2.7 million people, and cost between $2 billion and $3 billion in damages.6
To examine the impact of the recent efforts to improve access to justice in the NMDs, this re-
port draws on data from the districts of Khyber and Mohmand. That data was collected using a
mixed-methods approach by Musawi, an independent civil society organization based in Lahore
that works to document, reform, and litigate on various rights-based issues at the intersection
of law and policy in Pakistan.7 The two districts were selected because of their relative ease
of access with regard to, among other factors, security concerns. The study focused only on
criminal cases, because they are directly related to some of the more pressing demands for
guarantees by the local population, including due process, right to fair trial, safeguards on arrest
and detention, right to life and liberty, and protection against torture and inhumane treatment.
The study looked at thirty criminal cases that were decided in Khyber and fifteen in Mohmand
between March and November 2019.
Additional interviews were conducted with relevant government officials, political representatives,
and office bearers of the tribal bar councils to understand the administrative and resource situation
pertaining to the criminal justice system in the NMDs. These interviews were supplemented by twen-
ty-five in-depth surveys and four focus group discussions with lawyers to gauge their assessment
of the levels of awareness and satisfaction among the litigants regarding the formal justice system.

4 S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 U S I P.O RG
Finally, fifty litigants from the selected districts were surveyed to provide insight into their interactions
with the formal justice system and their perceptions of the effectiveness of the formal justice system
as compared with the pre-merger system and the use of alternative dispute mechanisms.8
This report begins by offering an overview of the reform process. Despite the fact that the
merger had overwhelming support from major political parties, citizens of NMDs, and state
institutions, the extension of criminal justice institutions to NMDs did not go smoothly. The
federal government and the provincial government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa had planned this
extension to be a phased one, but intervention by the Peshawar High Court and the Supreme
Court of Pakistan left the government with no choice but to front-load criminal justice in-
stitutions. Against this backdrop, the next section of the report explores the readiness of
criminal justice institutions and discusses whether infrastructural and capacity shortfalls have
hindered their ability to provide and protect fundamental rights of citizens of NMDs. The next
two sections cover findings of the research. The first of these is based primarily on litigants’
perceptions of the new and the former legal systems. The second section highlights key
findings from a review of case files. In its final section, drawing on district-level observational
data, the report offers a series of recommendations designed to help policymakers make the
reform initiative more effective.

Overview of the Reform Process

In Pakistan, the Constitution of 1973 is the supreme law of the land. It is not only the fountainhead
of all laws in Pakistan but also the benchmark against which fundamental rights and protections
are measured. It lays down fundamental freedoms for all citizens and persons residing within
Pakistan. Even lawfully promulgated legislation is considered void to the extent that it contra-
venes these rights.9
Procedural law in Pakistan is governed by the Civil and Criminal Procedure Codes. The Code
of Criminal Procedure of 1898 (Cr.P.C.) grants numerous powers to Pakistani state agencies to
prevent and punish crime. These powers include, among others, the power to inquire and in-
vestigate, arrest and detain, and charge and try an accused for a criminal offense. All of these
powers are subject to the fundamental rights contained within the constitution.
FATA, however, was governed for over a century by the Frontier Crimes Regulation (FCR), a
colonial instrument that enforced a parallel and informal administrative and judicial system. The
FCR was widely criticized for supporting a draconian framework that violated universal human
rights (e.g., by allowing harsh and collective punishment) and the fundamental freedoms pro-
vided for under the constitution.10
From 1947 onward, FATA was recognized as a territory of Pakistan but distinguished from
the “settled districts,” with its special status under the FCR legitimized by article 247 of the con-
stitution. As a territory of Pakistan, FATA was subject to the executive authority of the federal
government, with the president acting as the ultimate authority. Clause 3 of article 247 allowed
for the extension of acts of parliament to FATA where authorized by the president. Through this
arrangement, numerous federal laws were extended to FATA, but none addressed the parallel
“legal” and administrative system or the failure of human right protections.

U S I P.O RG S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 5
 The call for reform eventually resulted in the Frontier
Passage of the Twenty-fifth Amendment Crimes (Amendment) Regulation of 2011. Although the
was preceded by the emergence of a amendment excluded vulnerable groups from collective
widely supported movement among responsibility, granted certain fair trial rights to the ac-
the tribal population demanding cused, and provided for oversight over executive actions,
constitutional guarantees and rights on some locals and human rights experts criticized the re-
a par with the rest of the country. forms for not adequately safeguarding rights. Moreover,
the amendment was compromised by the Actions (in Aid
of Civil Power) Regulation of 2011. This regulation authorized the armed forces of the state to
counter terrorism in FATA, which led to violations of human rights.
Passage of the Twenty-fifth Amendment was preceded by the emergence of a widely sup-
ported movement among the tribal population demanding constitutional guarantees and rights
on a par with the rest of the country. A draft bill (the Rewaj Bill) to repeal and replace the FCR
by providing a formal justice system to the people of FATA was proposed under the Pakistan
Muslim League–Nawaz government in 2016.11 However, it was withdrawn by the government
amid widespread criticism that it betrayed the spirit of reforms, as it did not allow for FATA to
be truly integrated within Pakistan. Ultimately, in May 2018, the Twenty-fifth Amendment was
passed, which resulted in the merger of the seven agencies and six frontier regions of FATA with
the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.12
The reform process in the former FATA was initially planned as a phased extension of key
government functions. Basic services such as education, health, and road infrastructure were to
be extended in the first phase, but the formal criminal justice system was going to be gradually
introduced over a period of five years. This time frame would have allowed the government to
build the infrastructure, as well as develop the human resources, required for such a transition.
To deal with the ensuing legal situation—in which the FCR would be effectively inapplicable,
but the formal justice system would not be fully established—the FATA Interim Governance
Regulation (2018) was put in place. The regulation, however, was challenged in the Peshawar
High Court by a lawyer through a writ petition and was declared to be in violation of the consti-
tution in October 2018.13 This was reiterated by the Supreme Court in a January 2019 ruling, on
the grounds that FATA had been merged into Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and there was no justifica-
tion for treating the people of the NMDs differently from those settled in other parts of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa.14 The judgment noted the challenges in rolling out court systems in the NMDs,
but directed the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa government to implement a uniform court system and
develop infrastructure within six months from the date of the judgment.
In addition, the Supreme Court judgment declared parallel justice systems across the country
illegal and in violation of the constitution. The judgment stated that jirgas and other informal
systems could function only as mechanisms of mediation, arbitration, and negotiation for civil
disputes.15 The Supreme Court’s judgment left the provincial government unprepared to deal
with the abrupt transition, which presented major challenges in terms of implementation and the
development of capacity.

6 S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 U S I P.O RG
Capacity Shortfalls in the NMDs
Article 37(d) of the constitution holds that the state has the responsibility to “ensure inexpensive
and expeditious justice.” Together with article 10-A, which provides the right to fair trial and due
process, and article 25, which has been interpreted by the courts to include equal access to
justice for all, article 37(d) places a burden on the state to ensure that requisite capacity exists
for affordable and effective access to the criminal justice system.16 Article 19-A, which pertains
to the right to have access to information, can also be considered a part of access to justice.
In the NMDs, however, significant shortfalls exist in capacity. To assess how severe they are,
one needs to look at both the tangible capacity (material resources, infrastructure, legal frame-
works, and organizational structures) and the intangible capacity (skills, knowledge, experience,
habits, and traditions of the individuals who are a part of the system) of the criminal justice sys-
tem, as well as the steps taken to fill these gaps.17

POLICING AND INVESTIGATION

Prior to the merger, policing in FATA was conducted by two paramilitary forces, the Levies and
Khasadars (also known as the “tribal police”). The government had initially planned to replace
these forces after the merger with the regular provincial police force. However, strong resist-
ance from the local population to the replacement of the Levies and Khasadars with nontribal
police officers forced the government to absorb both Levies and Khasadars into the regular
police force. The process of absorbing almost thirty thousand individuals into the police force
began in September 2019.18
The absorption of the two forces has brought its own set of challenges in terms of access to
justice. As noted in key informant interviews conducted for this study, most members of the Levies
and Khasadars are illiterate and lack even the most basic training, let alone the kind of profes-
sional training given to members of the regular police force. (The lack of training is reflected in the
fact that membership of the Khasadars was based on hereditary ties.) Moreover, it is extremely
difficult to train them all at the same time because their numerical strength is almost half the size of
the entire seventy-thousand-person police force working in the rest of the province.
The newly absorbed officers also lack understanding of the criminal procedures and require-
ments of the formal justice system. According to interviewees, most of them are unable to write
complaint reports (First Information Reports), charge a suspect under correct provisions, docu-
ment evidence, or fill out charge sheets.
The most significant shortcoming—one that could jeopardize the constitutional guarantees of
fair trial, due process, and expeditious justice—is the lack of trained investigation officers and
a dearth of investigative capacity. All of the interviews with relevant stakeholders highlighted a
distinct lack of investigation capacity among the newly absorbed officers, who have no formal
investigative training. This deficiency could have a variety of damaging consequences for any
case: delays, faulty investigations, mishandling of evidence, and so forth. In Khyber District, more
than 75 percent of the complaints registered since the introduction of the formal justice system
are still under investigation, because officers have not been trained to conduct investigations

U S I P.O RG S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 7
 efficiently and effectively. This lack of adequately trained investigation officers poses one of the
biggest threats to the realization of constitutional guarantees in the short run.
As of March 2021, the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa government had highlighted police training as a pri-
ority and was putting in place measures to build capacity of the Levies and Khasadars. However,
a considerable and sustained effort will be required for these measures to be successful.

INFRASTRUCTURE AND RESOURCES

Adequate infrastructure and material and financial resources are essential for delivering expedi-
tious and inexpensive justice to the population.19 However, rather than developing infrastructure
first and extending the substantive elements of the law later, the reform process in the former
FATA followed the opposite course. This has created several challenges with regard to ade-
quate resource allocation and infrastructural development.
Physical access to formal justice institutions. The distance to police stations and courts
remains a major impediment to access to justice for the populace. At the time that this re-
search was conducted, the courts for Khyber District were situated in the adjoining district of
Peshawar.20 In Mohmand District, the courts were similarly located in another district, Charsadda,
although they have since been moved to a location in Lower Mohmand. Further, despite Khyber
District having a population of close to a million and Mohmand nearly half a million, the two dis-
tricts each had only three police stations, one for each subdivision.21
The survey of litigants identified distance from courts and police stations as one of the major
factors constraining access to the formal justice system. More than 50 percent of the respond-
ents believed that distance to courts limited their access to justice, while 72 percent of the
respondents believed that the police stations were too far away to be accessed easily.
The interviews with the litigants revealed that distance to courts also exacts a heavy price in
terms of costs. Litigants are responsible for the travel arrangements of all the witnesses, and
so a long distance from courts and numerous adjournments imposes high transportation costs
on a litigant. According to the litigants interviewed, even in Mohmand District, where the courts
are now situated in Lower Mohmand, litigants from Upper Mohmand face travel times of four or
more hours. Coupled with the district’s poor road infrastructure, this makes the journey to the
courts a difficult one.
Infrastructure and resource constraints for the prosecution. Khyber and Mohmand Districts
each has a team of three prosecutors headed by the district public prosecutor. However, at the
time this research was conducted, nine months after the prosecution services became opera-
tional, they still had received no resource allocations. As a consequence, the district prosecu-
tion offices lacked basic infrastructure such as workstations, printers and photocopiers, access
to the internet and legal resources, and stationery. Most of the equipment they were using had
been borrowed from other government departments or the bar councils. Similarly, the prose-
cution offices had not been provided with adequate support staff, including clerks and record
keepers. Most of the support staff working with the prosecution office had been borrowed from
the police department in an effort to keep the office operational.
A natural corollary of these shortfalls is that both the prosecution and the police services
have been unable to collect and analyze even basic data on the nature of crimes committed

8 S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 U S I P.O RG
 Trucks carry goods on their way from
Pakistan to neighboring Afghanistan
through the Khyber Pass on March 21,
2017. (Photo by Muhammad Sajjad/AP)

in the region, the types of cases

currently under trial, the number
of active versus completed tri-
als, and so forth. The research-
ers helped disaggregate and
analyze this data for the pur-
poses of this study; however, re-
source constraints do not allow
this exercise to be conducted
regularly by the departments.
This data is essential if the dis-
tricts are to be able to conduct
evidence-based decision-mak-
ing to address constraints related to infrastructural and human resources, financial alloca-
tions, and training needs for law enforcement agencies.
Even before the prosecution service started to function, a backlog of cases had emerged.
The Peshawar High Court transferred 162 pending criminal cases (156 cases and six ap-
peals) under the FCR to the Khyber courts and 38 pending criminal cases (33 cases and
five appeals) to the Mohmand courts.22 Moreover, since the extension of the formal jus-
tice system, more than 160 First Information Reports have been registered in Khyber
District and more than 165 in Mohmand District. Out of this total caseload, 30 cases
(9 percent of the total) had been decided in Khyber District and 15 (7 percent) in Mohmand District,
with the remaining cases under trial or under investigation by the time the research concluded in
November 2019. Moreover, a total of 132 and 256 bail applications had been filed with the courts
in Khyber District and Mohmand District, respectively; bail had been granted in 62 cases in Khyber
District and 250 in Mohmand District.

CIVIL SOCIETY AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES

In the absence of strong state institutions, the legal system can be made more accessible by
blending community empowerment and mobilization with legal capacity building and advo-
cacy, using local institutions such as customary courts.23 A number of participatory approaches
have been adopted across the world, including creating local groups and committees to set
up hybrid courts and promote alternative dispute resolution, launching education and aware-
ness campaigns, training paralegals from the local communities, and facilitating the creation of
community-based organizations.
A number of these approaches could have been adopted in the NMDs. Bodies similar to Case
Management Committees in Uganda and Access to Justice Committees in Malawi could have
been set up, bringing together members from the local community, civil society, and the formal

U S I P.O RG S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 9
 justice system to improve coordination and awareness regarding the new system.24 Similarly,
the local jirga and hujra systems could have been used to initiate awareness campaigns regard-
ing the new system and to serve as alternative dispute resolution committees, especially given
the fact that dispute resolution councils are already operational in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and
could thus also be set up in the NMDs.25
Interviews with litigants and key stakeholders suggest that no such initiatives had been under­
taken by the government. The jirga remains the first option in case of a dispute for a significant
number of the people in NMDs. However, since the Supreme Court declared jirgas to be un-
constitutional, the government has not deliberated on ways in which they could be integrated
into the formal justice system without violating constitutional guarantees.26 Moreover, while
a number of nongovernmental organizations are working to raise awareness and build legal
capacity in the NMDs—for instance, the Timap for Justice project trained local paralegals to help
resolve disputes in local communities—they are not coordinating their efforts.27

Perceptions of the Former and

New Legal Systems
Until recently, jirgas were the only mechanism of dispute resolution and provision of justice in
the former FATA region.28 They were, moreover, a well-respected mechanism. Studies suggest
that even in other parts of the country, Pashtuns (the dominant ethnolinguistic group in the prov-
ince and in the NMDs) regard the jirga as an effective mechanism for dispute resolution due
to its perceived speediness and low cost as well as its embodiment of traditional cultural
practices.29 It is instructive, therefore, to inquire about litigants’ understanding of the new, formal
legal system in the NMDs, and how they regard this new system in comparison with the jirga
system. This section, based on the survey and focus group responses of lawyers and litigants,
provides insights on these issues.
It is important to interpret the results from these surveys with caution; cultural and behavioral
change is a slow process, especially when a group has been accustomed to using a particular
system for centuries. It is unreasonable to expect an overnight embrace of the formal justice
system in the NMDs. However, the perceptions and experiences of the litigants can serve to
guide the design of reforms that make the formal system more appealing.

UNDERSTANDING AND ACCESSING INFORMATION ABOUT THE

FORMAL LEGAL SYSTEM
Article 19-A of the constitution grants the right to all individuals to access information related to
public matters. In this regard, the government has a responsibility to provide relevant informa-
tion to raise awareness of the formal criminal justice system and how it operates.
A substantial majority (70 percent) of the respondents believed that they had a basic under-
standing of the role of the police. However, detailed discussions with the litigants revealed that
they did not see the new police as different from the old Khasadar force. A similar percentage

10 S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 U S I P.O RG
 (72 percent) said that they did not have an adequate un-
Cultural and behavioral change is a slow derstanding of the role and functioning of the prosecution
process, especially when a group has service, while 35 percent of the respondents stated that
been accustomed to using a particular they lacked an understanding of the role of the judiciary
system for centuries. It is unreasonable in the new system. Considering that the respondents are
to expect an overnight embrace of the litigants, who have had a direct exposure to the formal jus-
formal justice system in the NMDs. tice system, it would seem that many people regard the
system as alien even when they are going through it.
The litigants were also asked if they faced any problems with respect to accessing information
on laws and legal processes. Two-thirds (67 percent) noted that they had encountered problems,
which included insufficient information regarding criminal case procedures, appropriate grievance
redressal mechanisms, and access to legal aid. Although 44 percent of respondents claimed to
have knowledge about the fundamental rights enshrined in the constitution that relate to the crim-
inal justice system, only 16 percent of respondents claimed to have an in-depth understanding of
fundamental rights, while 63 percent claimed to have limited knowledge. Focus group discussions
revealed that most of the respondents derived their knowledge of rights from the recent social and
political movements in the region that have demanded constitutional guarantees.

COMPARING THE FORMAL JUSTICE SYSTEM WITH THE

JIRGA SYSTEM
Despite evidence that people were not satisfied with the jirga system, 40 percent of respondents
still felt that they would first turn to jirgas or tribal elders to settle a criminal dispute (see figure 1).
The key informant interviews and focus groups with litigants and lawyers revealed two major
reasons for this preference. In the first place, jirgas are an integral part of Pashtun and tribal culture.
Discussions with lawyers and stakeholders suggest that even in the settled districts, apart from major
cities, jirgas remain the preferred mode for dispute settlement. However, respondents differentiated
between jirgas organized by state-appointed political agents, which were seen to produce biased
rulings, and local community jirgas, which were seen to uphold principles of justice and fairness.
Figure 1 also shows litigants’ preferences regarding dispute resolution mechanisms, based
on their experiences with the two systems. More than one-third said they would opt for the jirga
system, but almost all the remainder expressed a preference for the formal justice system. The
results from the lawyers’ survey were tilted more in favor of the jirga system, with 76 percent
of the lawyers suggesting that the jirga still remains the preferred choice for dispute resolution
among the local population.
Among litigant respondents who preferred the jirga, nearly all believed that it offered speedy
justice in comparison with the formal justice system, and a large majority (12 respondents out
of 14) believed it was easier to access. The results from the lawyers’ survey also spotlight per-
ceived problems with the pace of the formal process, with more than half of the lawyers saying
that delays are among the main issues that litigants face.
Notably, none of the respondents who preferred the formal system believed that it could lead
to speedy justice, and only 37 percent believed that it was easy to access. The chief advantage
of the formal system in the eyes of these respondents was that it was less likely to be illegally

U S I P.O RG S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 11
 FIGURE 1.

Perceptions of the Former and New Legal Systems

Who would you approach first Would you prefer to use the formal or traditional
to settle a criminal dispute? (jirga) system to resolve a future dispute?

Police or Formal justice

Khasadars: 49% system: 63%

No response: 2% No response: 2%

Lawyers: 9% Traditional (jirga)

system: 35%
Jirga or community
elders: 40%

Why do you favor a particular justice system? (multiple responses allowed)

80%
Easy to access
37%
Delivers 93%
speedy justice 0%
Less likely to be 0%
illegally influenced 67%
13%
It’s fair 33%
20%
I trust it 19%
7% Traditional (jirga) system
Less corrupt 22%
Formal justice system
7%
Cost-effective 19%

Do you agree or disagree with the following statement: “I perceive

a socioeconomic bias in the formal/traditional justice system?”
Traditional (jirga) system

Strongly agree: Agree: Neutral/unsure: Disagree/Strongly disagree: No response:

35% 53% 7% 0% 5%

88% strongly agree or agree

Formal justice system

No response: Strongly agree: Agree: Neutral/unsure: Disagree: Strongly disagree:

7% 0% 30% 28% 33% 2%

35% strongly disagree or disagree

12 S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 U S I P.O RG
influenced; none of the respondents who preferred the jirga system said the same about the
traditional system. Other major reasons for preferring the formal system included its fairness and
lower levels of corruption.
A majority of respondents (81 percent in the case of the jirga system and 61 percent in the
case of the formal system) believed both systems to be cost-effective. The focus groups and
key informant interviews, however, provided anecdotal instances in which both systems proved
to be extremely costly. For example, one respondent recalled that during a jirga to settle a
land dispute that spanned multiple hearings, jirga members consumed more than Rs. 400,000
(about $2,500) worth of lamb and other food; the land being disputed was worth no more than
Rs. 250,000. But some respondents also decried the cost of the formal legal system, complain-
ing that regular adjournments by the court put an unfair financial burden on the litigants. One
respondent said he was responsible for paying the travel- and food-related expenses of all the
witnesses he had brought with him, which totaled almost Rs. 10,000 (about $63); the court had
not decided the case and had merely set a date for the next hearing, which the same witnesses
would have to attend, and for which the respondent would again incur the same expenses.
Litigants expressed their dissatisfaction with the inquiry mechanisms in both the traditional and
the formal systems. Participants in the focus groups suggested that the idea of collective respon-
sibility in the FCR and the jirga system was a major issue in terms of the fairness of the inquiry; in-
dividuals who were not responsible for an offense were put in custody so as to force the accused
into handing themselves over for the jirga hearing. Some respondents also believed that the jirga
system relied more on eyewitness accounts, despite their fallibility, rather than tangible evidence.
In the case of the formal system, respondents expressed their dissatisfaction with the
Khasadars and suggested that there had not been much change in terms of their role. Some
respondents claimed that the Khasadars still extorted victims and litigants, as was the case in
the old system. For example, one respondent recounted how his brother had been picked up
by the police, but a week later had still not been brought before a magistrate, even though the
law mandates that someone detained by the police must be presented within twenty-four hours.
Such instances fueled discontent with the inquiry mechanisms in both systems.
According to litigants, jirgas are susceptible to a strong bias related to socioeconomic class
and are likely to side with the more influential party in a dispute. As shown in figure 1, while an
overwhelming majority of respondents (88 percent) believed that a class bias exists in jirgas,
less than one-third (30 percent) believed it exists in the formal system. However, another large
majority (86 percent) of respondents felt that the formal system is too complex, and therefore, in
the view of some, only people from a certain class can benefit from it effectively, because only
they can afford to engage high-quality legal counsel and pay court- and case-related expenses.
The respondents were also asked about their perceptions regarding the fairness of trials
conducted under the two systems. While only 37 percent of respondents believed that trials
conducted by jirgas are fair, 79 percent thought that trials conducted in the courts under the
formal system are fair.
Finally, the respondents were asked about accessibility of the two systems for specific seg-
ments of society, such as women, minorities, juveniles, and the poorest segments of society.
There was near-total agreement (98 percent) that the jirga system is not accessible to women. A

U S I P.O RG S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 13
 significantly smaller, although still large (59 percent), group judged the formal system to be inac-
cessible to women. This finding was supported by discussions with practicing lawyers, who be-
lieved that the formal system’s introduction had greatly increased access to justice for women.
In the jirga system, a woman cannot lodge a complaint except through her husband or guardian;
the formal system has no such constraints.
During the interviews and focus group discussions, lawyers listed various cases pertaining to
family law that had been filed by female complainants in the NMDs, suggesting that the situation
has improved in terms of access to justice for women. In the old system, such complaints were
not entertained at all. Even though cultural barriers still persist and there is a belief that women
still have restricted access to courts, the situation is believed to have changed for the better.
Discussions with female lawyers practicing in the NMDs, as well as with female prosecutors in
the settled districts, suggest that even in the settled districts, women only gradually began to
feel comfortable in approaching the formal system. That process, however, accelerated once fe-
male judges, prosecutors, and police staff were deployed, which made the formal system more
approachable for women complainants.

Constitutional Guarantees and

Case Law in the NMDs
This section analyzes the extension of constitutionally guaranteed freedoms to the NMDs
through an examination of cases in Khyber and Mohmand Districts that were decided between
March and November 2019. A total of forty-five cases from the NMDs were reviewed—thirty from
Khyber and fifteen from Mohmand. The nature of offenses in the cases analyzed include drug
offenses, conspiracy, murder, waging war against the state, forced marriage, rape and sodomy,
and abduction. Thirty-three of these cases (twenty-five from Khyber and eight from Mohmand)
were completed after a trial, whereas the remaining twelve (five from Khyber and seven from
Mohmand) were either dropped or consigned to record and hence ended prematurely.30
Thirty-five of the forty-five NMD case files reviewed dealt with cases initially registered under
the FCR regime. This conflict of procedural frameworks can affect the constitutional guarantees
provided for under the formal justice system. While the Peshawar High Court upholds the Cr.P.C.
as the applicable law for criminal cases, it does not provide clear guidance on whether it should
be applied retroactively to FCR-registered cases.31 Previous Supreme Court rulings have upheld
the principle of applying relevant procedural law (civil and criminal) retroactively.32 This principle,
however, is qualified when the retroactive application of the procedure results in an unfair dis-
advantage for any party involved.
The key informant interviews with lawyers revealed concerns about the problems that would
result from the application of the Cr.P.C. on FCR-registered cases. The majority of lawyers in-
terviewed felt that this would lead to litigants losing trust in the criminal justice system at the
outset and that some interim measures should have been provided for pending cases. They
also shared the view that the application of the Cr.P.C. to pending cases would make it harder
for police, lawyers, and judges to effectively dispense justice.

14 S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 U S I P.O RG
FAIR TRIAL RIGHTS
The rights to fair trial and to due process are enshrined in article 10-A of the constitution. These
rights form an essential part of the criminal justice system and provide protection to the accused
against the state’s power to enforce its writ in criminal trials. There was unanimous agreement
among interviewees and survey respondents that the jirga system was highly politicized and
did not always provide just outcomes. But the question thus posed itself: were the formal courts,
through their procedures and decisions, ensuring fair and just treatment to all? To answer this,
the case files were reviewed to see what they revealed about arrest, detention, and investiga-
tion; presumption of innocence and bail; and conviction rates.
Arrest, detention, and investigation. Police officers are guided by the procedures and re-
quirements of the Cr.P.C. and Police Rules while conducting investigations. Over the years, many
of these provisions have been subjected to judicial scrutiny. As a result, most of the practices, at
least in theory, are largely compatible with fundamental freedoms.
In twenty-four of the twenty-five completed cases reviewed from Khyber District, the judgment
expressly noted that the procedure and mode for arrest and detention were not in compliance
with the Cr.P.C.33 One of the main reasons for this lack of compliance was that a majority of the
cases reviewed were registered under the FCR. Another reason is that the arresting authority
in a majority of cases was not trained to follow the Cr.P.C.34 However, despite these procedural
lapses, the judges, acknowledging the challenges faced by the Khasadar force, took a lenient
view (see the section “Conviction rates” below). The judges, it seems, understandably viewed
such leniency as a necessity to deal with these transitional cases.
In Mohmand District, the judgments did not expressly note violations of the Cr.P.C. despite a
similar pattern to arrests and detention.35 Therefore, it is difficult to assess the impact of these
procedural gaps on the outcome of cases.
Presumption of innocence and bail. Bail is a fundamental part of the criminal justice system;
the right to bail of an accused must be available in order to ensure a person’s dignity and the
right to be presumed innocent. Articles 9 and 10-A of the constitution protect the right to liberty
and presumption of innocence, respectively, and sections 496, 497, and 498 of the Cr.P.C. safe-
guard this through the right to bail. Courts are directed to make decisions on bail independently
and separate from questions of guilt or innocence.36 Denying bail on a tentative assessment of
guilt undermines the principle of presumption of innocence, because it effectively applies a
punitive sanction in response to a court’s prejudgment in the absence of an actual trial, thus
compromising the right of liberty, due process, and fair trial.
Given that most of the reviewed cases were registered under the FCR, it was natural that bail
proceedings were not observed as per the Cr.P.C. In Khyber, six of thirty cases reviewed included
a bail petition or a bail order. In one case, the court had directed a district police officer to either
register criminal charges against an accused or let him out on bail. Some 16 percent of judgments
from Khyber District and 37 percent from Mohmand District noted that the accused was on bail.
The information in the case files reviewed is incomplete, so it cannot be determined whether bail
was granted by the court after the merger or prior to the trial (i.e., under the FCR regime).

U S I P.O RG S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 15
 It is important to note that most of the case files reviewed were FCR-registered cases; hence,
there may have been reason to provide leniency in provision of bail as the accused were
brought in through an unregulated framework and were now being dealt with under the formal
justice system.
Conviction rates. The conviction rate in the twenty-five completed cases from Khyber District
was 100 percent. Ninety-six percent of the cases were registered under the FCR. In all of these
cases, the judgment noted insufficient evidence or procedural irregularities, yet convictions
were awarded. In most of the cases (68 percent), the charge was altered to a lesser offense with
a correspondingly lesser punishment. Mohmand, in contrast, had a conviction rate of “only” 50
percent in its eight completed cases. But it is pertinent to note that in three of the four cases of
conviction, the accused pled guilty. In other words, of the five contested trials, only one resulted
in a conviction; the acquittals were based on procedural irregularities and lack of evidence.
Despite the overlap in crime types, evidentiary weaknesses, and procedural irregularities, this
variation in conviction rate between the districts is significant and points to the fact that a case
can be processed differently in different districts. Although the small sample size of the data
does not permit any definitive conclusions to be drawn, the key informant interviews suggest
that the practice in Mohmand District was the prevailing one in most of the NMDs at the time the
research was conducted. According to the interviewees, some other districts were also acquit-
ting individuals as the norm because it was impossible to deal with procedural defects.
It is noteworthy that many trial court judgments from the NMDs expressly mentioned proce-
dural and fair trial violations, even though these did not always appear to have impacted the
court’s decision. The documentation of such violations within a trial court judgment may further
the development of a broader discourse on constitutional freedoms, both in the NMDs and in
Pakistan generally. Some of the cases reviewed will move to appeal in the High Courts and the
Supreme Court of Pakistan, which will allow for greater scrutiny of the procedural requirements
laid out in the trial court judgments.

EXPEDITIOUS JUSTICE
The state is constitutionally required under article 37(d) to establish and maintain institutions that
provide expeditious justice to all. In addition, the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Free Legal Aid Act (2019)
provides individuals involved in the commission of an offense or a female involved in a family
dispute the right to free legal counsel.37 The Supreme Court decision on extending the formal
justice system to the NMDs also notes the importance of protecting this right.
To discover whether the current system is able to deliver speedy justice, the case files were
examined to determine the duration of cases. It proved difficult, however, to accurately assess
the time it took to decide a case in the criminal courts of Khyber and Mohmand Districts be-
tween March and November 2019, because many of the cases were originally registered under
the FCR, and the transition to the new system may have affected the duration of cases.
Figure 2 shows the total duration per case—that is, the time between registration of a First
Information Report by the police and the court decision. In Khyber, on average it took 529 days
from complaint to decision; this was almost double the average duration of cases (295 days) in

16 S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 U S I P.O RG
FIGURE 2.

Duration of Cases in Days, from

First Information Report to Decision
Khyber District Mohmand District

107 MINIMUM 1

529 AV E R AG E 900

2,056 MAXIMUM 295

Mohmand. On the face of it, the duration of cases reviewed in both districts appears reasonable
when considering the capacity and infrastructural challenges described above.38
One of the cases from Khyber District was newly registered and was decided within fifteen
days. In the case files from Mohmand, the date of institution and date of decision for three of
the newly registered cases were within one day. However, this finding cannot be generalized
because in all of these reviewed cases the accused had pled guilty.
In addition to the duration of the case, the time period that an accused spent in detention was
reviewed in cases where the time period was ascertainable (five cases from Khyber District).
The average period of detention in these cases was 629 days. Delay and prolonged detention
both infringe the accused’s right to due process, liberty, and dignity enshrined in the consti-
tution. It is important to note that these detentions may have been lengthier than normal due
to the challenges faced by the NMDs after the merger. Moreover, all five judgments noted the
lengthy period of detention that the accused had suffered and extended leniency by awarding
the accused sentences equivalent to the period already spent in detention, thereby allowing for
them to be sent back to their homes after conviction. Information on the detention period was
not available in the remaining case files reviewed in Khyber or Mohmand; for this reason, the
patterns observed in the five cases should not be generalized.

WOMEN’S ACCESS TO JUSTICE

Only three cases from Khyber and one case from Mohmand involved women-specific issues. The
most notable was a case in Khyber in which a minor was made subject to ghag—an ancient tribal
custom in which a man openly declares his intention to marry a particular woman, obstructing her

U S I P.O RG S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 17
 marriage to anyone else. In the tribal system, there would
The hasty nature of the [FATA-Khyber have been no relief for the victim, because such cases were
Pakhtunkhwa] merger gave criminal decided under the tribal code of honor, riwaj. This case, in-
justice institutions little time to prepare, itiated after the merger, however, was dealt with under the
and since the merger, many of them have Ghag Act 2013 and the procedure was followed under the
operated almost on a war footing. Cr.P.C. The woman testified in court that she did not agree
with the custom of ghag and thus did not accept that she
must marry the man, who should be punished and restrained from interfering in her personal life.
The accused was convicted under sections 3 and 4 of the Ghag Act, and the woman was freed
from the relationship that was imposed on her by way of ghag.
The enduring influence of tribal custom, however, was seen in a domestic murder case from
Mohmand District. In that case, a husband charged with the murder of his wife avoided trial after
reaching a settlement with his wife’s family and paying diyat (compensation for loss of life).
This small sample may not be representative of the overall trend in all NMDs, but it provides
insights into the responsiveness of the criminal justice system to women. The case involving
ghag in Khyber especially is a success of the rollout of the formal justice system in NMDs that
should not be ignored. According to key informant interviews with lawyers and prosecutors,
women were not part of public discourse prior to the merger and could not bring cases under
the FCR. This situation has changed thanks to the introduction of the formal criminal justice
system in the NMDs. But the case involving diyat in Mohmand highlights that there is still a long
way to go before women can rely on the formal justice system to ensure the realization of their
constitutional rights and access to justice, and that societal norms and traditions can still play a
key role in judicial outcomes.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The FATA-Khyber Pakhtunkhwa merger is undoubtedly a step in the right direction for securing
constitutional and judicial rights for the residents of Pakistan’s former tribal areas. The people
of the NMDs had long campaigned for a more democratic judicial order, one governed by key
constitutional principles of due process and fair trial. For all its shortcomings, a formal legal
justice system is now a reality in the NMDs. But it faces many challenges, not least the need to
satisfy the people’s expectations, and to do so quickly. The citizens of the NMDs are politically
aware and active. The findings of this study highlight their awareness of fundamental rights and
their understanding of key differences between the jirga system and the formal justice system.
While the provision of an effective justice system is a priority in post-conflict societies, it is
equally important that this system is in line with constitutional rights. A human rights–based ap-
proach leads to sustainable outcomes by analyzing and addressing inequalities, discriminatory
practices, and unjust power relations, which are often at the heart of development problems.
The approach includes a direct and intentional linkage to human rights, transparency and ac-
countability, participation and consultation of those affected and beneficiaries, nondiscrimina-
tion, and the needs of vulnerable and marginalized subgroups. Therefore, in post-conflict soci-
eties, it is important to look holistically at the overall functioning of all the institutions and actors.

18 S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 U S I P.O RG
 The findings of this study are mixed insofar as they reveal some heartening trends but also
identify some problematic issues. On the positive side, the findings point to at least four steps
forward. First, most NMD citizens appear to be aware of the importance of fundamental rights,
even when most do not fully understand what these rights entail. Second, as the review of the
case files shows, the courts have identified investigative lapses and violations of provisions that
are based on due process rights. Third, the formal system gives female victims a way of directly
accessing justice, something they were denied in the jirga system. And fourth, although one of
the biggest issues confronting Pakistan’s formal justice system is a heavy case workload and a
large backlog of cases, these are not problems in most NMDs. This means that a systematic and
well-coordinated reform effort can yield even better results in the NMDs than it could in other
areas of Pakistan.
Despite these advances, significant problems remain. The hasty nature of the merger gave
criminal justice institutions little time to prepare, and since the merger, many of them have op-
erated almost on a war footing, contending with severe administrative and capacity challenges.
A variety of measures should be taken to address these challenges.
These measures fall into four categories: data collection and analysis; legal information needs;
capacity building of officials, and coordination between institutions.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The creation of courts and police facilities across the NMDs needs to be fast-tracked to make
them more accessible to the public. The study revealed that data collection and analysis pro-
cesses are still being developed by rule of law institutions within the NMDs, which is creat-
ing delays in the decision-making process. In addition, all rule of law institutions should aim to
collect necessary data, disaggregated adequately, in order to ensure that decision-making is
evidence based. Wherever possible, data must be cross-institutionally collected and analyzed
to ensure evidence-based decision-making.
Data on citizen-centric indicators, such as the citizens’ experiences and perceptions, must
be collected regularly to improve service delivery and make the legal system more responsive
to the demands and expectations of the population. Software-based solutions—like the Case
Management and Monitoring System of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Prosecution Service—should
be extended to the NMDs as soon as possible. These tools will enable the NMDs to consolidate
and analyze disaggregated data for improved efficiency and transparency in the trial process.
Given that citizens are key stakeholders in the legal system and that article 19-A gives them
a right to information, data and information should be transparent and accessible by the public.
The existing terms of free legal support provided to vulnerable groups such as women need to
be improved so that they also cover the cost of transportation for the litigants and witnesses.

LEGAL INFORMATION NEEDS

In a democratic society, the government can be held accountable by the people only if they
have the requisite knowledge. A majority of respondents did not think that they possessed ade-
quate relevant legal information. The provincial government should therefore ensure that mod-
ern, culturally and gender-sensitive information dissemination mechanisms (such as hujra) are

U S I P.O RG S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 19
 employed to provide information about fundamental rights to the citizens of the NMDs. Some
citizens still consider jirgas to be their preferred means of settling disputes but are unaware that
the Supreme Court has outlawed such jirgas. The Cr.P.C. and the Prosecution Service Act allow
informal dispute resolution in compoundable offenses (i.e., offenses in which a compromise
solution is permissible under law).39 The government should operationalize existing alternative
dispute resolution mechanisms and District Reconciliation Committees for the NMDs so those
citizens who prefer to settle their disputes out of court have the structures with which to do so.

CAPACITY BUILDING OF RULE OF LAW OFFICIALS

A significant majority of survey respondents, key informant interviewees, and focus group dis-
cussion participants identified severe capacity gaps among rule of law officials, especially those
belonging to the Khasadar force. Many of these officials are now required to investigate cases
in line with the provisions of the Police Rules and the Cr.P.C. They, in turn, require a working
knowledge of the law and various other skills. The government should therefore provide knowl-
edge-based training to Khasadar officials. This is needed especially for officials who have no
experience investigating or prosecuting cases under the Cr.P.C. and other special laws appli-
cable in settled districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The government should also provide skills
training and mentoring to Khasadars in areas including reading, writing, interviewing, collection
and retention of forensic evidence, and management of workload.

COORDINATION BETWEEN RULE OF LAW INSTITUTIONS

Most of the major legal policy decisions of the government since the merger have been chal-
lenged in the Peshawar High Court or the Supreme Court of Pakistan. A number of these chal-
lenges have been successful. Therefore, the various provincial rule of law institutions should
develop and agree upon a rule of law roadmap for NMDs at a policy level. They should then
agree on an implementation plan to encourage joint ownership of the roadmap. Existing coor-
dination mechanisms between various criminal justice institutions in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and
other provinces should also be extended to NMDs at an operational level.

● ● ●

If acted upon, these recommendations will help to address the challenges identified in this
study. To sustain the positive attitude and response of the people of the NMDs to the introduc-
tion of the formal justice system, that system must fill existing gaps, especially those that un-
dercut the efficacy of existing laws and impede its capacity to realize and protect constitutional
guarantees for citizens. The citizens of the NMDs have long awaited the provision of fundamen-
tal rights on par with the rest of the country. The extension of the formal justice system, despite
its challenges, offers them a new beginning. It also offers criminal justice institutions a chance
to dispense justice in a more efficient manner. The hasty nature of the merger meant that these
institutions were preoccupied with extending government to the citizens of NMDs. It is now time
for attention to shift, almost exclusively, to the task of extending governance to these citizens.

20 S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 U S I P.O RG
Notes
1. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), “Pakistan National Human Development Report 2017,” 5, www.undp.org
/content/dam/pakistan/docs/HDR/HDI%20Report_2017.pdf.
2. Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, “KP Reimagined: FATA’s Long-Awaited Merger with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa—An HRCP
Fact-finding Report,” September 2019, 2–3, http://hrcp-web.org/hrcpweb/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/KP-fact-finding-report
-FINALTITLE.pdf.
3. UNDP, Strengthening Rule of Law in Crisis-Affected and Fragile Situations (New York: UNDP, 2011).
4. Zahid Anwar and Waqar Ahmad, “Augmenting the Conflict in Swat: Loopholes in Legal Governance,” Journal of Political Studies
24, no. 2 (2017): 417–32.
5. On the effects of the justice system on the growth of the fundamentalist insurgency in Malakand and the Swat Valley, see Anwar
and Ahmad, “Augmenting the Conflict in Swat”; Christian Dennys and Marjana, “The Jirga: Justice and Conflict Transformation,”
Community Appraisal and Motivation Programme (CAMP) and Saferworld, September 2012, www.saferworld.org.uk/resources
/news-and-analysis/post/532-the-jirga-justice-and-conflict-transformation; Rabia Zafar, “Development and the Battle for
Swat,” Fletcher School Online Journal for Issues Related to Southwest Asia and Islamic Civilization (2011); Justine Fleishner,
“Governance and Militancy in Swat Valley,” Center for Strategic and International Studies (2011); and Sultan-i-Rome, “Crisis and
Reconciliation in Swat,” Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies 3, no. 1 (2010): 53–79.
6. UNDP, “Assessing Rule of Law, Peace, and Security in Malakand, NWFP,” 2011.
7. For more information about Musawi, see www.musawi.org/#intro.
8. Most respondents, 62.8 percent, were from Khyber District, while 37.2 percent came from Mohmand District. Almost 58 percent
of the respondents had undergone some level of formal education, with 23 percent having attained an intermediate or higher
level of education. Most respondents belonged to poor households; 55.8 percent reported monthly household incomes of
Rs. 15,000 or less, and 23.3 percent had incomes between Rs. 15,000 and 25,000.
9. Article 8 states that “any law, or any custom or usage having the force of law, in so far as it is inconsistent with the rights con-
ferred by this Chapter, shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void.” The full text of the 1973 constitution is at
www.pakistanconstitutionlaw.com.
10. Among the articles that the FCR violated were articles 9, 10, 10-A, and 25 of the 1973 constitution.
11. Altaf Ullah and Syed Umar Hayat, “The Merger of Fata with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: An Historical Analysis,” Journal of Political
Studies 25, no. 2 (2018): 39–53.
12. See, for example, reports in the Islamabad newspapers: The News, “The Fata Merger,” May 25, 2018, www.thenews.com
.pk/print/321007-the-fata-merger; and Zulfiqar Ali, “KP Approves Bill for Fata’s Merger with Province, Dawn, May 28, 2018,
www.dawn.com/news/1410449. For the full text of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, see www.senate.gov.pk/uploads
/documents/1528343985_133.pdf.
13. Suo Moto No. 01-P (2019), Peshawar High Court.
14. Civil Petition No. 773-P (2018), Supreme Court of Pakistan (January 16, 2019).
15. Dawn, “SC Holds Jirgas Violative of Pakistan’s World Commitments,” January 17, 2019, www.dawn.com/news/1458038.
16. On the court’s interpretation of article 25, see Constitutional Petition No. 24 (2012), Supreme Court of Pakistan
(January 16, 2019).
17. See United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and United States Institute of Peace (USIP), Criminal Justice
Reform in Post-conflict States: A Guide for Practitioners (New York: UNODC, 2011), 39, www.usip.org/sites/default/files
/ROL/11-83015_Ebook.pdf; and Réal Lavergne and John Saxby, Capacity Development: Vision and Implications, Capacity
Development Occasional Series No. 3, Canadian International Development Agency, January 2001, www.researchgate.net
/publication/242480268_Capacity_Development_Vision_and_implications.
18. Associated Press of Pakistan, “KP Merges Khasadar, Levies into Police,” The Nation, September 18, 2019, https://nation.com
.pk/18-Sep-2019/kp-merges-khasadar-levies-into-police.
19. UNODC and USIP, Criminal Justice Reform in Post-conflict States, 37–38.
20. As of March 2021, the courts for Khyber District were still located in Peshawar.
21. At the time of writing, three more police stations have been added in Khyber District.
22. Akhtar Amin, “4,112 Cases, Appeals Transferred to Regular Courts in Merged Districts,” News International, March 25, 2019,
www.thenews.com.pk/print/448293-4-112-cases-appeals-transferred-to-regular-courts-in-merged-districts-main.

U S I P.O RG S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 21
23. See, for example, Stephen Golub, “What Is Legal Empowerment? An Introduction,” in Legal Empowerment: Practitioners’
Perspectives, ed. Stephen Golub (Rome: International Development Law Organisation, 2010).
24. UNODC and USIP, Criminal Justice Reform in Post-conflict States, 49.
25. Hujra refers to the culture of community members sitting together and sharing information.
26. On the constitutionality of jirgas, see Civil Petition No. 773-P (2018), Supreme Court of Pakistan (January 16, 2019).
27. See Open Society Justice Initiative, “Innovative Efforts, Proven Results: How Timap for Justice Provides Legal Aid in Sierra Leone,”
March 2015, www.justiceinitiative.org/publications/innovative-efforts-proven-results-how-timap-justice-provides-legal-aid-sierra-leone.
28. For an in-depth assessment of the jirga system, see Tilmann J. Röder and Naveed A. Shinwari, “Pakistan: Jirgas Dispensing
Justice without State Control,” in Non-State Justice Institutions and the Law: Decision-Making at the Interface of Tradition,
Religion, and State, ed. Matthia, Kötter et al. (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2015), 25–49.
29. Naveed A. Shinwari and Neha Ali Gauhar, Understanding Justice Systems of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, FATA, and Balochistan:
The Pakhtun Perspective (Islamabad: CAMP, 2013).
30. Cases can be consigned for a variety of reasons. The most common reason is the absence of the accused (who may have
absconded) or the unwillingness of the complainant to pursue a case.
31. Suo Moto No. 01-P (2019), Peshawar High Court.
32. Air League Piac Employee v Federation of Pakistan, Supreme Court of Pakistan (2009); and Sui Southern Gas Company v
Federation of Pakistan, Supreme Court of Pakistan (2018).
33. Among other provisions that were not complied with were sections 60 and 61 of the Cr.P.C., which require an arresting authority
to present an accused before a magistrate within twenty-four hours of arrest.
34. In 53 percent of cases, the arrests were made by the Khasadar force, and in 30 percent of cases by the armed forces.
The remaining cases (17 percent) did not identify the arresting authority.
35. In five of eight cases, arrests were made by the Khasadar force. In the remaining three, arrests were made by the armed forces.
36. Sarwar and Iftikhar Ahmed vs The State and Others (para. 8), Supreme Court of Pakistan (2014).
37. The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Legal Aid Act, 2019, www.pakp.gov.pk/acts/the-khyber-pakhtunkhwa-legal-aid-act2019.
38. The average duration of criminal cases in Punjab provides a point of comparison to assess the reasonableness of the dura-
tion of the cases completed in the NMDs. In Punjab, the average duration for cases was 608 days for cases in the category
of “crimes against Person”; 548 days for cases in the category “crimes against property”; and 304 days for cases in the cate-
gory “local and special laws.” For a breakdown of this data, see Osama Siddique, Caseflow Management in Courts in Punjab:
Frameworks, Practices, and Reform Measures (Lahore: EU Punjab Access to Justice Project, 2016), 16.
39. 2nd Schedule of Cr.P.C. (1898).

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ABOUT THE INSTITUTE

The United States Institute of Peace is a national,

nonpartisan, independent institute, founded by Congress
and dedicated to the proposition that a world without
violent conflict is possible, practical, and essential for US
and global security. In conflict zones abroad, the Institute
works with local partners to prevent, mitigate, and resolve
violent conflict. To reduce future crises and the need
for costly interventions, USIP works with governments
and civil societies to help their countries solve their own
problems peacefully. The Institute provides expertise,
training, analysis, and support to those who are working
to build a more peaceful, inclusive world.

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Stephen J. Hadley (Chair), Principal, Rice, Hadley, Gates & Manuel LLC, Washington, DC •
George E. Moose (Vice Chair), Adjunct Professor of Practice, The George Washington
University, Washington, DC • Judy Ansley, Former Assistant to the President and Deputy
National Security Advisor under George W. Bush, Washington, DC • Eric Edelman, Roger
Hertog Practitioner in Residence, Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International
Studies, Washington, DC • Joseph Eldridge, Distinguished Practitioner, School of International
Service, American University, Washington, DC • Kerry Kennedy, President, Robert F. Kennedy
Human Rights, Washington, DC • Ikram U. Khan, President, Quality Care Consultants, LLC,
Las Vegas, NV • Stephen D. Krasner, Graham H. Stuart Professor of International Relations,
Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA • John A. Lancaster, Former Executive Director, National
Council on Independent Living, Potsdam, NY • Jeremy A. Rabkin, Professor of Law, Antonin
Scalia Law School, George Mason University, Arlington, VA • J. Robinson West, Former
Chairman, PFC Energy, Washington, DC • Nancy Zirkin, Executive Vice President, Leadership
Conference on Civil and Human Rights, Washington, DC

Members Ex Officio
Antony J. Blinken, Secretary of State • Lloyd J. Austin III, Secretary of Defense • Michael T. Plehn,
Lieutenant General, US Air Force; President, National Defense University • Lise Grande, President
and CEO, United States Institute of Peace (nonvoting)

U S I P.O RG S P E C I A L R E P O RT 492 23
 THE UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE PRESS

Since its inception in 1991, the United States Institute of Peace Press has published
hundreds of influential books, reports, and briefs on the prevention, management, and
peaceful resolution of international conflicts. All our books and reports arise from research
and fieldwork sponsored by the Institute’s many programs, and the Press is committed to
expanding the reach of the Institute’s work by continuing to publish significant and sustainable
publications for practitioners, scholars, diplomats, and students. Each work undergoes
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are balanced, relevant, and sound.

OTHER USIP PUBLICATIONS

• “No Going Backward”: Afghanistan’s Post–Peace Accord Security Sector by Annie

Pforzheimer, Andrew Hyde, and Jason Criss Howk (Peaceworks, March 2021)
• Mobilization, Negotiation, and Transition in Burkina Faso by Eloïse Bertrand (Special
Report, March 2021)
• North Korea in Africa: Historical Solidarity, China’s Role, and Sanctions Evasion by
Benjamin R. Young (Special Report, February 2021)
• Addressing Fragility in a Global Pandemic: Elements of a Successful US Strategy
edited by Corinne Graff (Peaceworks, December 2020)
• Looking for Trouble: Sources of Violent Conflict in Central Asia by Gavin Helf
(Special Report, November 2020)

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