Russian Invasion of Ukraine - Wikipedia
Russian Invasion of Ukraine - Wikipedia
Russian Invasion of Ukraine - Wikipedia
Before the invasion, Russian troops massed near Date 24 February 2022 – present
Ukraine's borders as Russian officials denied any plans (2 years, 2 months and 1 day)
to attack. Russian president Vladimir Putin announced Location Ukraine, Russia, Black Sea
a "special military operation" to support the Russian- Status Ongoing (list of engagements ·
backed breakaway republics of Donetsk and Luhansk, territorial control · timeline of
whose paramilitary forces had been fighting Ukraine in events)
the Donbas conflict since 2014. Putin espoused
irredentist views challenging Ukraine's right to exist, Belligerents
and falsely claimed that Ukraine was governed by neo- Russia Ukraine[c]
Nazis persecuting the Russian minority. He said his
goal was to "demilitarise and denazify" Ukraine. Donetsk PR[a]
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the year had petered out with only small amounts of In February 2023:
territory retaken. 300,000+ active
personnel in Ukraine[8]
The invasion was met with international Casualties and losses
condemnation. The United Nations General Assembly Reports vary widely, see § Casualties for
passed a resolution condemning the invasion and details.
demanding a full Russian withdrawal in March 2022.
The International Court of Justice ordered Russia to
suspend military operations and the Council of Europe expelled Russia. Many countries imposed
sanctions on Russia and its ally Belarus, and provided humanitarian and military aid to Ukraine. The
Baltic states all declared Russia a terrorist state. Protests occurred around the world, along with mass
arrests of anti-war protesters in Russia, which also enacted a law enabling greater media censorship.
Over 1,000 companies closed their operations in Russia and Belarus as a result of the invasion. The
International Criminal Court (ICC) opened investigations into possible crimes against humanity, war
crimes, abduction of children, and genocide. The ICC issued four arrest warrants in that regard: for
Putin and Maria Lvova-Belova in March 2023, alleging responsibility for the unlawful deportation of
children, as well as for commanders Sergey Kobylash and Viktor Sokolov in 2024, for alleged war
crimes.[15]
Background
International treaties
In return for security guarantees, Ukraine signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1994,
agreeing to dismantle the nuclear weapons the former USSR had left in Ukraine.[16] Russia, the UK
and the US agreed in the Budapest Memorandum to uphold Ukraine's territorial integrity.[17] In 1999,
Russia signed the Charter for European Security, affirming the right of each state "to choose or change
its security arrangements" and join alliances.[18] In 2002, Putin said that Ukraine's growing relations
with NATO were no concern of Russia.[19]
However, when Ukraine and Georgia sought to join NATO in 2008, Putin warned that their
membership would be a threat to Russia.[20] Some NATO members worried about antagonizing
Russia.[21] At the 2008 Bucharest summit, NATO refused to offer Ukraine and Georgia membership,
but Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, Secretary General of NATO, also issued a statement that they would join
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one day.[22]
Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov said Russia would do everything it could to
prevent this. [23] Putin claimed that NATO members had promised in 1990 not to let Eastern
European countries join. That statement is disputed.[24]
The annexation of Crimea and the war in Donbas sparked a wave of Russian nationalism and Russian
fascism, with calls to annex more Ukrainian land for Novorossiya (New Russia).[36] Analyst Vladimir
Socor called Putin's 2014 speech following the annexation a "manifesto of Greater-Russia
Irredentism".[37] Putin utilised the Kosovo independence precedent and NATO bombing of Yugoslavia
as a justification for his involvement in the annexation of Crimea and the war in Donbas.[38][39][40][41]
Finally, on December 23, 2014 (i.e. after the Russian annexation of Crimea), the Ukrainian parliament
voted to remove the neutrality clause from the Constitution of Ukraine and to actively seek Ukraine's
membership in NATO.[42][43]
Prelude
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During the second build-up, Russia demanded that NATO end all activity in Eastern Europe and ban
Ukraine or any former Soviet state from ever joining NATO.[56] Russia threatened an unspecified
military response if NATO followed an "aggressive line."[57] These demands were widely seen as non-
viable; Eastern European states have willingly joined NATO for security reasons, and their
governments sought protection from Russian irredentism.[58] A treaty to prevent Ukraine joining
would go against NATO's "open door" policy, despite NATO's unenthusiastic response to Ukrainian
requests to join.[59] NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg replied that "Russia has no say" on
whether Ukraine joins, and that "Russia has no right to establish a sphere of influence to try to control
their neighbours."[60] NATO's official policy is that it does not seek confrontation, and NATO and
Russia had co-operated until Russia annexed Crimea.[61] NATO offered to improve communication
with Russia to discuss missile placements and military exercises, as long as Russia withdrew troops
from Ukraine's borders,[62] but Russia did not do so.
French President Emmanuel Macron and German Chancellor Olaf Scholz both made efforts in
February 2022 to prevent war.[63] Macron met Putin but failed to dissuade him from the invasion.
Scholz warned Putin heavy sanctions would be imposed should he invade, and told Ukrainian
President Volodymyr Zelenskyy to declare Ukraine a neutral state and renounce its aspirations to join
NATO. Zelenskyy replied that Putin could not be trusted to uphold such a settlement.[64] Ukraine had
been a neutral country in 2014 when Russia occupied Crimea and invaded the Donbas.[65][66] On 19
February, Zelenskyy made a speech at the Munich Security Conference, calling for Western powers to
drop their policy of "appeasement" towards Moscow and implement a clear time-frame for when
Ukraine could join NATO.[67]
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Strength
The strength of Russian invading forces, including Russia-controlled "people's militias" of DPR and
LPR, is estimated at 190,000 personnel. The strength of Russian forces fighting at 24 February 2024
is estimated at 500,000.[80]
Timeline
The invasion, described as the biggest attack on a
European country since the Second World War,
began at dawn on 24 February.[70][81] Russia
launched a simultaneous ground and air campaign,
commencing air and missile strikes across
Ukraine,[82][83] with some rockets reaching as far
west as Lviv.[84] It is Russia's largest combined arms
operation since the Battle of Berlin in 1945.[85]
Fighting began in Luhansk Oblast at 3:40 a.m. Kyiv
time near Milove on the border with Russia.[86] The
main infantry and tank attacks were launched in four
Military control around Kyiv on 2 April 2022
spearheads, creating a northern front launched
towards Kyiv from Belarus, a southern front from
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Crimea, a southeastern front from Russian-controlled Donbas, and an eastern front from Russia
towards Kharkiv and Sumy.[87] Russian vehicles were subsequently marked with a white Z military
symbol (a non-Cyrillic letter), believed to be a measure to prevent friendly fire.[88]
Immediately after the invasion began, Zelenskyy declared martial law in Ukraine.[89] The same
evening, he ordered a general mobilisation of all Ukrainian males between 18 and 60 years old,[90]
prohibiting them from leaving the country.[91] Wagner Group mercenaries and Kadyrovites
contracted by the Kremlin reportedly made several attempts to assassinate Zelenskyy, including an
operation involving several hundred mercenaries meant to infiltrate Kyiv with the aim of killing the
Ukrainian president.[92] The Ukrainian government said anti-war officials within Russia's FSB shared
the plans with them.[93]
The Russian invasion was unexpectedly met by fierce Ukrainian resistance.[94] In Kyiv, Russia failed
to take the city and was repulsed in the battles of Irpin, Hostomel, and Bucha. The Russians tried to
encircle the capital, but its defenders under Oleksandr Syrskyi held their ground, effectively using
Western Javelin anti-tank missiles and Stinger anti-aircraft missiles to thin Russian supply lines and
stall the offensive.[95]
On the southern front, Russian forces had captured the regional capital of Kherson by 2 March. A
column of Russian tanks and armoured vehicles was ambushed on 9 March in Brovary and sustained
heavy losses that forced them to retreat.[96] The Russian army adopted siege tactics on the western
front around the key cities of Chernihiv, Sumy and Kharkiv, but failed to capture them due to stiff
resistance and logistical setbacks.[97] In Mykolaiv Oblast, Russian forces advanced as far as
Voznesensk, but were repelled and pushed back south of Mykolaiv. On 25 March, the Russian Defence
Ministry stated that the first stage of the "military operation" in Ukraine was "generally complete",
that the Ukrainian military forces had suffered serious losses, and the Russian military would now
concentrate on the "liberation of Donbas."[98] The "first stage" of the invasion was conducted on four
fronts, including one towards western Kyiv from Belarus by the Russian Eastern Military District,
comprising the 29th, 35th, and 36th Combined Arms Armies. A second axis, deployed towards eastern
Kyiv from Russia by the Central Military District (northeastern front), comprised the 41st Combined
Arms Army and the 2nd Guards Combined Arms Army.[99]
A third axis was deployed towards Kharkiv by the Western Military District (eastern front), with the
1st Guards Tank Army and 20th Combined Arms Army. A fourth, southern front originating in
occupied Crimea and Russia's Rostov oblast with an eastern axis towards Odesa and a western area of
operations toward Mariupol was opened by the Southern Military District, including the 58th, 49th,
and 8th Combined Arms Army, the latter also commanding the 1st and 2nd Army Corps of the
Russian separatist forces in Donbas.[99] By 7 April, Russian troops deployed to the northern front by
the Russian Eastern Military District pulled back from the Kyiv offensive, reportedly to resupply and
redeploy to the Donbas region in an effort to reinforce the renewed invasion of southeastern Ukraine.
The northeastern front, including the Central Military District, was similarly withdrawn for resupply
and redeployment to southeastern Ukraine.[99][100] On 26 April, delegates from the US and 40 allied
nations met at Ramstein Air Base in Germany to discuss the formation of a coalition that would
provide economic support in addition to military supplies and refitting to Ukraine.[101] Following
Putin's Victory Day speech in early May, US Director of National Intelligence Avril Haines said no
short term resolution to the invasion should be expected.[102]
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By 30 May, disparities between Russian and Ukrainian artillery President Volodymyr Zelenskyy with
members of the Ukrainian Army on
were apparent, with Ukrainian artillery being vastly outgunned, in
18 June 2022
terms of both range and number.[103] In response to US President
Joe Biden's indication that enhanced artillery would be provided
to Ukraine, Putin said that Russia would expand its invasion front to include new cities in Ukraine. In
apparent retribution, Putin ordered a missile strike against Kyiv on 6 June after not directly attacking
the city for several weeks.[106] On 10 June 2022, deputy head of the SBU Vadym Skibitsky stated that
during the Severodonetsk campaign, the frontlines were where the future of the invasion would be
decided: "This is an artillery war now, and we are losing in terms of artillery. Everything now depends
on what [the west] gives us. Ukraine has one artillery piece to 10 to 15 Russian artillery pieces. Our
western partners have given us about 10% of what they have."[107]
On 29 June, Reuters reported that US Intelligence Director Avril Haines, in an update of past U.S.
intelligence assessments on the Russian invasion, said that U.S. intelligence agencies agree that the
invasion will continue "for an extended period of time ... In short, the picture remains pretty grim and
Russia's attitude toward the West is hardening."[108] On 5 July, BBC reported that extensive
destruction by the Russian invasion would cause immense financial damage to Ukraine's
reconstruction economy, with Ukrainian Prime Minister Denys Shmyhal telling nations at a
reconstruction conference in Switzerland that Ukraine needs $750bn for a recovery plan and Russian
oligarchs should contribute to the cost.[109]
Russia tried to seize Kyiv quickly, with Spetsnaz infiltrating into the city supported by airborne
operations and a rapid mechanized advance from the north but failed.[110][111] The United States
contacted Zelenskyy and offered to help him flee the country, lest the Russian Army attempt to kidnap
or kill him on seizing Kyiv; Zelenskyy responded that "The fight is here; I need ammunition, not a
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Northeastern front
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Russian forces advanced into Chernihiv Oblast on 24 February and besieged its administrative capital.
The next day Russian forces attacked and captured Konotop.[131][132] A separate advance into Sumy
Oblast the same day attacked the city of Sumy, just 35 kilometres (22 mi) from the Russo-Ukrainian
border. The advance bogged down in urban fighting, and Ukrainian forces successfully held the city,
claiming more than 100 Russian armoured vehicles were destroyed and dozens of soldiers had been
captured.[133] Russian forces also attacked Okhtyrka, deploying thermobaric weapons.[134]
On 4 March, Frederick Kagan wrote that the Sumy axis was then "the most successful and dangerous
Russian avenue of advance on Kyiv", and commented that the geography favoured mechanized
advances as the terrain "is flat and sparsely populated, offering few good defensive positions."[82]
Travelling along highways, Russian forces reached Brovary, an eastern suburb of Kyiv, on 4
March.[83][82] The Pentagon confirmed on 6 April that the Russian army had left Chernihiv Oblast,
but Sumy Oblast remained contested.[135] On 7 April, the governor of Sumy Oblast said that Russian
troops were gone, but had left behind rigged explosives and other hazards.[136]
Southern front
On 24 February, Russian forces took control of the North Crimean
Canal. Troops used explosives to destroy the dam across the river,
allowing Crimea to obtain water from the Dnieper, which had been
cut off since 2014.[137] On 26 February, the siege of Mariupol
began as the attack moved east linking to separatist-held
Donbas.[134][138] En route, Russian forces entered Berdiansk and
captured it.[139] On 1 March, Russian forces attacked Melitopol
and nearby cities.[140] On 25 February, Russian units from the
DPR were fighting near Pavlopil as they moved on Mariupol.[141] A destroyed Russian BMP-3 near
By evening, the Russian Navy began an amphibious assault on the Mariupol, 7 March 2022
coast of the Sea of Azov 70 kilometres (43 mi) west of Mariupol. A
US defence official said that Russian forces were deploying
thousands of marines from this beachhead.[142]
The Russian 22nd Army Corps approached the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant on 26 February[143]
and besieged Enerhodar. A fire began,[144][145] but the Ukrainian military said that essential
equipment was undamaged.[146] A third Russian attack group from Crimea moved northwest and
captured the bridge over the Dnieper.[147] On 2 March, Russian troops took Kherson; this was the first
major city to fall to Russian forces.[148] Russian troops moved on Mykolaiv and attacked it two days
later. They were repelled by Ukrainian forces.[149] On 2 March, Ukrainian forces initiated a counter-
offensive on Horlivka,[150] controlled by the DPR.[151]
After renewed missile attacks on 14 March in Mariupol, the Ukrainian government said more than
2,500 had died.[152] By 18 March, Mariupol was completely encircled and fighting reached the city
centre, hampering efforts to evacuate civilians.[153] On 20 March, an art school sheltering around 400
people, was destroyed by Russian bombs.[154] The Russians demanded surrender, and the Ukrainians
refused.[87][155] On 27 March, Ukrainian deputy prime minister Olha Stefanishyna said that "(m)ore
than 85 percent of the whole town is destroyed."[156]
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Putin told Emmanuel Macron in a phone call on 29 March that the bombardment of Mariupol would
only end when the Ukrainians surrendered.[157] On 1 April, Russian troops refused safe passage into
Mariupol to 50 buses sent by the United Nations to evacuate civilians, as peace talks continued in
Istanbul.[158] On 3 April, following the retreat of Russian forces from Kyiv, Russia expanded its attack
on southern Ukraine further west, with bombardment and strikes against Odesa, Mykolaiv, and the
Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant.[159][160]
Eastern front
In the east, Russian troops attempted to capture Kharkiv, less than
35 kilometres (22 mi) from the Russian border,[161] and met
strong Ukrainian resistance. On 25 February, the Millerovo air
base was attacked by Ukrainian military forces with OTR-21
Tochka missiles, which according to Ukrainian officials, destroyed
several Russian Air Force planes and started a fire.[84] On 1
March, Denis Pushilin, head of the DPR, announced that DPR
forces had almost completely surrounded the city of
Volnovakha.[162] On 2 March, Russian forces were repelled from
Sievierodonetsk during an attack against the city.[163] Izium was
captured by Russian forces on 1 April[164] after a monthlong
battle.[165]
Amid the heightened Russian shelling of Kharkiv on 31 March, Russian bombardment on the
Russia reported a helicopter strike against an oil supply depot outskirts of Kharkiv, 1 March 2022
approximately 35 kilometres (22 mi) north of the border in
Belgorod, and accused Ukraine of the attack.[168] Ukraine denied
responsibility.[169] By 7 April, the renewed massing of Russian invasion troops and tank divisions
around the towns of Izium, Sloviansk, and Kramatorsk prompted Ukrainian government officials to
advise the remaining residents near the eastern border of Ukraine to evacuate to western Ukraine
within 2–3 days, given the absence of arms and munitions previously promised to Ukraine by
then.[170]
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Russian Ground Forces started recruiting volunteer battalions from the regions in June 2022 to create
a new 3rd Army Corps within the Western Military District, with a planned strength estimated at
15,500–60,000 personnel.[177] Its units were deployed to the front around the time of Ukraine's 9
September Kharkiv oblast counteroffensive, in time to join the Russian retreat, leaving behind tanks,
infantry fighting vehicles, and personnel carriers: the 3rd Army Corps "melted away" according to
Forbes, having little or no impact on the battlefield along with other irregular forces.[178]
Fall of Mariupol
On 13 April, Russian forces intensified their attack on the Azovstal Iron and Steel Works in Mariupol,
and the remaining Ukrainian personnel defending it.[179] By 17 April, Russian forces had surrounded
the factory. Ukrainian Prime Minister Denys Shmyhal said that the Ukrainian soldiers had vowed to
ignore the renewed ultimatum to surrender and to fight to the last soul.[180] On 20 April, Putin said
that the siege of Mariupol could be considered tactically complete, since the 500 Ukrainian troops
entrenched in bunkers within the Azovstal iron works and estimated 1,000 Ukrainian civilians were
completely sealed off from any type of relief.[181]
After consecutive meetings with Putin and Zelenskyy, UN Secretary-General Guterres on 28 April said
he would attempt to organize an emergency evacuation of survivors from Azovstal in accordance with
assurances he had received from Putin on his visit to the Kremlin.[182] On 30 April, Russian troops
allowed civilians to leave under UN protection.[183] By 3 May, after allowing approximately 100
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Ukrainian civilians to depart from the Azovstal steel factory, Russian troops renewed their
bombardment of the steel factory.[184] On 6 May, The Daily Telegraph reported that Russia had used
thermobaric bombs against the remaining Ukrainian soldiers, who had lost contact with the Kyiv
government; in his last communications, Zelenskyy authorized the commander of the besieged steel
factory to surrender as necessary under the pressure of increased Russian attacks.[185] On 7 May, the
Associated Press reported that all civilians were evacuated from the Azovstal steel works at the end of
the three-day ceasefire.[186]
After the last civilians evacuated from the Azovstal bunkers, nearly
two thousand Ukrainian soldiers remained barricaded there, 700
of them injured. They were able to communicate a plea for a
military corridor to evacuate, as they expected summary execution
if they surrendered to Russian forces.[187] Reports of dissent
within the Ukrainian troops at Azovstal were reported by
Ukrainska Pravda on 8 May indicating that the commander of the
A children's hospital in Mariupol
Ukrainian marines assigned to defend the Azovstal bunkers made after a Russian airstrike
an unauthorized acquisition of tanks, munitions, and personnel,
broke out from the position there and fled. The remaining soldiers
spoke of a weakened defensive position in Azovstal as a result, which allowed progress to advancing
Russian lines of attack.[188] Ilia Somolienko, deputy commander of the remaining Ukrainian troops
barricaded at Azovstal, said: "We are basically here dead men. Most of us know this and it's why we
fight so fearlessly."[189]
On 16 May, the Ukrainian General staff announced that the Mariupol garrison had "fulfilled its
combat mission" and that final evacuations from the Azovstal steel factory had begun. The military
said that 264 service members were evacuated to Olenivka under Russian control, while 53 of them
who were "seriously injured" had been taken to a hospital in Novoazovsk also controlled by Russian
forces.[190][191] Following the evacuation of Ukrainian personnel from Azovstal, Russian and DPR
forces fully controlled all areas of Mariupol. The end of the battle also brought an end to the Siege of
Mariupol. Russia press secretary Dmitry Peskov said Russian President Vladimir Putin had
guaranteed that the fighters who surrendered would be treated "in accordance with international
standards" while Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy said in an address that "the work of
bringing the boys home continues, and this work needs delicacy—and time." Some prominent Russian
lawmakers called on the government to deny prisoner exchanges for members of the Azov
Regiment.[192]
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On 12 June, it was reported that possibly as many as 800 Ukrainian civilians (as per Ukrainian
estimates) and 300–400 soldiers (as per Russian sources) were besieged at the Azot chemical factory
in Severodonetsk.[208][209] With the Ukrainian defences of Severodonetsk faltering, Russian invasion
troops began intensifying their attack upon the neighbouring city of Lysychansk as their next target
city in the invasion.[210] On 20 June it was reported that Russian troops continued to tighten their
grip on Severodonetsk by capturing surrounding villages and hamlets surrounding the city, most
recently the village of Metelkine.[211]
On 24 June, CNN reported that, amid continuing scorched-earth tactics being applied by advancing
Russian troops, Ukraine's armed forces were ordered to evacuate the Severodonetsk; several hundred
civilians taking refuge in the Azot chemical plant were left behind in the withdrawal, with some
comparing their plight to that of the civilians at the Azovstal steel works in Mariupol in May.[212] On 3
July, CBS announced that the Russian defence ministry claimed that the city of Lysychansk had been
captured and occupied by Russian forces.[213] On 4 July, The Guardian reported that after the fall of
the Luhansk oblast, that Russian invasion troops would continue their invasion into the adjacent
Donetsk Oblast to attack the cities of Sloviansk and Bakhmut.[214]
Kharkiv front
On 14 April, Ukrainian troops reportedly blew up a bridge between Kharkiv and Izium used by
Russian forces to redeploy troops to Izium, impeding the Russian convoy.[215]
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On 5 May, David Axe writing for Forbes stated that the Ukrainian
army had concentrated its 4th and 17th Tank Brigades and the
95th Air Assault Brigade around Izium for possible rearguard
action against the deployed Russian troops in the area; Axe added
that the other major concentration of Ukraine's forces around
Kharkiv included the 92nd and 93rd Mechanised Brigades which
could similarly be deployed for rearguard action against Russian
troops around Kharkiv or link up with Ukrainian troops
Saltivka residential area after the
contemporaneously being deployed around Izium.[216] battle of Kharkiv on 19 May 2022
Kherson-Mykolaiv front
Missile attacks and bombardment of the key cities of Mykolaiv and
Odesa continued as the second phase of the invasion began.[172]
On 22 April 2022, Russia's Brigadier General Rustam Minnekayev
in a defence ministry meeting said that Russia planned to extend
its Mykolaiv–Odesa front after the siege of Mariupol further west
to include the breakaway region of Transnistria on the Ukrainian
border with Moldova.[218] The Ministry of Defence of Ukraine
called this plan imperialism and said that it contradicted previous Ukrainian soldiers in reclaimed
Russian claims that it did not have territorial ambitions in Ukraine Vysokopillia in September 2022
and also that the statement admitted that "the goal of the 'second during the 2022 Kherson
phase' of the war is not victory over the mythical Nazis, but simply counteroffensive
the occupation of eastern and southern Ukraine." [218] Georgi
Gotev of EURACTIV noted on 22 April that Russian occupation
from Odesa to Transnistria would transform Ukraine into a landlocked nation with no practical access
to the Black Sea.[219] Russia resumed its missile strikes on Odesa on 24 April, destroying military
facilities and causing two dozen civilian casualties.[220]
Explosions destroyed two Russian broadcast towers in Transnistria on 27 April that had primarily
rebroadcast Russian television programming, Ukrainian sources said.[221] Russian missile attacks at
the end of April destroyed runways in Odesa.[222] In the week of 10 May, Ukrainian troops began to
dislodge Russian forces from Snake Island in the Black Sea approximately 200 kilometres (120 mi)
from Odesa.[223] Russia said on 30 June 2022 that it had withdrawn its troops from the island, once
their objectives had been completed.[224]
On 23 July, CNBC reported a Russian missile strike on the Ukrainian port of Odesa, swiftly
condemned by world leaders amid a recent U.N. and Turkish-brokered deal to secure a sea corridor
for exports of grains and other foodstuffs.[225] On 31 July, CNN reported significantly intensified
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rocket attacks and bombing of Mykolaiv by Russians, which also killed Ukrainian grain tycoon Oleksiy
Vadaturskyi.[226]
Zaporizhzhia front
Russian forces continued to fire missiles and drop bombs on the
key cities of Dnipro and Zaporizhzhia.[172] Russian missiles
destroyed the Dnipro International Airport on 10 April 2022.[227]
On 2 May, the UN, reportedly with the cooperation of Russian
troops, evacuated about 100 survivors from the siege of Mariupol
to the village of Bezimenne near Donetsk, from whence they would
move to Zaporizhzhia.[228] On 28 June, Reuters reported that a French president Emmanuel Macron
Russian missile attack on the city of Kremenchuk northwest of called the Russian missile attack on
Zaporizhzhia detonated in a public mall and caused at least 18 a shopping mall in Kremenchuk on
deaths. France's Emmanuel Macron called it a "war crime."[229] 28 June 2022 a "war crime"
Russia reported that 12 attacks with explosions from 50 artillery shells had been recorded by 18
August at the plant and the company town of Enerhodar.[232] Tobias Ellwood, chair of the UK's
Defence Select Committee, said on 19 August that any deliberate damage to the Zaporizhzhia nuclear
plant that could cause radiation leaks would be a breach of Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty,
under which an attack on a member state of NATO is an attack on them all. US congressman Adam
Kinzinger said the following day that any radiation leak would kill people in NATO countries, an
automatic activation of Article 5.[233][234]
750 kV line and reactor 6 resumed operation at 12:29 p.m., but the line was cut by fire again two
hours later. The line, but not the reactors, resumed operation again later that day.[235] On 26 August,
one reactor restarted in the afternoon and another in the evening, resuming electricity supplies to the
grid.[236] On 29 August 2022, an IAEA team led by Rafael Grossi went to the plant to investigate.[237]
Lydie Evrard and Massimo Aparo were also on the team. No leaks had been reported at the plant
before their arrival, but shelling had occurred days before.[238]
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On 30 September 2022, Vladimir Putin announced the annexation of Ukraine's Donetsk, Luhansk,
Kherson and Zaporizhzhia regions in an address to both houses of the Russian parliament.[246]
Ukraine, the United States, the European Union and the United Nations all denounced the annexation
as illegal.[247]
Zaporizhzhia front
An IAEA delegation visited the Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plant
on 3 September, and on 6 September reported damage and
security threats caused by external shelling and the presence of
occupying troops in the plant.[248] On 11 September, at 3:14 a.m.,
the sixth and final reactor was disconnected from the grid,
"completely stopping" the plant. Energoatom said that
preparations were "underway for its cooling and transfer to a cold
state."[249] Damage to a residential building in
Zaporizhzhia following an airstrike
In the early hours of 9 October 2022, Russian Armed Forces on 9 October 2022.
carried out an airstrike on a residential building in Zaporizhzhia,
killing 13 civilians and injuring 89 others.[250]
Kherson counteroffensive
On 29 August, Zelenskyy advisedly vowed the start of a full-scale
counteroffensive in the southeast. He first announced a
counteroffensive to retake Russian-occupied territory in the south
concentrating on the Kherson-Mykolaiv region, a claim that was
corroborated by the Ukrainian parliament as well as Operational
Command South.[251]
In October, Ukrainian forces pushed further south towards the city of Kherson, taking control of 1,170
square kilometres (450 sq mi) of territory, with fighting extending to Dudchany.[255][256] On 9
November, defence minister Shoigu ordered Russian forces to leave part of Kherson Oblast, including
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the city of Kherson, and move to the eastern bank of the Dnieper.[257] On 11 November, Ukrainian
troops entered Kherson, as Russia completed its withdrawal. This meant that Russian forces no longer
had a foothold on the west (right) bank of the Dnieper.[258]
Kharkiv counteroffensive
Ukrainian forces launched another surprise
counteroffensive on 6 September in the Kharkiv region
near Balakliia led by General Syrskyi.[239] By 7
September, Ukrainian forces had advanced some 20
kilometres (12 mi) into Russian occupied territory and
claimed to have recaptured approximately 400 square
kilometres (150 sq mi). Russian commentators said
this was likely due to the relocation of Russian forces
to Kherson in response to the Ukrainian offensive
there.[259] On 8 September, Ukrainian forces captured
Balakliia and advanced to within 15 kilometres
(9.3 mi) of Kupiansk.[260] Military analysts said
Ukrainian forces appeared to be moving towards
Kupiansk, a major railway hub, with the aim of cutting
off the Russian forces at Izium from the north.[261]
By 15 September, an assessment by UK's Ministry of Defence confirmed that Russia had either lost or
withdrawn from almost all of their positions west of the Oskil river. The retreating units had also
abandoned various high-value military assets.[267] The offensive continued pushing east and by 2
October, Ukrainian Armed Forces had liberated another key city in the Second Battle of Lyman.[268]
Winter stalemate, attrition campaign and military surge (12 November 2022 – 7
June 2023)
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On 7 February, The New York Times reported that Russians had newly mobilised nearly 200,000
soldiers to participate in the offensive in the Donbas, against Ukraine troops already wearied by
previous fighting.[273] The Russian private military company Wagner Group took on greater
prominence in the war,[274] leading "grinding advances" in Bakhmut with tens of thousands of
recruits from prison battalions taking part in "near suicidal" assaults on Ukrainian positions.[271]
In late January 2023, fighting intensified in the southern Zaporizhzhia region, with both sides
suffering heavy casualties.[275] In nearby southern parts of Donetsk Oblast, an intense, three-week
Russian assault near the coal-mining town of Vuhledar was called the largest tank battle of the war to
date, and ended in disaster for Russian forces, who lost "at least 130 tanks and armored personnel
carriers" according to Ukrainian commanders. The British Ministry of Defence stated that "a whole
Russian brigade was effectively annihilated."[276][277]
Battle of Bakhmut
Following defeat in Kherson and Kharkiv, Russian and Wagner
forces have focused on taking the city of Bakhmut and breaking
the half year long stalemate that has prevailed there since the start
of the war. Russian forces have sought to encircle the city,
attacking from the north via Soledar. After taking heavy casualties,
Russian and Wagner forces took control of Soledar on 16 January
2023.[278][279] By early February 2023, Bakhmut was facing View of western Bakhmut during the
attacks from north, south and east, with the sole Ukrainian supply battle, 5 April 2023
lines coming from Chasiv Yar to the west.[280]
On 3 March 2023, Ukrainian soldiers destroyed two key bridges, creating the possibility for a
controlled fighting withdrawal from eastern sectors of Bakhmut.[281] On 4 March, Bakhmut's deputy
mayor told news services that there was street fighting in the city.[282] On 7 March, despite the city's
near-encirclement, The New York Times reported that Ukrainian commanders were requesting
permission from Kyiv to continue fighting against the Russians in Bakhmut.[283]
On 26 March, Wagner Group forces claimed to have fully captured the tactically significant Azom
factory in Bakhmut.[284] Appearing before the House Committee on Armed Services on 29 March,
General Mark Milley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, reported that, "for about the last 20, 21
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days, the Russia have not made any progress whatsoever in and around Bakhmut." Milley described
the severe casualties being inflicted upon the Russian forces there as a "slaughter-fest."[285]
By the beginning of May, the ISW assessed that Ukraine controlled only 1.89 square kilometres
(0.73 sq mi) of the city, less than five percent.[286] On 18 May 2023, The New York Times reported
that Ukrainian forces had launched a local counteroffensive, taking back swathes of territory to the
north and south of Bakhmut over the course of a few days.[287]
In August, The Guardian reported that Ukraine had become the most mined country in the world,
with Russia laying millions of mines attempting to thwart Ukraine's counteroffensive. The vast
minefields forced Ukraine to extensively de-mine areas to allow advances. Ukrainian officials reported
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shortages of men and equipment as Ukrainian soldiers unearth five mines for every square metre in
certain places.[298]
Following Russia pulling out of the Black Sea Grain Initiative, the
conflict on the Black Sea escalated with Ukraine targeting Russian
ships. On 4 August, Ukrainian security service sources reported
that the Russian landing ship Olenegorsky Gornyak had been hit
and damaged by an unmanned naval drone. Video footage
released by Ukraine's security services appeared to show the drone
striking the ship, with another video showing the ship seemingly
listing to one side.[299] On 12 September, both Ukrainian and
School lessons of pupils in Kharkiv
Russian sources reported that Russian naval targets in Sevastopol city, conducted in the metro due to
had been struck by unconfirmed weaponry, damaging two military the danger of Russian shelling
vessels, one of them reportedly a submarine.[300] Ukraine also
reported that several oil and gas drilling platforms on the Black
Sea held by Russia since 2015 had been retaken.[301]
In October 2023, it was reported that there was a growth of mutinies among Russian troops due to a
large amount of losses in Russian offensives around Avdiivka with a lack of artillery, food, water, and
poor command also being reported.[308] By November, British intelligence said that recent weeks had
"likely seen some of the highest Russian casualty rates of the war so far."[309]
On 1 December 2023, Volodymyr Zelenskyy stated that the Ukrainian counter-offensive was not
successful, citing slower than expected results.[312] Zelenskyy also stated that it will be easier for
Ukraine to regain the Crimean peninsula than the Donbas region in the east of the country because
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the Donbas is heavily militarised and there are frequent pro-Russian sentiments.[313] In December
2023, multiple international media outlets described the Ukrainian counteroffensive as having failed
to regain any significant amount of territory or meet any of its strategic objectives.[312][314][315]
On 17 February 2024, Russia captured Avdiivka, a longtime stronghold for Ukraine that had been
described as a "gateway" to nearby Donetsk.[323][324][325] ABC News stated that Russia could use the
development to boost morale with the war largely at a stalemate close to its second anniversary.[326]
Described by Forbes as a pyrrhic Russian victory, the Russian 2nd and 41st Combined Arms Armies
ended up with 16,000 men killed, tens of thousands wounded and around 700 vehicles lost before
seizing the ruins of Avdiivka.[327] Andrey Morozov, a prominent pro-war Russian blogger, reportedly
died by suicide following a post revealing the large number of Russian casualties during the
battle.[328]
Ukraine's shortage of ammunition caused by political deadlock in the U.S. Congress and a lack of
production capacity in Europe contributed to the Ukrainian withdrawal from Avdiivka, and was
″being felt across the front″ according to Time. The shortage resulted in Ukraine having to ration its
units to fire only 2,000 rounds per day, compared to an estimated 10,000 rounds fired daily by
Russia.[329]
On 29 February, the Ukrainian Air Force reported a spree of shooting down 11 Russian jets in 11 days:
eight Su-34s, two Sukhoi Su-35 fighters, and a rare Beriev A-50 radar plane.[330][331]
Battlespaces
Command
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In December, drones launched from Ukraine allegedly carried out several attacks on Dyagilevo and
Engels air bases in western Russia, killing 10 and heavily damaging two Tu-95 aircraft.[343]
Crimea attacks
On 10 March 2023, The New York Times reported that Russia had used new hypersonic missiles in a
massive missile attack on Ukraine. Such missiles are more effective in evading conventional Ukrainian
anti-missile defences that had previously proved useful against Russia's conventional, non-hypersonic
missile systems.[355]
The Russian cruiser Moskva, the flagship of the Black Sea Fleet, was, according to Ukrainian sources
and a US senior official,[369] hit on 13 April by two Ukrainian Neptune anti-ship cruise missiles,
setting the ship afire. The Russian Defence Ministry said the warship had suffered serious damage
from a munition explosion caused by a fire, and that its entire crew had been evacuated.[370] Pentagon
spokesman John Kirby reported on 14 April that satellite images showed that the Russian warship had
suffered a sizeable explosion onboard but was heading to the east for expected repairs and refitting in
Sevastopol.[371] Later the same day, the Russian Ministry of Defence stated that the Moskva had sunk
while under tow in rough weather.[372] On 15 April, Reuters reported that Russia launched an
apparent retaliatory missile strike against the missile factory Luch Design Bureau in Kyiv where the
Neptune missiles used in the Moskva attack were manufactured and designed.[373] On 5 May, a US
official confirmed that the US gave "a range of intelligence" (including real-time battlefield targeting
intelligence)[374] to assist in the sinking of the Moskva.[375]
In early May, Ukrainian forces launched counterattacks on Snake Island. The Russian Ministry of
Defence claimed to have repelled these counterattacks. Ukraine released footage of a Russian Serna-
class landing craft being destroyed in the Black Sea near Snake Island by a Ukrainian drone.[376] The
same day, a pair of Ukrainian Su-27s conducted a high-speed, low level bombing run on Russian-
occupied Snake Island; the attack was captured on film by a Baykar Bayraktar TB2 drone.[377] On 1
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June, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov asserted that Ukraine's policy of mining its harbours to
impede Russia maritime aggression had contributed to the food export crisis, saying: "If Kyiv solves
the problem of demining ports, the Russian Navy will ensure the unimpeded passage of ships with
grain to the Mediterranean Sea."[378] On 30 June 2022, Russia announced that it had withdrawn its
troops from the island in a "gesture of goodwill."[224] The withdrawal was later confirmed by
Ukraine.[379]
Nuclear risk
Four days into the invasion, President Putin placed Russia's nuclear forces on high alert, raising fears
that Russia could use tactical nuclear weapons against Ukraine, or a wider escalation of the conflict
could occur.[380] Putin alluded in April to the use of nuclear weapons, and Russian foreign minister
Sergei Lavrov said there was a "real" danger of a World War III.[381] On 14 April 2022, CIA director
William Burns said that "potential desperation" in the face of defeat could encourage President Putin
to use tactical nuclear weapons.[382] In response to Russia's disregard of safety precautions during its
occupation of the disabled former nuclear power plant at Chernobyl and its firing of missiles in the
vicinity of the active Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, Zelenskyy called on 26 April for an
international discussion on Russia's use of nuclear resources, saying: "no one in the world can feel
safe knowing how many nuclear facilities, nuclear weapons and related technologies the Russian state
has ... If Russia has forgotten what Chernobyl is, it means that global control over Russia's nuclear
facilities, and nuclear technology is needed."[383]
In August 2022, shelling around the Zaporizhzhia power plant became a crisis, prompting an
emergency inspection by the IAEA. Ukraine described the crisis nuclear terrorism by Russia.[384] On
19 September, President Biden warned of a "consequential response from the U.S." if Russia were to
resort to using nuclear weapons in the conflict.[385] Before the United Nations on 21 September Biden
criticized Putin's nuclear sabre-rattling, calling Putin was "overt, reckless and irresponsible... A
nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought."[386] In March 2023, Putin announced plans to
install Russian tactical nuclear weapons in Belarus.[387]
Ukrainian resistance
Ukrainian civilians resisted the Russian invasion by volunteering
for territorial defence units, making Molotov cocktails, donating
food, building barriers like Czech hedgehogs,[388] and helping to
transport refugees.[389] Responding to a call from Ukravtodor,
Ukraine's transportation agency, civilians dismantled or altered
road signs,[390] constructed makeshift barriers, and blocked
roadways.[391] Social media reports showed spontaneous street
protests against Russian forces in occupied settlements, often
Civilians in Kyiv preparing Molotov
evolving into verbal altercations and physical standoffs with cocktails, 26 February 2022
Russian troops.[392] By the beginning of April, Ukrainian civilians
began to organize as guerrillas, mostly in the wooded north and
east of the country. The Ukrainian military announced plans for a large-scale guerrilla campaign to
complement its conventional defence.[393]
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People physically blocked Russian military vehicles, sometimes forcing them to retreat.[392][394] The
Russian soldiers' response to unarmed civilian resistance varied from reluctance to engage the
protesters,[392] to firing into the air, to firing directly into crowds.[395] There have been mass
detentions of Ukrainian protesters, and Ukrainian media has reported forced disappearances, mock
executions, hostage-taking, extrajudicial killings, and sexual violence perpetrated by the Russian
military.[396] To facilitate Ukrainian attacks, civilians reported Russian military positions via a
Telegram chatbot and Diia, a Ukrainian government app previously used by citizens to upload official
identity and medical documents. In response, Russian forces began destroying mobile phone network
equipment, searching door-to-door for smartphones and computers, and in at least one case killing a
civilian who had pictures of Russian tanks.[397]
As of 21 May 2022, Zelenskyy indicated that Ukraine had 700,000 service members on active duty
fighting the Russian invasion.[398] Ukraine withdrew soldiers and military equipment back to Ukraine
over the course of 2022 that had been deployed to United Nations peacekeeping missions like
MONUSCO in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[399]
International aspects
Reactions
The invasion received widespread international condemnation
from governments and intergovernmental organizations.[400] On
2 March 2022 and on 23 February 2023, 141 member states of the
UN General Assembly voted for a resolution saying that Russia
should immediately withdraw. Seven, including Russia, voted
against the measure.[401] Political reactions to the invasion
UN General Assembly Resolution
included new sanctions imposed on Russia, which triggered
ES-11/1 vote on 2 March 2022
widespread economic effects on the Russian and world condemning the invasion of Ukraine
economies.[402] Sanctions forced Russia to reorient its oil exports and demanding a complete
to non-sanctioning countries such as India, rely more on LNG withdrawal of Russian troops
(which was not subject to European Union sanctions), and shift its In favour
coal exports to from Europe to Asia.[403] Most European countries Against
cancelled nuclear cooperation with Russia.[404] Abstained
Absent
Over seventy sovereign states and the European Union delivered Non-member
humanitarian aid to Ukraine, and nearly fifty countries plus the
EU provided military aid.[405] Economic sanctions included a ban
on Russian aircraft using EU airspace,[406] a ban of certain Russian banks from the SWIFT
international payments system, and a ban on certain Russian media outlets.[407] Reactions to the
invasion have included public response, media responses, peace efforts, and the examination of the
legal implications of the invasion.
The invasion received widespread international public condemnation. Some countries, particularly in
the Global South, saw public sympathy or outright support for Russia, due in part to distrust of US
foreign policy.[408] Protests and demonstrations were held worldwide, including some in Russia and
parts of Ukraine occupied by Russia.[409] Calls for a boycott of Russian goods spread on social media
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platforms,[410]
while hackers attacked Russian websites, particularly those operated by the Russian
government.[411]Anti-Russian sentiment against Russians living abroad surged after the invasion.[412]
In March 2022, Russian President Putin introduced prison sentences of up to 15 years for publishing
"fake news" about Russian military operations,[413] intended to suppress any criticism related to the
war.[414]
According to the Economist Intelligence Unit in 2023, 31 percent of the world's population live in
countries that are leaning towards or supportive of Russia, 30.7 percent live in neutral countries, and
36.2 percent live in countries that are against Russia in some way.[415]
By October 2022, three countries—Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia—had declared Russia a "terrorist
state."[416] On 1 August, Iceland became the first European country to close its embassy in Russia as a
result of the invasion of Ukraine.[417]
The invasion prompted Ukraine,[418] Finland and Sweden to officially apply for NATO
membership.[419] Finland became a member of NATO on 4 April 2023,[420] followed by Sweden on 7
March 2024.[421]
A documentary film produced during the siege of Mariupol, 20 Days in Mariupol, won the Oscar for
Best Documentary in 2024.[422]
Foreign involvement
The Kiel Institute tracked $155.9 billion from 41 countries and
European Union institutions in financial, humanitarian, and
military aid to Ukraine from 24 January 2022 to 24 February
2023.[423] NATO is coordinating and helping member states to
provide billions of dollars in military equipment and financial aid
to Ukraine.[424] The Kiel Institute tracked $380 billion in aid to
Countries sending lethal military
Ukraine from January 2022 to 15 January 2024, including nearly
equipment to Ukraine
$118 billion in direct military aid from individual countries.[425]
Countries sending non-lethal
military aid to Ukraine
The United States has provided the most military assistance,[426]
Russia
having committed over $46.3 billion from 24 February 2022 to 15
Ukraine
January 2024.[425][e] Many NATO allies, including Germany, have
reversed past policies against providing offensive military aid to
support Ukraine. The European Union, for the first time in its history, supplied lethal arms and has
provided €3.1 billion to Ukraine.[429] Bulgaria, a major manufacturer of Soviet-pattern weapons, has
covertly supplied more than €2 billion worth of arms and ammunition to Ukraine, including a third of
the ammunition needed by the Ukrainian military in the critical early phase of the invasion; Bulgaria
also provides fuel supplies and has, at times, covered 40% of the fuel needed by the Ukrainian armed
forces.[430]
Foreign involvement in the invasion has been worldwide and extensive, with support ranging from
foreign military sales and aid, foreign military involvement, foreign sanctions and ramifications, and
foreign condemnation and protest.[432] The US adopted a policy of "no boots on the ground" in
Ukraine.[433] Western and other countries imposed limited sanctions on Russia for recognizing the
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Belarus has allowed Russia to use its territory to stage part of the Countries on Russia's
invasion, and to launch Russian missiles into Ukraine.[435] "Unfriendly Countries List". The list
includes countries that have
Politico reported in March 2023 that Chinese state-owned imposed sanctions against Russia
weapons manufacturer Norinco shipped assault rifles, drone parts, for its invasion of Ukraine.[431]
and body armor to Russia between June and December 2022, with
some shipments via third countries including Turkey and the
United Arab Emirates.[436] According to the United States, Chinese ammunition has been used on
battlefields in Ukraine.[437] In May 2023, the European Union identified that Chinese and UAE firms
were supplying weapon components to Russia.[438]
In June 2023, US military intel suggested Iran was providing UAV production material to Russia.[439]
On 21 September 2023, Poland said it would cease sending arms to Ukraine after a dispute between
the two countries over grain.[440]
According to the US, North Korea has supplied Russia with ballistic missiles and launchers although
US authorities did not mention the specific models. Based on debris left by missiles on 30 December
2023 attacks against Ukrainian targets show parts common to KN-23, KN-24, and KN-25
missiles.[441][442]
In February 2024, a Reuters report indicated that Iran sent ballistic missiles to the Russian
military.[443] In April 2024, China was reported to have supplied Russia with geospatial intelligence,
machine tools for tanks, and propellants for missiles.[444]
Casualties
Russian and Ukrainian sources have both been said to inflate the
casualty numbers for opposing forces and downplay their losses
for the sake of morale.[445] Leaked US documents say that "under-
reporting of casualties within the [Russian] system highlights the
military's 'continuing reluctance' to convey bad news up the chain
of command."[446] Russian news outlets have largely stopped
reporting the Russian death toll.[447] Russia and Ukraine have
admitted suffering "significant"[448] and "considerable" losses,
Photos of Ukrainian soldiers killed in
respectively.[449][450] BBC News has reported that Ukrainian the Russo-Ukrainian War
reports of Russian casualty figures included the
injured. [451][452][453]
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While combat deaths can be inferred from a variety of sources including satellite imagery of military
action, civilian deaths can be more difficult. On 16 June 2022, the Ukrainian Minister of Defence told
CNN that he believed that tens of thousands of Ukrainians had died, adding that he hoped that the
total death toll was below 100,000.[457] In the destroyed city of Mariupol alone, Ukrainian officials
believe that at least 25,000 have been killed,[458][459] and bodies were still being discovered in
September 2022.[460] The mayor said over 10,000 and possibly as many as 20,000 civilians died in
the siege of Mariupol and that Russian forces had brought mobile cremation equipment with them
when they entered the city.[461][462] Researcher Dan Ciuriak from C. D. Howe Institute in August
2022 estimates the number of killed Mariupol civilians at 25,000,[463] and an investigation by AP
from the end of 2022 gives a number of up to 75,000 killed civilians in the Mariupol area
alone.[464][465] AFP says that "a key gap in casualty counts is the lack of information from Russian-
occupied places like the port city of Mariupol, where tens of thousands of civilians are believed to have
died".[466] According to a recent study by Human Rights Watch and two other organizations, there
were at least 8,034 excess deaths in Mariupol between March 2022 and February 2023.[467] The
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) reports similar issues
and believed that the true civilian casualty numbers were significantly higher than it has been able to
confirm.[468]
Confirmed casualties
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24 February 2022 – 23
13,287 killed, 19,464 injured
February 2023 Benjamin J. Radford et al.[482]
Prisoners of war
Official and estimated numbers of prisoners of war (POW) have varied.[487] On 24 February Oksana
Markarova, Ukraine's ambassador to the US, said that a platoon of 74th Guards from Kemerovo
Oblast had surrendered, saying they were unaware that they had been brought to Ukraine and tasked
with killing Ukrainians.[488] Russia claimed to have captured 572 Ukrainian soldiers by 2 March
2022,[489] while Ukraine said it held 562 Russian soldiers as of 20 March.[490] It also released one
soldier for five of its own and exchanged another nine for the detained mayor of Melitopol.[491]
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In late 2022, as Russian casualties exceeded 50,000, the Russian army introduced barrier troops. The
U.K. defence ministry stated that these are units that threaten to shoot their retreating soldiers to
compel offensives. In March 2023, Russian soldiers filmed a video addressed to President Putin
where they stated that after suffering casualties, they attempted to return to their headquarters but
were denied evacuation by their superiors. They stated that barrier troops were placed behind them
threatening to ″destroy them″.[496] In particular, Storm-Z units have been reported to be ″kept in
line″ by barrier troops.[497]
In March 2023, UN human rights commissioner Volker Türk reported that more than 90% of the
Ukrainian POWs interviewed by his office, which could only include those who were released from
Russia, said in Russia "they were tortured or ill-treated, notably in penitentiary facilities, including
through so-called – it is an awful phrase – 'welcoming beatings' on their arrival, as well as frequent
acts of torture throughout detention."[498]
In April 2023, several videos started circulating on different websites purportedly showing Russian
soldiers beheading Ukrainian soldiers.[499] Zelensky compared Russian soldiers to "beasts" after the
footage was circulated.[500] Russian officials opened an investigation of the footage shortly
thereafter.[501]
In March 2024, the United Nations issued a report saying Russia may have executed more than 30
recently captured Ukrainian prisoners of war over the winter months. The Office of the United
Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights verified three incidents in which Russian servicemen
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executed seven Ukrainian servicemen. According to the same report, 39 of 60 released Ukrainian
prisoners of war also "disclosed that they had been subjected to sexual violence during their
internment, including attempted rape, threats of rape and castration, beatings or the administration
of electric shocks to genitals, and repeated forced nudity, including during interrogations and to check
for tattoos."[512]
Impacts
Humanitarian impact
The humanitarian impact of the invasion has been extensive and has included negative impacts on
international food supplies and the 2022 food crises.[520] An estimated 6.6 million Ukrainians were
internally displaced by August 2022, and about the same number were refugees in other
countries.[521] The invasion has devastated the cultural heritage of Ukraine,[522] with over 500
Ukrainian cultural heritage sites, including cultural centres, theatres, museums, and churches,
affected by "Russian aggression." Ukraine's Minister of Culture called it cultural genocide.[523]
Deliberate destruction and looting of Ukrainian cultural heritage sites in this way is considered a war
crime.[524]
The Russian attacks on civilians, causing mass civilian casualties and displacement, have been
characterized as genocide and democide.[525] On 15 September 2023, a U.N.-mandated investigative
body presented their findings that Russian occupiers had tortured Ukrainians so brutally that some of
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their victims died, and forced families to listen as they raped women next door.[526] The commission
has previously said that violations committed by Russian forces in Ukraine, including the use of
torture, may constitute crimes against humanity.[527]
A report by Physicians for Human Rights described Russian violence against the Ukrainian health
care system as being a prominent feature of Russia's conduct during the war, documenting 707
attacks on Ukraine's health care system between 24 February and 31 December 2022. Such attacks are
considered war crimes.[528]
Refugee crisis
The war caused the largest refugee and humanitarian crisis in
Europe since the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s;[529][530] The UN
described it as the fastest-growing such crisis since World War
II.[531] As Russia built up military forces along the Ukrainian
border, many neighbouring governments and aid organizations
prepared for a mass displacement event in the weeks before the
invasion. In December 2021, the Ukrainian defence minister
estimated that an invasion could force three to five million people Ukrainian refugees in Kraków
to flee their homes.[532] protesting against the war, 6 March
2022
In the first week of the invasion, the UN reported over a million
refugees had fled Ukraine; this subsequently reached over eight
million by 31 January 2023.[533][534] On 20 May, NPR reported
that, following a significant influx of foreign military equipment
into Ukraine, a significant number of refugees are seeking to
return to regions of Ukraine which are relatively isolated from the
invasion front in southeastern Ukraine.[535] However, by 3 May,
another 8 million people were displaced inside Ukraine.[536]
Most refugees were women, children, elderly, or disabled.[537] Protest against the Russian invasion
Most male Ukrainian nationals aged 18 to 60 were denied exit of Ukraine, organised by political
from Ukraine as part of mandatory conscription,[538] unless they youth organisations in Helsinki,
Finland, 26 February 2022
were responsible for the financial support of three or more
children, single fathers, or were the parent/guardian of children
with disabilities.[539] Many Ukrainian men, including teenagers, opted to remain in Ukraine
voluntarily to join the resistance.[540]
According to the UN High Commission for Refugees as of 13 May 2022, there were 3,315,711 refugees
in Poland, 901,696 in Romania, 594,664 in Hungary, 461,742 in Moldova, 415,402 in Slovakia, and
27,308 in Belarus, while Russia reported it had received over 800,104 refugees.[541] By 13 July 2022,
over 390,000 Ukrainian refugees had arrived in the Czech Republic, where the average refugee was a
woman accompanied by one child. These refugees were twice as likely to have a college degree as the
Czech population as a whole.[542] Turkey has been another significant destination, registering more
than 58,000 Ukrainian refugees as of 22 March, and more than 58,000 as of 25 April.[543] The EU
invoked the Temporary Protection Directive for the first time in its history, granting Ukrainian
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refugees the right to live and work in the EU for up to three years.[544] Britain has accepted 146,379
refugees, as well as extending the ability to remain in the UK for 3 years with broadly similar
entitlements as the EU, three years residency and access to state welfare and services.[545]
According to the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), Russia has engaged in
"massive deportation" of over 1.3 million Ukrainian civilians, potentially constituting crimes against
humanity.[546] The OSCE and Ukraine have accused Russia of forcibly moving civilians to filtration
camps in Russian-held territory, and then into Russia. Ukrainian sources have compared this policy to
Soviet-era population transfers and Russian actions in the Chechen War of Independence.[547] For
instance, as of 8 April, Russia claimed to have evacuated about 121,000 Mariupol residents to
Russia.[547] Also, on 19 October, Russia announced the forced deportation of 60,000 civilians from
areas around the line of contact in Kherson oblast.[548] RIA Novosti and Ukrainian officials said that
thousands were dispatched to various centres in cities in Russia and Russian-occupied Ukraine,[549]
from which people were sent to economically depressed regions of Russia.[550] In April, Ukraine's
National Security and Defence Council secretary Oleksiy Danilov said that Russia planned to build
"concentration camps" for Ukrainians in western Siberia, and likely planned to force prisoners to
build new cities in Siberia.[551][h]
Several sources have pointed out that the war is considerably worsening
Ukraine's demographic crisis, making significant shrinking very
likely.[555] A July 2023 study by the Vienna Institute for International
Economic Studies stated that "[r]egardless of how long the war lasts and
whether or not there is further military escalation, Ukraine is unlikely to Ukrainian refugees entering
recover demographically from the consequences of the war. Even in Romania, 5 March 2022
2040, it will have only about 35 million inhabitants, around 20% fewer
than before the war (2021: 42.8 million), and the decline in the working-age population is likely to be
the most severe and far-reaching." The study took different scenarios, from a "best case" (end of the
war in 2023 without much further escalation) to a "worst case" (end of the war in 2025 with further
escalation) into account. Flight from war-affected especially the southern and eastern regions and
specially educated women of child-bearing age and their children. With an estimate of more than 20%
of refugees not returning, study author Maryna Tverdostup concluded that long-term shrinking will
significantly impair the conditions for reconstruction.[556]
The war in Ukraine and the associated emigration, lower birth rates and war-related casualties further
deepened the demographic crisis of Russia.[557] Many commentators predict that the situation will be
worse than during the 1990s.[558] The UN is projecting that the decline that started in 2021 will
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continue, and if current demographic conditions persist, Russia's population would be 120 million in
fifty years, a decline of about 17%.[559][560]
Since February 2022, hundreds of thousands of Russians have emigrated; estimates range from
370,000 to over 820,000. Combined with mobilization, this possibly removed roughly half a million
to one million working-age males from Russia's population.[561] Studies report that this will have a
demographic effect, especially in Russia, that lasts much longer than the conflict, and Putin's time in
office.[562]
According to BBC:[563]
They come from different walks of life. Some are journalists like us, but there are also IT
experts, designers, artists, academics, lawyers, doctors, PR specialists, and linguists. Most
are under 50. Many share Western liberal values and hope Russia will be a democratic
country one day. Some are LGBTQ+. Sociologists studying the current Russian emigration
say there is evidence that those leaving are younger, better educated, and wealthier than
those staying. More often they are from bigger cities.
According to Johannes Wachs, "The exodus of skilled human capital, sometimes called brain drain,
out of Russia may have a significant effect on the course of the war and the Russian economy in the
long run."[564] According to a survey, around 15 percent of those who left returned to Russia, either
permanently or to settle their affairs.[565]
In November 2023, at the World Russian People's Council, Putin urged Russian women to have eight
or more children amid increasing Russian casualties in the invasion.[566]
Environmental impact
Based on a preliminary assessment, the war has inflicted USD 51
billion in environmental damage in Ukraine; according to a report
by the Yale School of the Environment, some 687,000 tons of
petrochemicals have burned as a result of shelling, while nearly
1,600 tons of pollutants have leaked into bodies of water.
Hazardous chemicals have contaminated around 70 acres of soil
and likely made agricultural activities temporarily impossible.[567]
Around 30% of Ukraine's land is now littered with explosives and
more than 2.4 million hectares of forest have been damaged.[568]
According to Netherlands-based peace organization PAX, Russia's An explosion due to the shelling of a
"deliberate targeting of industrial and energy infrastructure" has tank filled with nitric acid during the
caused "severe" pollution, and the use of explosive weapons has Battle of Sievierodonetsk, 31 May
left "millions of tonnes" of contaminated debris in cities and 2022
towns.[569] In early June 2023, the Kakhovka Dam, under Russian
occupation, was damaged, causing flooding and triggering
warnings of an "ecological disaster."[570]
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The Ukrainian government, international observers, and journalists have described the damage as
ecocide.[571] The Ukrainian government is investigating more crimes against the environment and
ecocide (a crime in Ukraine).[572] Zelenskyy has met with prominent European figures (Heidi
Hautala, Margot Wallstrom, Mary Robinson and Greta Thunberg) to discuss the environmental
damage and how to prosecute it.[573]
According to an investigation by NGL Media published in April 2024, Russia has destroyed over
60,000 hectares of Ukrainian forests. The investigation stated that long-term ecological consequences
may include lowering of the groundwater level, reduction of biodiversity, worsening of air quality, fire
outbreaks, and rivers and ponds drying up.[574]
Peace efforts
Peace negotiations between Russia and Ukraine took place on
28 February, 3 March, and 7 March 2022, in the Gomel Region on
the Belarus–Ukraine border, with further talks held on 10 March
in Turkey and a fourth round of negotiations beginning 14
March.[576]
In May 2023, UN Secretary-General António Guterres said peace negotiations to end the Russo-
Ukrainian War were "not possible at this moment", saying it was clear that Russia and Ukraine were
"completely absorbed in this war" and each "convinced that they can win."[586]
In June 2023, Ukrainian Defence Minister Oleksii Reznikov said that the peace plans presented by
China, Brazil, and Indonesia are attempts at mediation on behalf of Russia, and "they all currently
want to be mediators on Russia's side. That's why this sort of mediation currently doesn't fit for us at
all because they aren't impartial."[587] He said that Ukraine was willing to accept China as a mediator
only if Beijing could convince Russia to withdraw from all the territories it had occupied.[588]
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In December 2023, The New York Times reported that Putin has been signaling through
intermediaries since at least September 2022 that "he is open to a ceasefire that freezes the fighting
along the current lines." This has been received with skepticism by Ukrainians and its supporters,
with criticism that it could be an insincere, opportunistic public relations ploy by Russia that would
give it time to rebuild its weakened army before renewing the offensive.[584][589] Such concerns have
been raised since 2022.[590][591]
See also
List of invasions in the 21st century
Europe portal
Outline of the Russo-Ukrainian War
Modern history
2020s in military history portal
List of conflicts in territory of the former Soviet Union
Russia portal
List of conflicts in Europe
Ukraine portal
List of interstate wars since 1945
List of invasions and occupations of Ukraine Politics portal
List of ongoing armed conflicts Current events
List of wars between Russia and Ukraine portal
List of wars: 2003–present
Russian emigration following the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Red lines in the Russo-Ukrainian War
Notes
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a. The Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic were Russian-controlled
puppet states that declared their independence from Ukraine in May 2014. In 2022 they received
international recognition from each other, Russia, Syria and North Korea, and some other partially
recognised states. On 30 September 2022, after a referendum, Russia declared it had formally
annexed both entities.
b. Russian forces were permitted to stage part of the invasion from Belarusian territory.[1][2]
Belarusian territory has also been used to launch missiles into Ukraine.[3]
c. See § Foreign involvement for more details.
d. Including military, paramilitary, and 34,000 separatist militias.
e. By early September 2022 the US had given 126 M777 howitzer cannons and over 800,000 rounds
of 155 mm ammunition for them.[427] By January 2023 the US had donated 250,000 more
155 mm shells to Ukraine. The US is producing 14,000 155 mm shells monthly and plans to
increase production to 90,000 shells per month by 2025.[428]
f. See here for a detailed breakdown of civilian deaths by oblast, according to Ukrainian authorities.
g. The DPR said 1,285 civilians were killed and 4,243 wounded between 1 January 2022 and 22
June 2023,[477][478] of which 8 died and 23 were wounded between 1 January and 25 February
2022,[479] leaving a total of 1,277 killed and 4,220 wounded in the period of the Russian invasion.
h. Most likely, new cities meant new industrial cities in Siberia, the construction plans of which were
announced by Shoigu in the fall of 2021.[552]
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Further reading
Borshchevskaya, Anna (2022). Putin's War in Syria. 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK:
I. B. Tauris.
D'Anieri, Paul (31 October 2019). Ukraine and Russia: From Civilized Divorce to Uncivil War (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=Gs6vDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1). Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-1-108-48609-5 – via Google Books.
Harding, Luke. Invasion: The Inside Story of Russia's Bloody War and Ukraine's Fight for Survival.
2022. Vintage Press.
Marples, David R., ed. (2022). The War in Ukraine's Donbas: Origins, Contexts, and the Future.
Central European University Press. ISBN 978-9633865972.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine 96/97
4/25/24, 11:55 PM Russian invasion of Ukraine - Wikipedia
Menon, Rajan; Rumer, Eugene B. (6 February 2015). Conflict in Ukraine: The Unwinding of the
Post–Cold War Order (https://books.google.com/books?id=3L34DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1). MIT
Press. ISBN 978-0-262-53629-5. OCLC 1029335958 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1029335958)
– via Google Books.
"The Cost of War to Ukraine" (https://www.rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/
cost-war-ukraine). The Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies. Royal
United Services Institute. Retrieved 8 October 2023.
Schwirtz, Michael; Troianovski, Anton; Al-Hlou, Yousur; Froliak, Masha; Entous, Adam; Gibbons-
Neff, Thomas (16 December 2022). "Putin's War: The Inside Story of a Catastrophe" (https://www.
nytimes.com/interactive/2022/12/16/world/europe/russia-putin-war-failures-ukraine.html). The New
York Times.
Smith, Christopher M. (15 March 2022). Ukraine's Revolt, Russia's Revenge (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=HxUWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1). Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 978-0-8157-
3925-8. OCLC 1287616684 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1287616684) – via Google Books.
Watling, Jack; Reynolds, Nick (22 April 2022). Operation Z: The Death Throes of an Imperial
Delusion (https://static.rusi.org/special-report-202204-operation-z-web.pdf) (PDF) (Report). Royal
United Services Institute.
Wiegrefe, Klaus (15 February 2022). "NATO's Eastward Expansion: Is Vladimir Putin Right?" (http
s://www.spiegel.de/international/world/nato-s-eastward-expansion-is-vladimir-putin-right-a-bf318d
2c-7aeb-4b59-8d5f-1d8c94e1964d). Der Spiegel. ISSN 2195-1349 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/
2195-1349). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220215103833/https://www.spiegel.de/intern
ational/world/nato-s-eastward-expansion-is-vladimir-putin-right-a-bf318d2c-7aeb-4b59-8d5f-1d8c9
4e1964d) from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2022.
Wood, Elizabeth A.; Pomeranz, William E.; Merry, E. Wayne; Trudolyubov, Maxim (15 December
2015). Roots of Russia's War in Ukraine (https://books.google.com/books?id=JyDyCgAAQBAJ&p
g=PP1). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-80138-6. OCLC 1008637056 (https://www.w
orldcat.org/oclc/1008637056) – via Google Books.
External links
The UN and the war in Ukraine (https://unric.org/en/the-un-and-the-war-in-ukraine-key-informatio
n/) at the United Nations
Think Tank reports on the invasion of Ukraine (https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/documents-pu
blications/library/library-blog/posts/think-tank-reports-on-the-invasion-of-ukraine/) at the Council of
the European Union
Russian invasion of Ukraine (https://news.google.com/topics/CAAqLAgKIiZDQkFTRmdvTkwyY3Z
NVEZ5Y0dSaWNXcDZjeElGWlc0dFIwSW9BQVAB) at Google News
Ukraine conflict updates (https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/ukraine-conflict-update
s) at the Institute for the Study of War
Interactive Map: Russia's Invasion of Ukraine (https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/36a7f6a6f5a9
448496de641cf64bd375) at the Institute for the Study of War
Interactive Time-lapse: Russia's War in Ukraine (https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/733fe90805
894bfc8562d90b106aa895) at the Institute for the Study of War
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine 97/97