ELECTRON MIC

ROSCOPE

Saptarshi Sen
22JE0866
Introduction
Microscopy enables us to explore the microscopic world and se
e the macroscopic things in a better way. It happens by direct i
maging of small things and their structure. For imaging somethi
ng there must be some optical system. And for any optical syst
em there is a resolution limit. Light microscopes are good with s
ome staining techniques for biological organisms and not so sm
all particles. Its resolution limit is approximately 100 nm. But to
analyse the ultra-structure and working of those things we need
better resolution.
The resolution limit1 of an optical system is determined by the
formula:
λ λ
d= = wℎere numerical aperture(NA)=n sinθ
2 n sinθ 2 NA
So the determining factors are wavelength and numerical apert
ure. Smaller the wavelength better is the resolving power.
But the wavelength of the EM waves are constant and can’t be
reduced further. Here comes the Electron Microscopes. We use
accelerated electrons for imaging. Electrons accelerated at high
voltage can give resolving power up to 0.1nm (atomic scale). B
ut very high electrons are not used for imaging because they io
nise and deflect the particles under observation.
With electron microscopes electron beams of wavelength of the
order of 0.01 nm can be produced.
But the resolution of an electron microscope is not so much limi
ted by wavelength as by the difficulties in creating stable high p
ower supply and electric and magnetic lenses with proper apert
ure.

1 Ernst Karl Abbe approximated the diffraction limit of a microscope.

How it operates

Most of the electron microscopes work fundamentally in the sa

me way. Only the parameters vary for different types of electron
microscopes with different purposes. Here are some common s
teps of how it operates.

1. Production of electron beam:

An electron gun is used to produce a focused electron bea
m. Generally in electron guns thermionic emission is used for pr
oduction of electrons. A tungsten filament at high temperature(o
ver 2700°C) emits both light and electrons.High voltage is appli
ed to accelerate these electrons towards the anode. This create
s a controlled beam of high-energy electrons. The wavelength o
f electron accelerated through a potential of V volt is given by:
ℎc
λ=
√ eV (2 mc 2 +eV )

fig− 1:Cross sectional diagram of an electron gun

2. Controlling the intensity:

 The electron gun has a component called Wehnelt cap, th
at helps in controlling the electron beam size. The electrons co
nverge toward a single point like that in a lens.
3. Interaction with the specimen:
The focused beam is directed toward the object to be studi
ed. When electron-beam falls on the particle the electrons are s
cattered in different directions in different ways (Inelastic scatter
ing, elastic scattering, incoherent elastic scattering, back-scatte
ring) and also X-rays(Continuum X-ray, characteristic X-ray) ar
e produced.
4. Detecting scattered electrons:
After electron-matter interaction electrons scatter as secon
dary electrons(SE), backscattered electrons(BSE), and transmit
ted electrons. These electrons are detected in different microsc
opes in different methods.
5. Visualisation:
The electron signals detected are converted to an image o
n a screen or by using a camera through contrast formation.
6. Tuning parameters:
Various factors like the voltage applied to the electron gun,
the focus of the electron beam, magnetic and electric fields are
adjusted to optimise the image quality and detailings.

Deep diving into what the EMs actually do

In electron microscopes the main thing measured is the interact

ion of electrons with matter.
 fig− 2: Interaction of electron witℎan atom

Some electrons just transmit through unscattered.

Electrons scattered from the matter due to electrostatic interacti
on are backscattered electrons, elastically scattered electrons.
If the electrons lose energy in the electron cloud while interactin
g with the atom, those are inelastically scattered electrons. This
can lead to the following processes:2
1. Inner-shell ionisation can cause emission of characteristic
x-ray or Auger electrons.
2. Bremsstrahlung can cause emission of continuous x-rays.
3. Emission of secondary electrons, phonons, plasmons.
4. There can be cathodoluminescence also.

2 Reference : https://www.zmb.uzh.ch/static/bio407/assets/Script_AK_2014.pdf
 fig− 3 : Electronmatter interaction

All these emissions can be used to gather structural information

about the particles. Based on the type of emissions detected, di
fferent properties of the specimen can be determined.
For instance:

1. We can use the intensity of backscattered electrons (BSE)

to determine the atomic compositions because its intensity
depends on the atomic number (Z) of the elements.
2. The topography or surface morphology can be determined
using the secondary electrons (SE) because the emission
 of SEs is highly influenced by the local electric field at the
surface (hence the surface features).
3. The internal structure (thickness, crystallography) can be v
isualised with the help of the transmitted electrons(TE). In
Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) these TEs are
used.
4. Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) techniques ar
e used to get information about elemental composition, ch
emical bond characteristics, and electronic structures of th
e materials.
5. The electron diffraction pattern can be used to determine t
he crystallographic structures.
6. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy(EDS) or Wavelengt
h-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDS) techniques are us
ed to analyse the characteristic X-ray and know about the
chemical composition.
7. Cathodoluminescence spectroscopy gives information abo
ut the electronic structure, impurity levels and defects in m
aterial.

Different Types of EMs : Applications and Relat

ive Advantages and Disadvantages

There are mainly two types of electron microscopes (1) Transm

ission Electron Microscopy (TEM) , (2) Scanning Electron Micro
scopy (SEM). Though there are some more types3 like: Scannin
g Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM), Low-Energy Elect
ron Microscopy (LEEM), Ultrafast Scanning Electron Microscop
y (UFSEM), Electron Microprobe (EMP), Photoemission Electro
n Microscopy (PEEM). Some of these are depicted here:
3 Source : https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Electron_microscope
1. TEM
TEM uses electrons transmitted through thin slices of spec
imen to create high resolution images(even to atomic scal
e).

fig− 4 : TEM scℎematic diagram

Application - In material science TEM is used for studying

microstructure of materials, metals, semiconductors and m
etal. It is used for visualising viruses and subcellular struct
ures. TEM is also used in nanotechnology for characterisi
ng nanoparticles and nanotubes.
 Advantage - It provides extremely high resolution images
of structures at atomic level. It can also be used for chemi
cal analysis.
Disadvantage - Specimens are ultra-thin (less than 100 n
m).Operation and maintenance is very complex
2. SEM
It uses SEs and BSEs to create the surface image.
Application - Used for studying surface features, fractures
and microstructures of materials.It is also used in Geology
for the study of rock and minerals.

fig− 5 :SEM scℎematic diagram

Advantage - High resolution images of surface features an

d topography. Specimens need not to be thin. EDS is use
d for elemental analysis.
 Disadvantage - Quite lower resolution than TEM. Non-con
ductive samples need to be coated before use.
3. STEM
It has the features of both SEM and TEM. The electron be
am can be focused on the surface of a thin specimen and
also simultaneously be used to detect the transmitting elec
trons to generate a high resolution image.

fig− 6 : STEM scℎematic diagram

Application - Used for studying crystal defects, interfaces a
nd phase boundaries. It is also used in studying nanomate
rials.
 Advantage - Provides high resolution images of nanoscale
surface features.
Disadvantage - Specimen thickness must be low enough t
o allow electron transmission. Also, the operation and mai
ntenance are complex and require training.
4. LEEM
It uses low energy electron beams to image non-conductin
g delicate samples without any preparation.
Application - It is mainly used for imaging biological sampl
es, polymers and non-conductive materials.
Advantage - It is a less destructive technique compared to
high energy techniques. It can image non-conductive sam
ples without any special treatment.
Disadvantage - It has much lower resolution than conventi
onal high energy techniques. It is mainly used in surface i
maging.

Electron microscopes have expanded our knowledge about the

microscopic world with unprecedented detail and precision. Eac
h type of electron microscope offers unique features and shortc
omings allowing us to delve into the diverse scientific discipline
s.
Photos taken from
fig-1: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Transmission_electron_mic
roscopy#Media/File:Electron-gun.svg
fig-2: https://www.zmb.uzh.ch/static/bio407/assets/Script_AK_2
014.pdf
fig-3: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Ele
ctron_Interaction_with_Matter.svg
fig-4: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Naresh-Marturi/publi
cation/281534044/figure/fig5/AS:614167945961502@1523440
457682/Transmission-electron-microscope-schematic-diagram.
png
fig-5: https://www.eng-atoms.msm.cam.ac.uk/RoyalSocDemos/
SEM
fig-6: https://microscopewiki.com/electron-microscope/