Physics Manual 23-24

Sri Raghavendra Educational Institutions Society(R)
Sri Krishna Institute of Technology

(Accredited by NAAC Approved by A.I.C.T.E. New Delhi, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka Affiliated to V.T U., Belagavi)
#29, Chimney Hills, Hesaraghatta Main Road, Chikkabanavara Post, Bangalore- 560090
LABORATORY MANUAL
Applied Physics
For All Streams (CSE, CV, EEE, ME)
Name of the Student:
USN:
Branch/Semester:
Academic Year:

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
1. Students should get this manual before the first lab - instruction session.
2. Students should bring the lab manual, record and writing materials along
with thescientific calculator for each lab session.
3. Before coming to the lab, students should thoroughly prepare for the
experimentsby reading the procedure.
4. Attendance will be a part of the internal assessment marks.
5. Each day the student should get the experimental readings and calculations
checked by the concerned batch teachers and enter the same in the
tabular column and get it evaluated. After the completion of experiment
along with evaluation the student must write the Record & get it evaluated
in the coming labs.
6. Laboratory test will be conducted at the end of the semester and is compulsory.
7. Strict discipline should be maintained inside the laboratory.
8. Don‘t throw any waste paper, pencil and eraser dust on the table.
*******************

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
(any 10 has to be performed)
SL. Remarks
NO. Experiments
1 Determination of wavelength of LASER using
Diffraction Grating
2 Determination of acceptance angle and numerical
aperture of the given Optical Fiber
3 Determination of Magnetic Flux Density at any point
along the axis of a circular coil.
4 Determination of Young’s modulus of the material ofthe given bar
by uniform bending.
5 Determination of Young’s modulus of the material ofthe given bar
by Single cantilever.
6 Determination of dielectric constant of the material of
capacitor by Charging and Discharging method.
7 Study the Characteristics of a Photo-Diode and to
determine the power responsivity / Verification of Inverse
Square Law of Intensity of Light.
8 Study the frequency response of Series & Parallel LCRcircuits.
9 Determination of Planck’s Constant using LEDs.
10 Determination of Fermi Energy of Copper
11 Identification of circuit elements in a Black Box and
determination of values of the components.
12 Determination of the rigidity modulus of the material of the wire
using Torsional pendulum.
13 Determination of the effective spring constant of thegiven
springs in series and parallel cominations.
14 Determination of Radius of curvature of the given plano
convex lens by using Newton’s rings.
15 Study the I-V Characteristics of the given Bipolar junction transistor.
16 Step Interactive Physical Simulations.
17 Study of motion using spread Sheets
18 Study of Application of Statistics using spread sheets
19 PHET Interactive Simulations
Applied Physics I / II Sem
Experiment No. 01
DIFFRACTION
(MEASUREMENT OF WAVELENGTH OF LASER SOURCE USING A DIFFRACTION GRATING)
AIM: To study the diffraction of laser light and hence to determine its wavelength.
APPARATUS: Diode laser source, grating with holder, scale, screen and thread.
PRINCIPLE: Diffraction of light occurs when the width of the obstacle is comparable to the
wavelength of the source. The light from the laser source is allowed to fall normally on the grating,
by measuring the distance between the diffracted spots, the wavelength of laser light is determined.
FORMULA:
λ = d sin θm (m)
where λ = wavelength of laser light measured in m

d=grating constant measured in m
Example: For 500 number of lines per mm of a grating‗d‘ can be calculated as below
1x103
d= m
500
x
sin𝜃𝑚=
R2  x2
where m = difference between the order of spots

𝜃𝑚= angle of diffraction for mth order spot
𝑥𝑚= distance between Zeroth order spot and mth order spot measured in m
R = distance between screen and grating measured in m
Diagram:
PROCEDURE:
Department of Physics Page 1

1. Place the laser source on the holder and mount on the heavy base.
2. Place the grating in its holder and the screen is placed at a distance of 3 to 4 meter.
3. The grating is kept between the laser source and the screen.
4. The laser beam after passing through the grating undergoes diffraction. The diffraction
spots are observed on the screen.
5. The distances 2xm between the symmetrical spots on either side of 0th order are measured
and recorded.
6. The angle of diffraction θmand the LASER wavelength λ are calculated.
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl Distance b/w grating Distance b/w central to

No & scale (R) cm spot to first order spot x Sin θ
x1(cm) x2(cm) (cm )
1 10
2 15
3 20
Mean(Sin θ)
RESULT:- The wavelength (λ) of the given Laser light source is… .................................. m.
Viva Questions
1) What is diffraction of light?
The phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of small obstacles and hence its
encroachment into the region of geometrical shadow is called diffraction.
2) Who discovered diffraction of light?

Prof Grimaldi discovered diffraction of light in 1665.
3) When does diffraction takes place?

Diffraction takes place when light falls on opaque objects.
4) Mention the nature of light which explains the phenomenon of diffraction of light?
Wave nature of light explains the phenomenon of diffraction of light.
5) Name the theory of light which explains diffraction.

Huygens wave theory of light explains diffraction.
6) What is a grating?

A grating is a device consists of a large number of parallel slits of the same width separated by
equal opaque spaces. It is used in the field of spectroscopy.
7) How is grating made?

A grating is made by ruling equidistant fine and parallel lines on an optically flat glass plate by
using a diamond point.
8) Who constructed the grating for the first time?

Joseph Fraunhofer was the first to construct a grating.
9) What is grating element?

Grating element or grating constant is the sum of the width of an interspaces and the width of a line.
10) The word LASER stands for what?

It is light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
11) What is basic principle of Laser?

Radiation interacts with matter under appropriate conditions. The interaction leads to an abrupt
transition of the quantum system such as an atom or a molecule from one energy state to another. If
the transition is from higher state to lower state, the system gives out a part of its energy and if the
transition is in the reverse direction, then it absorbs the incident energy.
12) What is induced absorption?

In induced absorption incident photon is absorbed as a result the system is elevated from a lower
energy state to a higher energy state.
13) What is spontaneous emission?

Spontaneous emission is the emission of a photon, when a system transits from a higher energy
state to lower energy state without the aid of any external agency.
14) What is stimulated emission?

It is the emission of a photon by a system, under the influence of passing photon of just the right
energy due to which the system transits from higher energy states to a lower energy state. The
photon thus emitted is called a stimulated photon and will have same phase, energy and direction of
movement as that of the passing photon called the stimulated photon.
15) What is LASER?

It is a process by which a coherent, highly monochromatic and perfectly parallel beam is obtained.
16) What is population inversion?

It is an assembly of atoms in a system in which majority of the atoms are in the excited state. i.e.,
there exists more number of atoms in the excited state than in the ground state.
17) What is meant by optical pumping?

It is the process of rising atoms from the ground state to an excited sate by stimulatedabsorption.

Experiment No. 02
OPTICAL FIBER
AIM: To determine the acceptance angle and numerical aperture of the given optical fiber.
APPARATUS: Laser source, optical fiber cable (OFC), screen and scale.
PRINCIPLE: The sine of the acceptance angle of an optical fiber is known as the Numerical
Aperture of the given fiber. The acceptance angle can also be measured as the angle spread by the
light signal at the emerging end of the fiber. Therefore by measuring diameter of the light spot on a
screen and by knowing the distance from the fiber end to the screen, we can measure the acceptance
angle and there by the numerical aperture of the fiber.
𝑫
FORMULA: 1) θ= tan-1 ( )
𝟐𝑳
Where, θ – is acceptance angle

D – is the diameter of the bright circle found on the screen
L - is the distance between the screen OFC end.
2. Numerical aperture (NA) = sin 𝜃

PROCEDURE:
1. The optical cable is connected to the laser source and it is ensured that the laser light
comes out of the other end of the cable.
2. The other end of the cable is joined to chuck fixed on the x-y bed.
3. The chuck carrying the OFC is brought close to the graduated screen and laser spot
is seen on the graduated screen as shown in fig.
4. By adjusting the fine motion screw of the microscopic bench, the spot size is
reduced to 4 mm.
5. The distance(L) between the fixed screen and chuck carrying the OFC is noted on the
Graduated scale fixed along the x- axis.
6. Repeat the above steps for different value of L (for 6 mm, 8 mm, -----) and record
in the tabular column.
7. Find the numerical aperture and acceptance angle from tabular column and formula.
FIGURE:

TABULAR COLUMN
Sl. No. Diameter(D) (mm) L (mm) θ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
1 8
2 10
3 12
4 16
RESULT: 1. Numerical aperture of the given OFC = --------------------
2. Acceptance angle of the given OFC = -----------------------
Viva Questions
1) What is an optical fiber?
An optical fiber is cylindrical in shape, which has two parts the inner part is called core
and the outer part is called cladding.
2. What type of materials are used for core and cladding

Plastics and glass materials are used for core and cladding.
3. On what physical principle,does the optical fiber work?

The physical principle is Total internal reflection of light,
4. What is Total internal reflection of light?

When a ray of light travelling from denser medium(1) to rarer medium(2), the incident ray
make an angle greater than the critical angle and the corresponding refracted rays
completely (totally) reflected back to the same medium(1), this phenomenon is called
total internal reflection(TIR).
5. What is critical angle?

Critical angle is defined as angle of incidence in denser medium (θi), for which the angle
of refraction is (θr) = 900.

6. Define photonics.
Photonics (Fiber optics communication technology) is the enabling technology for optical
fiber communication to improve its performance and to reduce its cost.
7. Define Snell‘s law.

Snell‘s law is defined as ―The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the
angle of refraction is a constant, for the light of a given colour and for the given pair of
media”. Snell‘s law formula is expressed as: µ = sin 𝜃𝑖
sin𝜃𝑟
or
when ray of light incident on the interface of two media, the sine of the angle of incidence times
the index of refraction of the first medium is equal to the sine of the angle of refraction times the
index of refraction of the second medium. ie n1sin 𝜃𝑖 = n2sin 𝜃𝑟
8. Define numerical aperture and give it‘s equation?

The numerical aperture represents the light-gathering capability of the optical fiber.
It is given by N A = sin 𝜃0 = √𝑛2 − 𝑛2
1 2
9. What is wave guide acceptance angle?

We know that N A = sin 𝜃0 , where θ0 is called the wave guide acceptance angle
10. Define Fractional index change( ).

The fractional index change is the ratio of the refractive index difference between the
Core and cladding to the refractive index of core of an optical fiber.∆ = (𝑛1−𝑛2)
𝑛1
11. Write the relation between NA and fractional index change .

NA = n1√2∆
12. What is v-number?

The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a parameter
√𝑛2−𝑛 2
𝜋𝑑 × 1 2
called V-number, i.e. V =
𝜆 𝑛0
13. Which are the types of optical fibers?

The optical fibers are classified under 3 categories namely.
a) Step –index single mode optical fiber
b) Step –index multimode optical fiber
c) Graded –index multimode optical fiber
14. What is attenuation?

Attenuation is the loss of power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates through
the fiber. It is also called the fiber loss.
15. Which are the causes of attenuation?

There are three mechanisms through which attenuation takes place are
1) Absorption 2) Scattering and 3) radiation losses.

16. Mention the application of optical fiber.

Optical fibers are used in point to point communication system.

Experiment No. 03
SPRING CONSTANT
AIM: To determine the spring constant of the given springs in series and parallel combination.
APPARATUS: Given springs, slotted weight, wooden scale, rigid stand and digital physical
balance.
FORMULA:
1. Spring constant(K1) is calculated for the given spring-1 using the formula
K1 = 𝐹
= ----------- N/m
𝑥1
2. Spring constant(K2) is calculated for the given spring-2 using the formula
K2 = 𝐹
= ----------- N/m
𝑥2
where F is the force in ------- N/m2& F = mg
M = mass in --------- kg
G = 9.8 m/S2
x1& x2 - mean displacement for the spring-1 and spring-2 respectively.
3. Series spring constant(KS) can be calculated using the formula.

KS = 𝐹𝑠 --------------------- N/m
𝑥𝑠
Where x s– is the mean displacement for 50gm in series combination = ------- m

Fs – is the force = -----------N/m2
4. Parallel spring constant(Kp) can be calculated using the formula.

𝐹𝑝 -----------------------
KP = N/m
𝑥𝑝
where xP – is the mean displacement for 50gm in parallel combination =------- m
FP – is the force = ---------- N/m2
5. Theoretically KS & KP can be calculated by using below formula.
` KS = 𝐾1𝐾2 =----------- N/m

𝐾1+𝐾 2
KP = K1 + K2 = --------- N/m
PROCEDURE: The experiment is divided in four parts as follows

A) Determination of spring constant (K1 )using spring-1
B) Determination of spring constant (K2 )using spring-2
C) Determination of spring constant (KS )using spring-1 & spring-2
D) Determination of spring constant (KP )using spring-1 & spring-2

PART – A:
1. Spring-1 is hooked to the rigid stand with initial dead load (w = 100gm or 150gm).
Note down the position ‗a‘ of the pointer on the scale in cm.
2. Add some more load into the weight hanger(say 50gm) and note down the weight edge
reading as ‗b‘ in cm and write it in table-1
3. Repeat the trial until the total mass 200gm in steps of 50gm each time. The
corresponding
displacement ‗b‘ is noted in table-1.
4. Find out average spring constant K1 from the formula -1
PART – B:
1. Now the spring-1 is removed and spring-2 is hooked to stand.
2. Experiment is repeated by using part – A procedure. And the corresponding
displacement are tabulated in the table-2
3. The spring constant K2 is determined by using the formula-2
PART – C:
1. Spring-1 and spring-2 are connected in series and hooked to the rigid support as shown in
fig.
2. Add 50gm or 100gm (w) dead load(initial load) to the series combination and the
corresponding displacement ‗a‘ is note down in cm.
3. Add 50gm more load into the weight hanger and note down the weight edge reading
‗b‘ in cm and write it in table-3
4. Trial is continued by increasing the mass in steps of 50gm up to 200gm, and the
corresponding displacements (b) are noted in table-3
5. The series spring constant(KS) can be calculated by using the formula-3
PART – D:
1. The masses are removed from the spring and two springs are now connected in parallel
As shown in figure.
2. Experiment is repeated by using part-C procedure. And the corresponding readings
Are tabulated in table-4
3. The parallel spring constant(KP) can be calculated by using the formula-4.
Finally with the help of spring constants K1 &K2 ,theoretically KS & KP can be calculatedby
using the formulae - 5
FIGURE:

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

To find K1 (table-1)
Pointer reading with initial load (w = 150 gm) = ------------cm.
Sl. No. Load Pointer Spring stretch Force( F) = mg Spring constant
in gm reading ‘b’ in x = (b-a) In cm In N K1 = 𝑭 in N/m
cm 𝒙𝟏
1 W+50
2 W+100
3 W+150
4 W+200
To find K2 (table-2)
Pointer reading with initial load(w = 150gm) = ------------ cm.
Sl. No. Load Pointer Spring stretch Force( F) = mg Spring constant
in gm reading ‘b’ in x = (b-a) In cm In N K2 = 𝑭 in N/m
cm 𝒙𝟐
1 W+50
2 W+100
3 W+150
4 W+200
To find series spring constant - KS (table-3)

Sl. No. Load Pointer Spring stretch Force( FS) = mg Spring constant
in gm reading ‘b’ in Xs = (b-a) In In N KS = 𝐹𝑠 in N/m
cm cm 𝑥𝑠
1 W+50
2 W+100
3 W+150
4 W+200
To find parallel spring constant - KP (table-4)

Sl. No. Load Pointer Spring stretch Force( FP) = mg Spring constant
𝐹𝑝
in gm reading ‘b’ in XP = (b-a) In In N K = in N/m
P
cm cm 𝑥𝑝
1 W+50
2 W+100
3 W+150
4 W+200
RESULT: The spring constant for the spring-1 and spring-2 are found to be
K1 = N/m
K2 =------------ N/m
The spring constant for series and parallel combinations are as follows.

Combination Theoretical Experimental

Series KS =------------ N/m KS =------------ N/m
Parallel KP =------------ N/m KP =------------ N/m
Viva Questions
1. Define force constant or spring constant.
The force constants is defined as,it is the magnitude of the applied force that produces unit
extension(or compression) in the spring while it is loaded within the elastic limit.
2. If K1& K2 are two spring constant, then what is the equivalent force constant in series
Combination.
𝐾1𝐾2
K = = ----------- N/m
𝐾1+𝐾2
3. If K1 & K2 are two spring constant, then what is the equivalent force constant in parallel
Combination.
KP = K1 + K2 = ---------- N/m
4. what is the physical significance of force constant ?

physical significance of force constant is a measure of stiffness.
5. Is spring constant value same for all springs?
No, spring constant value is different for different springs.
6. Define Hooke‘s law in spring –mass system.
According to Hooke‘s law, the restoring force developed ina spring – mass systen is
proportional
To the displacement of the mass from mean position and is always directed towards the
mean position. ie F 𝖺 -X or F = -KX

Experiment No. 4
SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE
CIRCUIT (LCR)
AIM: To study the frequency response characteristics of a series and parallel resonant circuits
and hence to
1. Determine the resonant frequency.
2. Determine the bandwidth and
3. Determine the quality factor.
APPARATUS: Audio frequency oscillator, inductance coil, capacitors, resistors, milliammeter, etc.,
FORMULA:
1) The resonance frequency of the circuit is given by
1
fr  Hz.
2π LC
Where L= Value of Inductance = 0.2 Henry.
C=Value of the capacitance = 0.01μF.
2) Bandwidth,
f  (f 2  f1 ) Hz.
Where f2=Upper cut off frequency, Hz.
f1=Lower cut off frequency, Hz.
3) The quality factor of the circuit is given by

f
Q  r  fr
f f 2  f1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
SERIES RESONANCE PARALLEL RESONANCE

mA mA
L L
Audio frequency C Audio frequency

Oscillator Oscillator C
R
Fig (a) Fig (b)

PROCEDURE:
SERIES RESONANCE CIRCUIT
The electrical connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram, Fig (a). Set the
amplitude knob to maximum position. The frequency of the oscillator is varied from 1 KHz to 7
KHz in steps of 500 Hz and each time the corresponding milliammeter readings are tabulated. Plot a
graph by taking frequency (f in Hz) along the X-axis and current (I in mA) along the Y-axis as
shown below. The frequency corresponding to
the maximum value of current (Imax), which is Imax
called the resonance frequency fr is noted from
the graph. The maximum value of current (I max)
of a resonance curve for a particular value of C Imax
and R is noted. A straight line parallel to X-axis 2
corresponding to the value of Imax/2 is drawn Current
such that the line cuts the curve at two points in mA
on either side of the resonance frequency. The
frequencies f1 and f2 corresponding to these
points are noted down. f1 fr f2
Frequency in KHz
PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT

The electrical connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram, Fig (b). Readings are
tabulated and graph is plotted as described in
the case of series resonance circuit. In this
case the resonance occurs when current is Current
minimum. Hence the frequency corresponding in mA
to Imin gives the resonance frequency fr of the
circuit. A straight line parallel to X-axis
corresponding to the value of Imin is drawn
such that the line cuts the curve at two points Imin2
on either side of the resonance frequency
Imin
which gives the upper cut-off frequency (f2)
and lower cut-off frequency (f1).
f1 fr f2
Frequency in KHz
IN BOTH THE CASES

1) From the known value of capacitance (C) and Inductance (L) ,the value of the Resonant
frequency can be calculated using the relation
fr  KHz
2π LC
2) The bandwidth and quality factor of the given circuit is calculated as shown below
bandwidth,
f  (f 2  f1 ) KHz.
fr
Quality factor, Q  .
f

OBSERVATIONS:
SERIES RESONANCE PARALLEL RESONANCE
R = 1K C = 0.01F L = L2= 0.2H R = 1K C = 0.01F L = L2 = 0.2H

Frequency Current ‗I‘ Frequency Current ‗I‘
(kHz) (mA) (kHz) (mA)
1.0 1.0
1.5 1.5
2.0 2.0
2.5 2.5
3.0 3.0
3.5 3.5
4.0 4.0
4.5 4.5
5.0 5.0
5.5 5.5
6.0 6.0
6.5 6.5
7.0 7.0
RESULT:
SERIES RESONANCE
1. The value of the Resonant frequency from the Graph = kHz.
2. The value of the Resonant frequency from the formula = kHz
3. Bandwidth = kHz.
4. Quality factor = .
PARALLEL RESONANCE
1. The value of the Resonant frequency from the Graph = kHz.
2. The value of the Resonant frequency from the formula = kHz
3. Bandwidth = kHz.

4. Quality factor = .
Viva Questions
1. What is a resistor?
Any material that offers opposition to the flow of electric current is called a ‗Resistor‘.
2. What is an inductor?
An inductor is a passive electrical component used to store energy in the form of a magnetic
field.
3. What is a capacitor?
A capacitor is a passive component used to store energy in the form of an electric field i.e., a
capacitor is a device for storing electric charge. It consists of two parallel metal plates separated
by a small distance, the intervening medium between the two plates is filled with dielectric
medium.
4. What is resistance (R)?
The opposition offered to the flow of DC by an element in a circuit is called resistance.
5. What is impedance?
The total opposition offered by the circuit elements to the flow of AC in a circuit is called
impedance. It is denoted by a letter ‗Z‘. The unit of impedance is ohm and it is always positive.
6. What is reactance ‗X‘?
The combined opposition of inductor and capacitor to the flow of AC through a circuit is called
reactance ‗X‘. Reactance depends upon frequency. It is of two types
1) Positive reactance or Inductive reactance (X L = 2πfL). 
2) Negative reactance or capacitive reactance X  1  .
 C 
2πfC 
7. What is the difference between pure resistor and pure reactive element?
In case of pure resistor, current is always in phase with the voltage. For a pure reactive element
(inductor or capacitor) there exists a phase difference of 90º between current and voltage.
I0
VL
V
C
VR I0
I0
Pure Resistor Pure Inductor Pure Capacitor
Above vector diagrams are the phase relationship between peak voltage and peak current phases
for different circuit element. In case of inductor voltage leads current by . In case of capacitor
current leads voltage by π 2.
8. On what principle does the experiment LCR series and parallel circuit is based?
The experiment is based on the principle of electrical resonance.

9. What does electrical resonance for a LCR circuit means?

The study of LCR circuit gives an idea about the dependency of reactance of passive electrical
component on frequency. Inductive and capacitive reactance depends upon the frequency of an
1
AC. They are denoted as XL = 2πfL and X  . In a LCR circuit when these two reactance
C
2πfC
for a particular value of L and C matches at some particular frequency of AC, then the circuit is
said to be in electrical resonance state. The frequency for which X L= XC is called the resonance
frequency. It is denoted as ‗fr‘.
X L  XC
1
2πf L 
r
2 f C
1 r
f 
r
2 LC
10. Why series LCR circuit is called an acceptor circuit?
In series LCR circuit, the impedance in the circuit becomes minimum at resonance and hence
the current is maximum. Since current is large at resonance the series LCR circuit is called an
acceptor circuit.
11. Why parallel LCR circuit is called rejecter circuit?
In parallel LCR circuit, the impedance in the circuit becomes maximum at resonance and hence
the current is minimum. Since current is small at resonance the parallel LCR circuit is called
rejecter circuit.
12. In parallel LCR the resistor is not connected in parallel why?
When current passes through a resistor the current is in phase with the voltage, where as the
current passing through a capacitor (or) inductor will not be in phase. Hence resistor whether
connected in parallel (or) series does not change the current. Hence it is preferred in series only.
13. How to vary the frequency of AC in this experiment?
The frequency of AC is varied using an audio – frequency oscillator which can generate
frequency of different ranges.
14. (a)Explain about the nature of graph so obtained in series LCR circuit?
As frequency increases current also increases, becomes maximum at resonant frequency and
then decreases with further increase in frequency.
In case of series LCR circuit all L, C and R are
connected in series. Hence the net current in the
circuit is always related as
V
Before
IEffective 
After
.Below resonance,
Current
X
frequency is small and XL  XC or XL  XC is
negative but the square is positive. Hence
impedance is greater than R and the current is fr
small. If the frequency is increased gradually, Frequency
XL  XC decreases, hence impedance decreases so
current increases. This continues till resonance is reached i.e., when XL  XC , impedance is

equal to R. The current reaches maximum at resonance. Beyond resonance as frequency is

increased XL  XC and XL  XC is positive, hence impedance increases and current decreases.
(b)Explain about the nature of graph so obtained in parallel LCR circuit?

As frequency increases current decreases, becomes minimum at resonant frequency and then
increases with further increase in frequency.
In case of parallel LCR circuit L &R are in series and capacitor is connected in parallel to
this series arm. Hence the netcurrent in the circuit is always
XL
related as I V 1  . Below
X
R2  X2L
Effective
 C
resonance, frequency is small and XL  XC hence
effective impedance is minimum. As frequency is increased
gradually effective impedance increases and hence current
decreases. This continues till resonance is reached i.e.,
Current
Before
XL  XC . Effective current becomes minimum at
After
resonance. Beyond resonance as frequency is increased
XL  XC hence impedance decreases and current increases.
fr
15. What is the effect of resistance on LCR circuit? Frequency
If the value of L and C are kept constant and the value of R
is changed, then the resonance frequency is not altered but as the resistance increases the curve
becomes more and more flat whereas decrease in resistance makes the curve sharper. This is due
to effect of resistance on the current.
16. What do you mean by r.m.s. value of current? How do you get Irms in case of series and parallel
LCR circuits?
The root mean square (rms) value of current is the square root of the mean of the squares of the
instantaneous value of current per cycle.
Irms value is obtained as
I
1) Irms  max in case of series LCR circuit.
2) Irms  Imin 2 in case of parallel LCR circuit.

17. What are lower and upper cut-off frequencies?
These are the frequencies at which the power gain reduces by half its value on the lower and
upper side of the resonant frequency. They are denoted as f1 and f2.
I
In series LCR circuit they correspond to max value of current. Cut – off frequencies are
obtained by dropping a perpendicular line to frequency axis in the ‗I‘ versus ‗f‘ plot
I
corresponding to max (in case of series) value.
In parallel LCR circuit they correspond to Imin value of current. Cut – off frequencies
are obtained by dropping a perpendicular line to frequency axis in the ‗I‘ versus ‗f‘ plot
corresponding to Imin (in case of parallel) value.

18. What is Band width? How do you calculate it in the experiment?

It is the frequency difference between the higher and lower cut – off frequencies. It is calculated
as B.W = f2 – f1.
19. What is Q-factor? How do you calculate it in the experiment?

The quality of a coil in a circuit or Q – factor is defined as the ratio of the inductive reactance to
the resistance in the circuit. It is represented as Q.
Q  Lω  XL .
R R
Q – factor can also be defined as the ratio of potential difference across the inductance at
resonance to that across the resistance.
In the experiment it is calculated as the ratio of resonance frequency to the bandwidth.
fr
Q  .
f2  f1
20. What is the effect of increase of angular frequency on resistance and reactance?
Resistance R is independent of frequency, while the reactance‘s XL and XC are dependent on
angular frequency.
XL
XL = ωL and XC = 1/ωC.
If ω = 0, corresponding to a DC circuit, there is no
current through a capacitor because XC→ ∞, and
there is no inductive effect because X L = 0. When R
ω→∞, XL also approaches infinity, and current X, R
through an inductor becomes vanishingly small, XC
approaches zero (because current changes its XC
direction so rapidly that no charge can build up on
either plate). ω
The figure shows how the resistance of a resistor
and the reactance‘s of an inductor and a capacitor vary with angular frequency ω.
21. What are the applications of LCR resonant circuits?

LCR Circuits are employed in transmission and receiving in radio station.

Experiment No. 5
TORSIONAL PENDULUM
AIM: To determine the rigidity modulus(n) of the material of the given wire by Torsional
oscillations.
APPARATUS:IR- gated Torsionalpendulum, digital Microcontroller based counter,circular plate,

steel or brass wire with chuck nuts, pointer, screw gauge etc.
FORMULA: 1) The moment of inertia of the Circular plate is given by

𝑀𝑅2 2
I= 2 = --------------- Kg. m
Where M = mass of the circular disc in kg

R = Radius of the circular disc in m
2) The rigidity modulus of the material of the wire is given by
𝑛 = 8𝜋𝐼 ( ) = --------- N/m2
𝑟4
𝑇
` Where, l = Length of the wire between the two chuck nuts in m

r = Mean radius of the given wire in m
I = Moment of inertia of the Circular disc in Kg.m2
T = Time period in second.
PROCEDURE: PART – A
Determination of dimensional parameters of the disc and wire

1. The mass of the circular disc, chuck nut and pointer fitted to the disc are determined using
digital balance. i.e. M = -----------------Kg
2. Radius of the circular disc is determined by using circumference of the circular disc by the
thread.
Radius of the circular disc = 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
2𝜋
R= m
3. The diameter of the given wire (brass or iron) is determined using Screw gauge.
Radius of the wire (r) = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = -------------- m
2
PART – B
Determining the period (T) of the Torsional pendulum.

1. One end of the wire is rigidly clamped to the stand top and the other end is fixed
to the circular disc with the help of chuck nut as shown in the figure.
2. The IR – sensor is now fitted to the rear rod of the Torsional pendulum apparatus,
Such that, the pointer can easily pass through it.
3. The sensor cable is connected to counter and switched on. The LCD display of the
Counter shows the reading.

4. Now the pendulum is set to oscillate by giving a torque and the pointer fitted to the circular
disc moved inside the sensor cutting the IR – connectivity and the counter start counting
the disruption of the connectivity which is nothing but number of oscillation.
5. The counter stops counting after 10 oscillations as set by default setting. LCD display
shows the time taken for 10 oscillations.
6. The experiment is repeated for different length(l) of the wire between the chuck nuts.
7. The length of the shearing wire between two chuck nuts are measured by using
theread and meter scale.
8. In each case the time taken for 10 oscillations are noted for each length and period is
calculated and presented in the table.
9. Mean (l/T2) can be calculated from tabular column.
10. The rigidity modulus ‗n‘ of the material is calculated using the formula,
𝑛 = 8𝜋𝐼 ( ) = ------------- N/m2
𝑟4
𝑇
FIGURE:
To determine l/T2:
SL.no. Length (l) Time for 10 oscillations Period(T) (l/T2) in

In in seconds in secs m/sec2
cm Trial 1 Trial 2 Mean
1
2
3
4

Mass of the circular plate, M = ---------------------- kg.

𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Radius of the circular plate, 𝑅 = = ------------------------- m
2𝜋
The moment of inertia of the Circular plate is given by
𝑀𝑅2 2
I= 2 = --------------- Kg. m
To determine radius (r) of the wire: (using screw gauge)
L .C. = mm
Zero error =
Trial P.S.R. in mm H.S.R. Corrected HSR Diameter in mm

No. C.H.S.R. d = PSR+(CHSRxLC)
1.
2.
3.
Mean diameter ‗d‘= ----------------- mm
Radius of the wire, r = d/2 = --------mm = ------ x10-3 m
RESULT:The rigidity modulus of the material of the given wire, n = ------------------ N/m2.

Viva Questions
1. What is simple pendulum answer?
A simple pendulum consists of a small metal ball suspended by a long thread from a
rigid support, such that the bob is free to swing back and forth.
2. What is the time period of a simple pendulum?

The time period of a simple pendulum is the time taken by the pendulum bob to make one
complete oscillation, and is denoted by ―T‖.
3. What is the amplitude of simple pendulum?

It is defined as the distance travelled by the pendulum from the equilibrium position to one side.
4. Why is it called torsional pendulum?

A torsional pendulum consists of a disk (or some other object) suspended from a wire, which is
then twisted and released, resulting in an oscillatory motion. The oscillatory motion is caused by a
restoring torque which is proportional to the angular displacement.
5. What is difference between simple pendulum and torsional pendulum?

A torsional pendulum is an oscillator for which the restoring force is torsion.
In a simple pendulum, the oscillating mass has dimensions much smaller than
the distance between the axis of suspension and the centre of gravity.
6. What is Torque in physics definition?

Torque is the twisting force that tends to cause rotation. The point where the object rotates is
known as the axis of rotation. Mathematically, torque can be written as 𝑟 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃 and it has
units of Newton-meters
7. Definition of Inertia in Physics

Inertia is the name for the tendency of an object in motion to remain in motion, or an object at rest
to remain at rest unless acted upon by a force ..... The word inertia came from the Latin word iners,
which means idle or lazy
8. What is moment of inertia in physics?

Moment of inertia, in physics, quantitative measure of the rotational inertia of a body—i.e., the
opposition that the body exhibits to having its speed of rotation about an axis altered by the
application of a torque (turning force).
9. What is the SI unit of inertia?

SI unit of moment of inertia is Kg.m2

10. What is radius of gyration?

Radius of gyration is defined as the distance from the axis of rotation to a point where the total
mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated, so that the moment of inertia about the axis
may remain the same. Simply, gyration is the distribution of the components of an object.
11. What is the meaning of rigidity modulus?

The modulus of rigidity, also known as shear modulus, is defined as a material property with a
value equal to the shear stress divided by the shear strain.
12. What is the S.I. unit of modulus of rigidity?

The SI unit of Modulus of Rigidity is pascal (pa)
13. What are the factors depends on moment of inertia?

The moment of inertia of rigid body depends on the mass of the body,its shape and size.

Experiment No. 06
NEWTON’S RINGS
AIM:To measure the radius of curvature of a given Plano-convex lens using the method of
Newton's rings.
APPARATUS:Travelling microscope,Plano-convex lens. Glass slide,

Sodium lightand Beam splitter
FORMULA:the radius of curvature of a given Plano-convex lens is given by

(𝑫𝟐 − 𝑫𝟐)
𝒎 𝒏 𝒂𝒗𝒈
𝑹= 𝑚
𝟒(𝒎 − 𝒏)𝝀
Where,
Dm diameter of the mthbrightring, m
Dn diameter of the nthbright ring, m
(m – n ) difference between the mth and nthbright rings
λ wavelength of sodium light = 5893 Ǻ
DIAGRAM:
Travelling Microscope
Sodium Inclined Glass Plate

. Light
Plano Convex Lens
Plan Glass Plate

PROCEDURE:The apparatus is set up as shown in the figure. The travelling microscope is placed
such that its objective is directly above the plano-convex lens. The inclined glass plate G is tilted (at
450 to the incident light beam)so that the light rays from the sodium vapour lamp are reflected on
the plane glass plate, and the field of view is brightly illuminated. The focus of the microscope is
adjusted such that Newton‘s Rings are clearly seen. Travelling microscope screw(in vertical mode)
is moved such that the cross wire is tangent to the 8thbright ring on the left side and the
corresponding travelling microscope reading[TR=MSR+(CVDXLC)] is recorded. Similarly the
readings corresponding to 7th, 6th are recorded. Same procedure is followed for the right side rings
also from 1st to 8th ring. Diameter of the each ring is found.
Then Dm2- D 2n is calculated by successive difference method for (m-n) = 4.
Then radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is found using the formula
(𝑫𝟐 − 𝑫𝟐)
𝒎 𝒏 𝒂𝒗𝒈
𝑹= 𝑚
𝟒(𝒎 − 𝒏)𝝀
OBSERVATION:
Diameter Diameter
Ring TMReading 2 Ring TMReading D 2- D 2
Dm Dn2 m n
no. Dm = Lm - no. Dn = Ln -
(m2) (m2) (m2)
(m) Rm (n) Rn
Left Right Left Right
(mm) (mm)
Lm Rm Ln Rn
6 3
5 2
4 1
(D 2- D 2)
m n avg =
RESULT:The radius of curvature of the given Plano-convex lens using the method of
Newton's rings is found to be R= ............................... m.

Viva Questions
1) What do you mean by interference of light?
The modification in the distribution of light energy due to the superposition of two or more
waves of light is called interference of light.
2) What are the conditions for sustained interference?

a) The light waves superposing at a point must have the same wavelength or same
frequency.
b) The amplitude of superposing light waves should be equal or almost equal.

c) The waves superposing should either have the same phase or constant phase difference.
d) Light sources must be very narrow and very close to each other.
3) Explain the term coherent sources?

Any two sources of light continuously emitting light waves having zero or constant phase
difference are called coherent sources.
4) How Newton‘s rings are formed?

When a monochromatic light falls normally on Plano convex lens and glass plate set, the light
reflected by the lower surface of the lens and upper surface of the glass plate superpose to
produce interference pattern. This circular interference pattern is called Newton‘s rings.
5) Why the central ring is dark?

The path difference of (λ/2) is introduced between the two rays as a result of the phase change of
lens. The central ring is dark because the two interfering rays have a path difference (λ /2) in
spite of the fact that the thickness is zero.
6) How to obtain central bright spot in Newton‘s rings?

By interpose a film of refractive index less than that of the material of the lens and greater than
that of the material of the plate. Then the path difference between the two rays produces
central bright spot.
7) On what factors does the diameter of a ring depend?

It depends on the wavelength of the light and the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens.
8) What are the applications of Newton‘s rings?

It is used to i) determine wavelength of unknown light source.
ii) to determine radius of curvature of given lens.
iii) Refractive index of given liquid using the formula

EXPERIMENT N0: 07
YOUNG’S MODULUS BY SINGLE CANTILEVER
AIM: To determine the Young‘s modulus of given aluminum beam(strip) by using single cantilever
method.
APPARATUS: Aluminum beam, Slotted weight 50gm × 7, Digital TM anddigital Vernier Caliper.
FORMULA: The Young‘s modulus of the material of a bar is given by

3 𝑚
Y= 4𝑔𝑙 ( ) = --------- Nm−2
𝑏𝑑3 𝑥
where m= mass hanging at the open end in ----------- kg

g = acceleration due to gravity =9.8 m/s2
l =length of the cantilever in -------------- m
b =breadth of the bar in------------------ m
d =thickness of the bar in --------------- m
x =dipression at the open end in -------------- m
PROCEDURE:
1. The experimental set up is arranged as shown in fig. The digital travelling Microscopereading
is set to around zero mm.
2. Now the digital TM is placed infront of the Cantilever with horizontal telescope is about 5-6
cm from the pointer on the Cantilever.
3. The telescope is adjusted to see clearly the tip of the screw or pointer and it should coincide
With the horizontal cross wire in eye piece and reading is noted
4. 50gm weight hanger is now loaded to the cantilever, due to which the cantilever bend
correspondingly the tip of the screw in the Microscope moves up.
5. The microscope fine screw is adjusted such that the pointer again coincide with the
horizontalcross wire and TM reading isnoted in the tabular column.
6. Trial isrepeated by increasing the weight in steps of 50gm and in each case the pointer should
coincide with the horizontal cross wire and take corresponding depression reading is recorded
in the tabular column.
7. Trial is continued till 350gm and each case coincide the pointer to the horizontal cross wire
and dipression is noted
8. The length of cantilever is measured from the fixed end to the end of the given bar using
meter scale.
9. Using digital vernier, thickness ‗d‘ and breadth ‗b‘ of the cantilever beam is noted.
10. A graph is drawn taking mass ‗m‘ along x-axis and dipression ‗x‘ along Y-axis as shown in
fig.Slope is determined from the straight line.
11. Young‘s modulus is calculated by using above formula

3
Y = 4𝑔𝑙 𝑚 −2
𝑏𝑑3
( ) = ----------- Nm
𝑚 1
where( ) =
𝑥 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
FIGURE:
NATURE OF GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN
Mass (m) TM-reading (x)
SL.NO. In In
gm mm
1 0
2 50
3 100
4 150

5 200
6 250
7 300
RESULT:The Young‘s modulus of the material of the bar is found to be
Viva Questions
1) Y=................................ Nm-2 Define stress and strain and state their units?
The magnitude of the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules of a body per unit
area iscalled stress. It is measured in N/m2.The change of shape or the fractional change of
size of a body by a given set of forces or couplesis called strain. Strain has no unit.
2) State Hooke‘s law and define Modulus of Elasticity?

The stress is proportional to the strain within the elastic limits is called Hooke‘s law.
The ratio of any stress to the strain is called modulus of elasticity. It is measured in N/m2.
3) Define the different types of moduli of elasticity?

There are three moduli in use.
i) Young‘s modulus:- The ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain, within the elastic
limits is called young‘s modulus of the material. Its unit is N/m2.
ii) Bulk modulus:-When a uniform pressure is applied over the whole surface of a body, it
produces a uniform compression. The compression is proportional to the pressure, and the
ratioof pressure to the volume strain is called bulk modulus. It is measured in N/m2.
iii) Rigidity modulus:- It is defined as the ratio of the tangential stress to shearing strain.
It is mesasuredin N/m2.
4) List the different stages of elastic properties of matter?

When a load is continuously increased in the case of wire, it reaches a different elastic
stages
like: i)elastic limit ii)permanent set iii) breaking stress and iv) yield point.
5) What is Poisson‘s ratio? What is its unit?

Within elastic limits there is a complete proportionality between the lateral strain and the
longitudinal strain is called Poisson‘s ratio. It has no unit.
6) How is bending of a beam related to young‘s modulus?

When a beam is bent by an applied couple, its longitudinal filaments are lengthened on the
convex side and shortened on the concave, and thus the resistance which the beam offers to
bending, will depend upon young‘s modulus for the material.
7) What is a cantilever?
When one end of a horizontal beam is fixed and the other end is free, it is called a cantilever.

Experiment No. 08
FERMI ENERGY
AIM: To determine the Fermi energy and Fermi temperature of a given conductor
by studying resistance variations at different temperatures.
APPARATUS: Copper coil, thermometer, test tube, beaker, digital milli voltmeter,
digital milli ammeter, constant current source.
FORMULA:1)The Fermi energy of a 2given con2 ductor is related as

𝑛𝑒 2𝜋𝐴𝑟2 Δ𝑅
Ef=(( 𝐿√2𝑚
)X(Δ𝑇 ))^2
Where n = Electron density of copper, 8.464x1028/kg mol.
E = Charge on electron, 1.602x10-19 C.
A = Constant for copper, 7.4x10-6.
R = Radius of the given copper wire, 0.26x10-3 m.
L = Length of the copper wire, 3.6 m.
m =Mass of electron, 9.1x10-31 kg.
ΔR = Slope of the graph obtained on plotting Resistance vs Temperature.
ΔT
2) The Fermi temperature is calculated as

E
T  F K.
F
B
Where EF = Fermi energy of the copper coil, J.
KB = Boltzmann constant, 1.38x10-23J/K.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
+
T = Thermometer
T C = Copper coil
W = Water bath
Consta
nt
Current C
W

PROCEDURE:
1) The experimental wire whose resistance and Fermi energy has to be determined is wound over an
insulating tube; it is taken in a test tube along with a thermometer and immersed in a water bath.
2) The two ends of the coil is connected to a constant current source through a milli ammeter and
milli voltmeter as shown in the circuit diagram.
3) The coil immersed in water bath is heated to a steady temperature say about 80º C.
4) Note down the voltage and current values for different cooling temperature starting from 77ºC to
52ºC in steps of 5ºC.
5) Calculate the resistance of the coil for each
temperature.
7) Plot the graph of resistance versus temperature
Resistance (Ω)
and hence calculate the slope. ∆R
8) Calculate the Fermi energy and the Fermi
ΔT
temperature of the given conductor using the above
relation.
Temperature (°K)
OBSERVATIONS:
To determine the variation of Resistance with Temperature:
Sl. Temperature (T) Current Voltage Resistance

No. ºC ºK (mA) (mV) (Ω)
1 82
2 77
3 72
4 67
5 62
6 57
RESULT:
1) The Fermi energy of the given conductor is found to be eV.
2) Fermi temperature of the given conductor is found to be K.

Viva Questions
1. What is Fermi energy?
Energy of the maximum occupied level in a conductor at 0K is called its Fermi energy.
OR
The average energy possessed by the electrons which participate in conduction process at
temperatures above 0K is called the Fermi energy of the material.
2. Define Fermi level.
Highest energy level occupied by the electrons in a conductor is called the Fermi level.
OR
Fermi level is energy level at which the probability of electron occupancy is 0.5 (or 50% or
half).
3. What is Fermi velocity?
Velocity of the electrons possessing Fermi energy is called the Fermi velocity.
OR
Velocity of the electrons at Fermi level is the Fermi velocity.
4. Define relaxation time.
Average time spent by the conduction electron between two successive lattice collisions is
called the relaxation time.
OR
1
The time required for the conduction electron to drop in its average velocity by times the
e
value just when the field is turned off.
5. What is mean by free path?

The average distance traveled by a conduction electron between two successive collisions with
lattice ions is called the mean free path.
6. What is drift velocity?
The net displacement in the position of the electron per unit time caused by the applied electric
field is called the drift velocity.
OR
The velocity of the electrons in the steady state in an applied electric field is called the drift
velocity.
7. What are free electrons?
All metals consist of unpaired valence electrons. These electrons are loosely bound to the
respective atoms. Hence even at ordinary temperatures they get detached from their parent
atoms and move freely within the body of the metal. These electrons are responsible for
conduction and are called free electrons.
8. What are conduction electrons?
Electrons belonging to conduction band and responsible for electrical conduction of the material
are called conduction electrons.
9. What is mobility of a charge carrier?
It is the drift velocity per unit electric field of the charge carrier.

10. What are fermions?

Particles which obey Fermi-Dirac statistics (or distribution) are called fermions.
OR
Particles which obey Pauli‘s exclusion principle while filling the various energy states/levels are
called fermions. E.g.: Electron. Proton, Neutron, Positron etc.,
11. Give the equation for Fermi energy in terms of Boltzmann constant and Fermi temperature.
EF  KT F
12. Write the equation for EF in terms of Fermi velocity and mass of the electron.
1 2
E  mV .
F 2 F
13. Give an idea of the value of thermal energy of a particle at room temperature (300 K).
-23 1.38  10 23  300
E = KT = 1.38 x 10 x 300 = 19 = 0.025 eV.
1.6  10
Thermal energy of a particle at room temperature is about 0.025 eV.
14. For which material have you found the Fermi energy?
Copper
15. Is the material used in the present experiment a conductor or a semiconductor?
Conductor (metal).
16. Mark the distribution of electrons in the energy level diagram for conductors at 0K and above
0K.
EF EF
Energy
Energy
0K > 0K
17. Mark the Fermi energy /level in the band picture of semiconductors.
CB CB
EC EC
EF EF
EV EV
VB VB
 EV andE = E
 EC g – E i.e., E lies in the midway between VB & CB.
C V F
F 2

Experiment No. 09
YOUNG’S MODULUS BY UNIFORM BENDING

AIM:To determine the Young‘s modulus of the materialof a bar by using uniform bending method.
APPARATUS: Travelling Microscope, uniform wooden bar of length 1 meter, two knife edges, two
weight hangers, slide calipers, screw gauge.
FORMULA: The Young‘s modulus of the material of a bar is given by

𝟑𝒎𝒈𝒍𝟐 𝑿 −𝟐
q=
𝟐𝒃𝒅𝟑
( ) = --------- 𝐍𝐦
𝝏
where m= mass for which the elevation is found in ----------- kg

g = acceleration due to gravity =9.8 m/s2
l = distance between the knife edges in -------------- m
b =breadth of the bar in------------------ m
d =thickness of the bar in --------------- m
X = nearest distance between weight hanger and the knife edge.
∂= mean deviation for load of m kg in m.
~
PROCEDURE: The given wooden bar (meter scale) is placed symmetrically on the knife edges
such that about 1/4th of the bar projects beyond each knife edge. Two scale pans are suspended at
each end of the scale such that the distance from the knife edge are equal. The pin is fixed vertically
at the center of the scale by means of wax. A load of 20g is added to each of the scale pan. A
travelling microscope is focused in the tip of the pin such that a clear image of the tip of the pin is
seen. The microscope is adjusted such that the image of the tip of the pin coincides with the point of
intersection of the cross wires and the corresponding TM [ TR=MSR + (CVD X LC)] reading is
taken. The load in each of the scale pan is increased in steps of 20g till a maximum load of 120g is
reached and the corresponding readings are noted in each case. The experiment is repeated by
decreasing the load in steps of 20gm and the corresponding readings are noted down. The readings
are tabulated. In each trial elevation for a load of 60gm is calculated by successive difference
method. The mean elevation is found. The distance between the knife edges ‗l‘ and the distance
between the weight hanger and the nearest knife edge ‗X‘ is measured using a meter scale. The
breadth ‗b‘ and the thickness ‗d‘ of the bar are measured using a slide calliperse and the screw
gauge respectively. The young;s modulus of the material of the bar is then calculated using the
𝑋
formula, q = 3𝑚𝑔𝑙2 ( ) = ---------- Nm−2
2𝑏𝑑3 𝜕

FIGURE:
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Least count of the travelling microscope:

LC= Value of 1 MSD = cm
Total no of VSD
TABULAR COLUMN
TM Reading in cm TM Reading in cm
Load Load Elevation
in g Load Load in g Load Load 𝜕 for 60g in
increasing decreasing R1=(Xi+Xd)/2 increasing decreasing R2=(Xi+Xd)/2 cm.
Xi Xd Xi Xd 𝜕= R1~R2
RESULT:The Young‘s modulus of the material of the bar is found to be

q= Nm-2

Viva Questions
1) Define stress and strain and state their units?
The magnitude of the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules of a body per unit area
is called stress. It is measured in N/m2.
The change of shape or the fractional change of size of a body by a given set of forces or
couples is called strain. Strain has no unit.
2) State Hooke‘s law and define Modulus of elasticity?

The stress is proportional to the strain within the elastic limits is called Hooke‘s law.
The ratio of any stress to the strain is called modulus of elasticity. It is measured in N/m2.
3) Define the different types of moduli of elasticity.

There are three moduli in use,
i. Young‘s modulus: The ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain, within the elastic limits
is called young‘s modulus of the material. Its unit is N/m2.
ii. Bulk modulus: When a uniform pressure is applied over the whole surface of a body, it produces
a uniform compression. The compression is proportional to the pressure, and the ratio of
pressure to the volume strain is called bulk modulus. It is measured in N/m2.
4) List the different stages of elastic properties of matter.

When a load is continuously increased in the case of wire, it reaches a different elastic stages
like: 1) elastic limit 2) permanent set 3) breaking stress and 4) yield point.
5) What is Poisson‘s ratio? What is its unit?

Within elastic limits there is a complete proportionality between the lateral strain and the
longitudinal strain is called Poisson‘s ratio. It has no unit.
6) How is bending of a beam related to young‘s modulus?

When a beam is bent by an applied couple, its longitudinal filaments are lengthened on the
convex side and shortened on the concave, and thus the resistance which the beam offers to bending,
will depend upon young‘s modulus for the material.
7) What is a cantilever?
When one end of a horizontal beam is fixed and the other end is free, it is called a cantilever.

Experiment No. 10
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OFCAPACITOR
AIM: To determine the dielectric constant of a given dielectric material used in the capacitor by RC
charging and discharging method.
APPARATUS:5V DC regulated power supply, digital stop clock, digital voltmeter, resistor of
known value, capacitor of known dimensions, patch cords.
FORMULA:
1)The dielectric constant ‗K‘ of the material within the capacitor is given by
d  t 10 6
K 1/2
0.693ε0 AR
where d & A - thickness & area of the dielectric material, m & m2.
t - Time required to get charged/discharged to 50% of the capacitor value in seconds.
1/2
R - Resistance in the circuit, .

0 - 8.854x10-12 is the permittivity of free space, F/m
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
0-100 sec
DSC
Charging S R
R
connection (100k)
+ +
+
5V
Discharging
connection

PROCEDURE: The circuit connections are made as shown in the figure.

CHARGING MODE
The toggle switch S is set to charge mode and simultaneously the digital stop clock is set to
start position. At this instant the capacitor get charged to higher voltage, immediately start noting
down the voltage readings at every 5 seconds interval from zeroth second until V becomes constant
(say two consecutive readings remain constant or upto 100sec). The voltage readings are entered in
the tabular column, under charge mode.
NOTE: The readings must be V = 0 for t = 0 [This can be achieved by shorting two ends of the
capacitor].
DISCHARGE MODE
When V is maximum in charge mode reset the timer to zero using reset button of digital stop
clock, immediately change the toggle switch S to discharge mode and record the voltage in similar
way as in charge mode. The voltage readings are entered in the tabular column, under discharge
mode. For t = 0, the same maximum value of V during charge mode to be retained.
A graph is plotted with time t in seconds along X – axis and voltage V in volts along Y –
axis. The point where both the charge mode curve and discharge mode curve intersect; from there
drop a perpendicular line to time axis which gives t 1/2 in seconds. From the known the values of R,
A and d, the value of dielectric constant and value of the capacitor can be calculated using the
relations
d  t 106
K 1/2
.
0.693ε0AR
Charge
the capacitor (V)
Voltage across
Discharge
t1/2 Time (s)
OBSERVATIONS:
Dependence of capacitor‘s voltage on time:

R = 100 k C = C1 = 100 pF
Voltage across C (V)

Constants for capacitor C1
Time
Discharge l = 2.5 cm. b =1.5 cm.
(seconds) Charge mode
mode d = 0.075 mm.
0 A= l x b = m2.
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
RESULT: The value of the dielectric constant of the material in the capacitor is .

Viva Questions
1. What is a dielectric material?
A dielectric material is an insulator, which has the ability to get electrically polarized and an
electric field can exist in it (It has no free electrons). Example: Glass, wood, water, mica, paper,
Bakelite, Teflon etc.
2. Define dielectric constant (K) in terms of electrostatic force.
Dielectric constant (K) of a medium is the ratio of the force between two point charges
separated by a certain distance in air to the force between the same charges separated by the
same distance in the given medium.
3. Define dielectric constant (K) in terms of capacity of a capacitor.
K of a medium is the ratio of the capacitance of a spherical conductor /capacitor when placed in
a given medium to that when placed in air.
OR
K is the ratio of capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with the given medium in between the
plates to that with air in between the plates.
4. Mention the dielectric values for a) Water b) glass c) mica d) ebonite at room temperature.
The dielectric values for the above mentioned materials at room temperature are as follows:
a) Water – 80
b) Glass – 5-10
c) Mica – 5.7-6.7
d) Ebonite – 2.7-2.9
5. What are polar dielectrics?

If the effective centers of positive and negative charges of a molecule/atom do not coincide,
then the molecule possesses a permanent dipole moment and the material is called a polar
dielectric. E.g.: water.
6. What are non-polar dielectrics?
If the effective centers of positive and negative charges of a molecule/atom of a dielectric
coincide, then the molecule has no permanent dipole moment and the material is called a non-
polar dielectric. Example: Diatomic molecules like H2, N2 etc.
7. What is an electric dipole?
A system of two equal and opposite point charges separated by a small distance is called an
electric dipole.
-q p +q
8. Define dipole moment. 2a

Dipole moment is defined as P = q (2a)
Where q is the magnitude of either charge, 2a is the small separation between them and P is a
vector directed from negative charge to positive charge.
9. What is a capacitor?
Capacitor is an electrical component used to store electric charge and electric energy.
10. What type of capacitor is used in the present experiment?
In the present experiment electrolytic parallel plate capacitor is used.

11. Write an equation for Capacitance (C) in terms of dielectric constant (K).
ε0 KA
C 
d
Where 0 is the absolute permittivity or dielectric constant of vacuum/air, its value is 8.854x10 -
12
F/m. A is the area of one of the parallel plate and d is the separation between parallel plates.
12. How does Capacitance (C) vary with separation (d)?
Capacitance increases with decrease in the separation between plates of a parallel plate
capacitor.
13. How does Capacitance (C) vary with area (A)?
As the area of the plates increases, the capacitance of the capacitor also increases.
14. What is the dependence of Capacitance (C) on dielectric constant (K)?
With increase in the dielectric constant of the medium between the parallel plates, the
capacitance increases.
15. Give the relation between Charge (Q), Capacitance (C) and Voltage (V).
Q = CV.
16. Why does a capacitor block DC and allow AC?
When a capacitor is connected across a DC source, electrons are pulled out from the positive
plate and are transferred to the negative plate by the source. As the electrons are getting
accumulated on the negative plate, the potential difference across the plates increases. Electrons
which are already present on the plate oppose the incoming electrons and hence flow of
electrons stops, when the capacitor gets charged to source voltage. Thus a capacitor blocks DC.
In the case of AC, since the direction of current is alternating, the capacitor gets charged
oppositely with the frequency of AC. Thus, a current is maintained in the circuit [In AC both
charging and discharging processes take place continuously].
17. Define RC time constant of an RC circuit.
Time constant t = RC is the time taken by the capacitor to acquire 0.632 or 63.2% of its
maximum charge (or time in which potential difference across the capacitor increases to 0.632
times the source/maximum voltage) while charging.
OR
Time constant t = RC is the time during which the charge (or voltage) of the charged capacitor
decreases to 0.37 (37%) of the maximum charge (voltage) while discharging.
18. What is the term T1 in the equation for K?
2
T1 is the instant at which the voltage (charge) across the capacitor is the same for both
2
charging and discharging.

Experiment No. 11
Transistor Characteristics
Aim: To draw the input, output and transfer characteristics of a given NPN transistor
in CE mode and hence to calculate the current gain.
APPARATUS: NPN transistor, variable DC power supplies, DC micro ammeter, DC

milli ammeter, DC voltmeter and connecting wires.
FORMULA: The current gain 'β' (common emitter configuration)
β= ΔΙc/ΔIB
ΔIB =Change in base current,µA
ΔΙc=Change in collector current mA
VCE= Collector Emitter Voltage,V
The current gain ‗α‘ is given by

α= β/1+ β
Procedure: The circuit connections are made as shown in figure
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

1. To start with, the collector emitter voltage (VCE) is made constant; to be saying OV. 2. Vary VBE
from 0.1V to 0.7V in steps of 0.1V and note down the corresponding base current (IB) readings.
3. The experiment is repeated for VCE=2V.
4. A graph VBE verses IB at constant VCE is plotted by taking

VBE along X-axis and I along Y-axis. The graph is drawn for
various values of VCE.
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
1The base current la is kept constant say 25μA.
2. Vary Ver from 0.1V to 0.8V in steps of 0.1V and note down
the corresponding le readings.
1. The experiment is repeated for I_{B} = 50mu*A 4. A

graph is drawn for various values of Is, taking V cr
along X-axis and Ic along the Y-axis.
TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS
To calculate the current gain, the collector-m emitter voltage V CI is kept constant say 2V. The base
current I_{R} is varied from 10µA to 60µA in steps of 10µA and corresponding readings for
collector current I_{c} are noted. Taking la along X-axis and le along Y-axis, transfer characteristics
graph is plotted for constant V CE The slope obtained from the graph gives the current gain Bin CE
mode and hence the current gain a in CB mode is calculated using the relation
α = β/1+β

Observations:
Input characteristics
VCE=0V VCE=2V
VBE (V) Ib (µA) VBE (V) Ib (µA)
0.1 0.1
0.2 0.2
0.3 0.3
0.4 0.4
0.5 0.5
0.6 0.6
0.7 0.7
Output characteristics
IB=25µA IB=25µA
VBE (V) Ic(mA) VCE(V) Ic(mA)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Transfer characteristics
Vce=2V
IB=(µA) Ic(mA)
10
20
30
40
50
60

Result: The input,output and transfer characteristic of the given NPN Transistor are
drawn and hence
1. The current gain β =

2. The current gain α =

Experiment No. 12
PHOTODIODE CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: Study of V-I characteristic of photodiode in reverse bias and variation of photo current as a
function of reverse voltage and intensity.
APPARATUS: Battery eliminator, voltmeter, mille ammeter, experimental board, Photodiode, and
power supply.
PROCEDURE: PART-A
1. Circuit connections are connected as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the voltage from 0 to 2volts and correspondingly measures the current by keeping
power at 10 mw constantly.
3. Repeat the experiment by changing the power to 30 mW, note down the readings in Tabular
column(1)
4. Draw the graph by taking the voltage on x' - axis and current on y' - axis as shown in the
graph(1)
5. The curve will be obtained as shown in graph(1)
PART-B
1. Circuit connections are connected as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep the voltage(V) = 1 volts constant, then vary the power as shown in the
tabular
Column (2) and correspondingly measure the current in µA.
3. Draw the graph by taking power on x-axis and current on y –axis as shown in the
graph -2
4. Join all the points; we get straight line as shown in the graph-2.
Circuit diagram:

Nature of the Graph(1):
Nature of the Graph(2):
TABULAR COLUMN - 1
Sl. No. Reverse Voltage Reverse Current I in µA

(VR ) in volts P = 10 mW P = 30 mW
1 0
2 -0.1
3 -0.2
4 -0.3
5 -0.4
6 -0.5
7 -1.0
8 -1.5
9 -2.0
10 -2.5

TABULAR COLUMN - 2
Input voltage = 1 V (Constant)

Sl.No. Current in µA/
Power in mW
mA
1 10
2 15
3 24
4 30
5 38
6 50
RESULT: The reverse biased V-I characteristics of photodiode is studied.
Viva Questions
1. What is a semiconductor?
Semiconductor is a class of material whose electrical conductivity lies between those of
conductor and insulator. E.g.:- Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si).
2. Name and define the types of semiconductors?

Intrinsic Semiconductors: Semiconductors in their pure form are called intrinsic
semiconductor. In such semiconductors the number of free holes will be equal to the number of
free electrons.
Extrinsic Semiconductors: When a suitable impurity is added to a pure semiconductor then the
resulting semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor. They are of two types:-
1) n – type semiconductor: They are the extrinsic semiconductors in which electrons are
majority charge carriers and they are obtained by doping pentavalent (Phosphorous, Arsenic,
Bismuth) impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor.
2) p – type semiconductor: They are the extrinsic semiconductors in which holes are majority
charge carriers and they are obtained by doping trivalent (Aluminium, Gallium, Indium)
impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor.
3)
3. What do you mean by doping?
Doping is a process of adding a suitable impurity to a pure semiconductor.
4. What is a semiconductor diode?

A Semiconductor diode (crystal diode) is a two terminal semiconductor device with one p – n
junction and the p – n junction is formed by joining p – type semiconductor suitably with n –
type semiconductor such that the crystal structure remains continuous.
5. What is the potential barrier value for silicon and germanium?

The potential barrier value for silicon p-n junction is about 0.7 eV and for germanium is about
0.3 eV.
6. What is biasing?
Biasing is the process of applying the potential difference across a p-n junction. They are of two
types.
i) Forward Bias: If a battery is connected to a p-n junction such that the positive terminal of the
battery is connected to p-side and its negative terminal to n-side then the p-n junction is said to
be forward biased.
ii) Reverse Bias: If a battery is connected to a p-n junction such that the positive terminal of the
battery is connected to n-side and its negative terminal to p-side then the p-n junction is said to
be reverse biased.
7. What is a photodiode diode? Represent it symbolically.

A special type of PN junction device that generates current when exposed to light is known as
Photodiode. It is also known as photodetector or photosensor. It operates in reverse biased mode
and converts light energy into electrical energy.
8. What are the applications of photodiode?

The photodiode is used in optical communication system, consumer electronics devices like
smoke detectors, compact disc players, televisions and remote controls ,counters and switching
circuits , Logic circuits and encoders. It is used for exact measurement of the intensity of light in
science & industry etc.
9. What is the difference between photodiode and LED?
PARAMETERS LED PHOTODIODE

Definition LED is a device that Photodiode is a device that converts
converts electric energy light energy into electric energy.
into light energy.
Symbol
Operating Principle Electroluminance Photoconduction

Function It emits light. It detects light.
Type of biasing Forward biased Reverse biased
Fabricated with GaAs, GaAsP, GaP etc. Si, InGaAs etc.
10. what is the difference between photodiode and ordinary junction diode?
PARAMETERS DIODE PHOTODIODE

Definition A diode is two terminal Photodiode is a device that converts light
device which conducts energy into electric energy.
when it is forwards
biased.

Symbol
Operating biasing Photoconduction

Principle
Function Rectification It detects light.
Type of biasing Forward biased Reverse biased
Fabricated with Germanium or silicon, Si, InGaAs etc. An anti-reflective layer of Silver
any of these two can be Nitride is used for coating.
used.

EXPERIMENT N0: 13
BLACK BOX
Aim: Identification of unknown passive electrical components and determine the value of
inductance and capacitance.
Apparatus:A black box contain the unknown impedances Z1,Z2 & Z3 a wide band digital ac
voltmeter and a function generator. The unknown resistance R is selected as 1kΩ
Formula:
1) The transfer ratio of Z2 with R constant independent of frequency which indicates
That Z2 must be resistor. Hence the unknown resistance Rx can be determined by using equation
𝑅𝑥 = (1 − 𝐴𝑣)/𝐴𝑣
Where Av= V0/Vi
Vo= Output Voltage

Vi= Input Voltage, R= 1KΩ
1) The transfer ratio of Z1 with R decreases with increasing frequency, hence Z1 must be an indicator
Therefore the unknown indicator value can be determined by using equation
L2 = Z2-R2/W2
Where W= 2πf and Z=R/Av
L=√Z2-R2/W
Where f is the frequency corresponding to the point at intersection of two curves Z1 & Z3
Z is the total impedance of the circuit
Av is the value of transfer ratio at the point where the intersection of two curves takes place
Z1 & Z3
R is 1kΩ
2) The transfer ratio of Z3 with R increases with increasing frequency hence Z3 must be a capacitor
Therefore the unknown capacitor Z3 value can be determined by using the equation
C2=1/w2(Z2-R2) (F)

Model Graph (Nature of graph)
Procedure:
1) The circuit connections are connected as shown in the diagram.The Function generator is connected to
the input the frequency is to set 1khz and amplitude is set to 1 volt . The amplitude once adjusted to 1
volt should not be disturbed
2) Any one passive component (Z1) is connected to the circuit then trail is repeated by increasing
the frequency insteps of 1khz to a maximum of 10khz in each case, the output is noted and transfer
gain is calculated and presented in tabular column.
Transfer ratio=V0/Vi
2) A graph is drawn taking frequency along x axis and transfer ratio along y axis as shown in fig
3) The experiment is repeated by corresponding Z2 and Z3, note down the corresponding transfer ratio and
frequency in the tabular column once again draw a graph taking frequency along x-axis and transfer ratio
along y axis in the same sheet as shown in fig
4) Locate the point on intersection then find out frequency (f) & transfer ratio (A v) Then use the formula for
determining their impedance values.
Tabular column:
Frequency in KHz Transfer ratio
Z1 Z2 Z3
1
2
3

10
Result:
1) The Unknown passive electrical components are
a) Z1=
b) Z2=
c) Z3=
2) The value of given Inductor Z1=
3) The value of given capacitor Z3=
Viva Questions
1. What is heat?
Heat is a form of energy that can be transferred from one point (higher temperature) to another
point (lower temperature).
2. Name the types of transmission of heat?
The types of transmission of heat are:
i) Conduction ii) Convection iii) Radiation.

3. What is conduction?
Conduction is the process of transmission of heat without the actual movement of the particles
in the body. E.g.: Heat transferred in metals.
4. What is convection?
Convection is the process of transmission of heat by the actual movement of the constituent
particles in the body. E.g.: Transmission of heat in liquids.
5. What is radiation?
Radiation is the process of heat transmission from one place to another without any aid of
intervening medium. E.g.: Heat received from the sun.
6. What is emissive power?
Emissive power of a body at a given temperature for a given wavelength is defined as the
energy (radiation) emitted by the body per second per unit area per unit range of wavelength. It
depends on the nature of surface of the body and its temperature. The emissive power of a
perfect black body is maximum.
7. What is absorptive power?
The absorptive power of a body is defined as the ratio of the amount of energy absorbed by the
body to the amount of energy incident on its surface area.
8. What is a perfect blackbody?
A perfect black body is one which absorbs all the radiations of any wavelength which falls on it.
It is an ideal body, but it is difficult to realize this ideal body. The surface coated with lamp
black (97%) or platinum black (98%) is in good approximation with a black body.
9. Explain black body radiation.
A perfect black body absorbs radiations of all wavelengths which fall on it. When such a body is
heated to a suitable high temperature it emits radiation of all wavelengths. The radiation emitted
by a black body is known as black body radiation or full radiation or total radiation.
10. Name the law‘s of black body radiation.
Some of the law‘s of black body radiation are:-
1) Kirchhoff‘s law 2) Stefan‘s law 3) Stefan‘s – Boltzmann law 4) Wien‘s law 5)
Wien‘s displacement law 6) Rayleigh-Jean‘s law 7) Planck‘s law.
11. Define Kirchhoff‘s law of radiation.
Kirchhoff‘s law of radiation states, the ratio of emissive power to absorptive power of all bodies
is same and is equal to the emissive power of a perfect black body.
12. Define Wien‘s law of radiation.
Wien‘s law of black body radiation states that the wavelength corresponding to the maximum
energy is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature.
13. Explain Stefan‘s law of radiation.

Stefan‘s law of radiation states that the energy (E) radiated from the surface of the black body
per second per unit area is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature
(T).
E  T4 Or E  σ T4

Where  is the proportionality constant (Stefan‘s constant). Stefan‘s law of radiation is also
called as fourth power radiation law. This law is applicable to a black body which is a perfect
radiator.
14. In the present experiment which one is considered as black body?
In the present experiment the tungsten filament of electric bulb is considered as black body.
15. How do you verify Stefan‘s radiation law in this experiment?
In the present experimental setup, we monitor the current flowing through the circuit for
different voltages across a tungsten filament and hence its resistance (R) and power (P)
consumed by it is calculated. Plot of log (R) versus log (P) follows a straight line graph, through
which we can calculate its slope. The value of the slope represents the Stefan‘s index. Hence
Stefan‘s radiation law is verified by comparing this slope with the Stefan‘s index.
16. To verify Stefan‘s law, one has to monitor energy as a function of temperature, but in the present
set up we are not doing so. Explain.
Since tungsten is a metal (conductor), its resistance varies with temperature linearly. The
variation of the resistance of the filament (black body) can be considered as that of temperature.
According to conservation of energy, the energy radiated by black body, per unit time can be
equated to power consumed by the black body. Hence Stefan‘s radiation law can be verified by
measuring the variation of power and resistance instead of energy and temperature respectively.

Experiment No. 14
Determination of Planck’s Constant using LED
AIM: To determine Planck's constant using LED's of known wavelength and to determine the
wavelength of the unknown LED.
APPARATUS: Digital AC voltmeter, LED's of known wavelength, variable power source.
FORMULA: 1) Planck's constant is given by
h = e(Vkλ)mean / c Js
where Vk = mean knee voltage for a particular colour LED in Volts
e= Charge on the electron, 1.602x10 -19C.
λ= wavelength of the colour LED's., nm.
c = velocity of light in air, 3x10 ms¹
1) Wavelength of the unknown LED is found by the relation

Λunknown= (Vkλ)mean / Vunknown
Where Vunknown = Mean knee voltage of unknown LED
Circuit Diagram :

Procedure :
Circuit connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram. The wavelengths of the given colour
LED's are noted in the tabular column. Check the voltage in the given voltmeter hat should read
around 12 V. Now place any one of the LED's in the LED holder and note down the alour of the
radiation emitted by it and record the knee voltage shown in the voltmeter. Experiment arpeted by
inserting the other colour LED's in the holder and note down knee voltages for all Note down the
knee voltage for the LED whose colour is not visible.
Plot the graph of knee voltage as a function of wavelength for all known colours. Draw a line
parallel to x-axis which is corresponding to the unknown LED knee voltage and note down the
wavelength corresponding to Y-axis voltage.
Nature of Graph:
Observation:
To determine (Vkλ)mean :
Colour Wavelength Knee Voltage Vkλ (×10-9

λ (nm) Trail 1 Trail 2 Mean Vm)
Red 620
Yellow 583
Green 567
Blue 383
Unknown
(Vkλ)mean =
Result :
1) The value of the planck‘s constant is found to be h(Js)=
2) The wavelength of the unknown LED is found to be (nm)=

Experiment No. 15
MAGNETIC FIELD
AIM: Measurement of magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying current using digital
Steewart and Gee apparatus.
APPARATUS: AC power supply, Steewart and Gee apparatus and Gauss meter.
FORMULA: Magnetic field (B) along the axis of a circular coil carrying
Current is given by
B= 𝑁𝐼µ𝑜 = ------- gauss

3
2*𝑅2+𝑥2] ⁄2
Where: N – is the Number of turns in the coil

I - is the current flowing through the coil in Amps
µ𝑜- is the permeability of free space = 4π × 10-7 H/m
R – is the radius of the coil in m
X – is the distance from the center of the coil to the
point of observation in m
B - Magnetic field in gauss.
PROCEDURE:
1. The experimental arrangements are made as shown in the fig.
2. The constant current of 2A is connected to the coil and search coil is connected
to Gauss meter.
3. Now, move the search coil at zero distance, ie at the centre of the field coil.
Note down the magnetic field in gauss.
4. The experiment is repeated by moving the search coil in steps of 1cm or 2cm
to left hand side. Note down the field (B) each times and they are tabulated in the table.
5. The experiment is repeated by moving the search coil in steps of 1cm or 2cm
to the right hand side. Readings are recorded in the tabular column.
6. A graph is drawn with distance(x) along x-axis and magnetic field along y-axis as shown
In the model graph.
FIGURE:

MODEL GRAPH:
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl. No. Distance from the Magnetic field Magnetic field

center of the coil Left hand side of the Right hand side of the
(x) in cm coil (B) in Gauss coil (B) in Gauss
1 0
2 2
3 4
4 6
5 8
6 10
7 12
8 14
9 16
10 18
11 20
RESULT:
Variation of magnetic field along the axis of the circular coil is studied and concluded
that, the magnetic field is maximum at centre and it decreases when moved away from
the centre along the axis of the coil.
Viva Questions
1. What is a magnetic field in simple terms?
The magnetic field is the area around a magnet in which there is magnetic force. Moving electric
charges can make magnetic fields ..... In physics, the magnetic field is a field that passes through
space and which makes a magnetic force move electric charges and magnetic dipoles.

2. What is the magnetic Field Units?

A smaller magnetic field unit is the Gauss (1 Tesla = 10,000 Gauss). The magnetic quantity B which
is being called "magnetic field" here is sometimes called "magnetic flux density". An
older unit name for the Tesla is Weber‘s per meter squared, with the Weber being
the unit of magnetic flux.
3. State Biot-Savart‘s law? And express it in terms of equation.

The magnitude of the magnetic field intensity →𝑑→→→𝐻
→→ at a point due to the current in the differential
element is directly proportional to the product of the current I, the magnitude of the length of
the differential element dl, and the sine of the angle between the tangent drawn to the element
, and the line joining the point and the element,(sin 𝜃) and it is inversely proportional to the
Square of the distance between the point and the element( 1 ) .
𝑟2
→𝑑→→→𝐻
→→ = 𝐼 𝑑 sin 𝜃
4𝜋𝑟2
4. State Faraday‘s law of electromagnetic induction.

Faraday‘s law can be stated as ―the magnitude of induced e.m.f. (e) in a circuit is equal to the
rate of change of magnetic flux through it and it‘s direction opposes the flux change‖
e = - 𝑑𝜑
𝑑𝑡
5. Name the law to derive magnitude of magnetic field along axis of a circular coil
carrying current?
Biot - Savart law .
6. What is the meaning of 𝜇o and what is the value of it ?

It is a proportionality constant known as permeability of medium. Permeability is
the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of a magnetic field within itself.
value of 𝜇o =4π × 10-7 H/m
7. What Is the direction of magnetic Field lines move?

Magnetic field lines originate at the North Pole and terminate at the south pole of the magnet.
8. Can we see magnetic flux lines?

No, we cannot see magnetic flux lines as the ―lines of magnetic flux‖ is purely an imaginary
concept to understand the magnetic field clearly.
9. How can a magnetic field be produced?

An electric current as well as the permanent magnet produces a magnetic field whereas a
temporary magnet fails to do so.
10. What is the strength of magnetic field known as?

Strength of magnetic field is also known as magnetic flux density. It is the amount of magnetic
field lines crossing unit area.
11. If the flow of electric current is parallel to the magnetic field, then what is the force?

quantities are parallel to each other, the angle between them is zero. Sin(0) is zero, hence force is
zero.
12. Does the stationary charge is affected by the magnetic field?

A stationary charge is not affected by a magnetic field because stationary charges do not have
any velocity. Magnetic field cannot occur in a particle having zero velocity

Experiment: 16
PHET simulations
AIM
To be familiar with Free Fall motion, initial velocity, the distance traveled in vertical direction and calculate
the acceleration due to gravity using Phet simulation
Theory:
The acceleration that you are going to determine in this experiment is known as the acceleration of free fall. or
the acceleration due to gravity. Its value is often taken as 9.81 m/s2 and given the special gravity acceleration
symbol (g).
If an object is dropped from a certain height (y) and falls for a time (t), then its equation of motion can be
written as:
Where Vo is the initial velocity which is equal to zero if the object falls from rest, and the previous equation
can be rewritten as: 1 2
y  v0 t  g t
2
1 2
y g
2
t
Procedure:
1- Open the following link:
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/projectile-motion/latest/projectile-motion_en.html
2- From the home page of this link, click on lab, from lab window use the provided controllers to adjust the height
(y) and the velocity of the lunched ball, the mass, the objects shape (see the Figure ). Adjust the first height at
14m and the velocity must be at zero (Free Fall). Release the ball and use the time meter (control the time meter
and fix it at the final point of the ball) to measure the time needed for the ball to travel 14m in vertical direction.
Record your data in table 1.
3- Change the height (y) to 13m, release the ball and measure the time needed to travel 13m in the vertical
direction. Record the new values in table 1.
4- Repeat step 3 to fill table 1.
Time meter, click on the

+sign and drag it to the
final point
You can control the height (y) by clicking on

the + sign on the canon and then move it up
or down to change y.
Velocity Final point of the

controller ball
Data Analysis:
1) Complete table 1, Calculate ½ t2.

2) Plot the relationship between ½ t2 and y.

3) From the graph find the acceleration of gravity (g) which is equal to the slope.
Tabular column
y(m) t(s)
1
t 
2
s 2
2
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
RESULT
The acceleration due to gravity was found to be =

Experiment: 17
Study of motion using spredsheets
AIM
Spreadsheets are used to analyze the motion of falling objects with different terminal velocities
Theory
Free fall is a special type of motion in which the only force acting upon an object is gravity. Objects that are said to be
undergoing free fall, are not encountering a significant force of air resistance; they are falling under the sole influence
of gravity. Under such conditions, all objects will fall with the same rate of acceleration, regardless of their mass.
Procedure
1. The first step is to determine and input the quantities used in the calculations.
2. In cells A4 to D9, input physical quantities, namely gravity (𝑔), number of steps (𝑛), time interval (𝑑𝑡),
terminal velocity (𝑣𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙), mass (𝑚), and coefficient of drag (𝑏). For the value of 𝑏 input the formula
3. In cells A13 to D13, enter the quantities of time, position, velocity, and acceleration.
4. After that, cell A14 as the starting time, B14 as the starting position, and C14 as the initial speed, each input
the value 0.
5. Next, in cell A14, input the following formula
=A14+dt
then copy-paste until cell A200.
6. In cell D14, input the following formula
a==g-(C14/vterm)^n
For the cells below it up to D200, input the following formula: =g*(1-(C15/vterm)^n)
7. Next, in cell B15, input the following formula
=B14+(C14+C15)*s/2
8. In cell C15, input the following formula:
=C14+D14*dt
9. Plot a graph of position,velocity and acceleration as shown below
Result
The results of the visualization using a spreadsheet show that the larger the terminal velocity value, the more curved the
graph of the position versus time function, while the velocity and acceleration graphs tend to be linear.


Department of Physics
Vision
To provide quality basic education and training in Basic Science
Mission
 To be a dynamic and competitive center of excellence in learning,

teaching and research in Basic Science to ensure that the technical
needs of students are addressed.
 Aiming for perfection and making them into better engineering
graduates.

Vision of the Institute
“To create a community of knowledgeable and competent engineers to

embody global standards of excellence and drive innovation and progress in
industries, businesses, and research organizations around the world.”
Mission of the Institute
“To facilitate an inclusive and supportive learning environment that

fosters collaboration, creativity, and the pursuit of excellence in
engineering.”

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Sri Raghavendra Educational Institutions Society(R)

Sri Krishna Institute of Technology

Name of the Student:

Sri Krishna Institute of Technology

4. Attendance will be a part of the internal assessment marks.

7. Strict discipline should be maintained inside the laboratory.

Sri Krishna Institute of Technology

where λ = wavelength of laser light measured in m

where m = difference between the order of spots

Department of Physics Page 1

Sl Distance b/w grating Distance b/w central to

2) Who discovered diffraction of light?

3) When does diffraction takes place?

5) Name the theory of light which explains diffraction.

Department of Physics Page 2

7) How is grating made?

8) Who constructed the grating for the first time?

9) What is grating element?

10) The word LASER stands for what?

11) What is basic principle of Laser?

12) What is induced absorption?

13) What is spontaneous emission?

14) What is stimulated emission?

15) What is LASER?

16) What is population inversion?

17) What is meant by optical pumping?

Department of Physics Page 3

Where, θ – is acceptance angle

2. Numerical aperture (NA) = sin 𝜃

Department of Physics Page 4

Sl. No. Diameter(D) (mm) L (mm) θ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

RESULT: 1. Numerical aperture of the given OFC = --------------------

2. Acceptance angle of the given OFC = -----------------------

2. What type of materials are used for core and cladding

3. On what physical principle,does the optical fiber work?

4. What is Total internal reflection of light?

5. What is critical angle?

Department of Physics Page 5

7. Define Snell‘s law.

8. Define numerical aperture and give it‘s equation?

9. What is wave guide acceptance angle?

10. Define Fractional index change( ).

11. Write the relation between NA and fractional index change .

12. What is v-number?

13. Which are the types of optical fibers?

14. What is attenuation?

15. Which are the causes of attenuation?

Department of Physics Page 6

16. Mention the application of optical fiber.

Department of Physics Page 7

3. Series spring constant(KS) can be calculated using the formula.

Where x s– is the mean displacement for 50gm in series combination = ------- m

4. Parallel spring constant(Kp) can be calculated using the formula.

5. Theoretically KS & KP can be calculated by using below formula.

` KS = 𝐾1𝐾2 =----------- N/m

PROCEDURE: The experiment is divided in four parts as follows

Department of Physics Page 8

Department of Physics Page 9

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION