Data Communication

Introduction to
Computer Networks
Free Powerpoint Templates

Data Communication
• We communicate means we share. The sharing

can be local or remote.
• Data means any information shared between
creator and user, irrespective of presentation
format.
• Data communication means the exchange of
data between two devices via some sort of
transmission medium.

Data Communication
• For data communication, the communication

device must be a part of communication
system.
• A communication system is made up of a
combination of hardware
(physical equipment) and software.

Characteristics of
Data Communication
• Delivery: The system must deliver the data at
correct destination. Data must be received by
intended device or user and only by that user
or device.
• Accuracy: The system must deliver data
accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected is of no use.

Characteristics of
Data Communication
• Timeliness: The system must deliver data in
time. Late delivered data is useless. In case of
audio/ video timely delivery means delivering
data as they are produced, in the same order,
and without significant delay. It is called real
time transmission.
• Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the
packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in
the delivery of audio/ video packets.
Components
• Data communication system is made up of 5
component

Component
• Message: is the information to be

communicated. It may be in any form text,
number, pictures, audio, video etc
• Sender: is a device that sends the data
message. It may be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera and so on.

Component
• Receiver: is a device that receives a message. It

can be computer, work station, telephone
handset, television and so on.
• Transmission Media: is a physical path by a
which message travels from sender to receiver.
Ex, fiber optic cable, radio waves etc.

Components
• Protocol: is a set of rules that govern data

communication. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating.

Component
System Roles of the Components Example
Transmitter The device that sends the Message Computer, Radio Station
Receiver The device that receives the message Telephone handset,
Workstation
Medium The channel over which the message is Radio waves, coaxial cable
sent
Message The information or data being Video, Text

communicated
Protocol The set of rules that guides how data is TCP/IP, AppleTalk
transmitted and encoded and decoded.
Data Representation
• Information comes in different formats like:

• Text: In data communication text is represented as
a bit pattern, a sequence of 0 and 1. To represent a
text symbol different set of bit pattern can be used.
Each such set is called a code, and the process of
representing the symbol is called coding. Today’s
most used coding system is unicode, uses 32 bits for
representing a character.

Data Representation
• Numbers: also represented by bit pattern, but

instead of using some Coding scheme such as
ASCII to represent the number, it is directly
converted to binary number for simplification of
mathematical operation.

Data Representation
• Images:
• is represented by bit pattern.
• In simplest form, image is composed of a matrix of pixel,
where each pixel represents a small dot.
• The size of the pixel depends upon the resolution.
• Once image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a
bit pattern.

Data Representation
• Audio: Audio is continues not discrete. So there are

methods to change sound or music to analog or
digital.
• Video: can be either continues or discrete if we use
Tv camera it would be continues and if we use
combination of images convey to idea of motion
then it would be discrete. Again there are methods
for changing to analog or digital.

Data Flow
• Simplex Communication: In a simplex mode

the communication is unidirection.
Data
Only one of the 2 devices can on a link can

transit, other can receive only.
Data Flow
• Half Duplex: each station can transmit and

receive, but not at the same time.
Data
Data

Data Flow
• Half Duplex…
• When one device is sending the other can only
receive and vice versa.
• It is used when where there is no need for
communication in both direction at the same time;
and hence the entire capacity of the channel can be
utilized for each direction.
• Walkie- talkie, citizen band radios are the
examples.

Data Flow
• Full Duplex: also called duplex, both stations

can send and receive simultaneously.
Data
Data

Data Flow
• Full Duplex..
• Signals going in one direction shares the capacity
of channel with the signal going in other direction.
• Either two physical separate transmission paths
required or capacity of channel is divided.
• Example telephone.

Computer Network
• A network is a set of devices called nodes

connected by communication links. A node can
be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.
• Two computers are said to be interconnected if
they are able to exchange information.

Network Criteria
• A network must be able to meet certain
number of criteria:
1) Performance: can be measured in
• Transit time : is the amount of time required for a
message to travel from one device to another.
• Response time: is time elapsed between an enquiry and
response.
Performance of network depends on
• Number of users
• Type of transmission media
• Capabilities of hardware connected
• Efficiency of software
Network Criteria
1) Performance..
can be evaluated on
• Throughput : should be more
• Delay : requires less delay

Network Criteria
2) Reliability: it must be measured in terms of

• accuracy of delivery
• Frequency of failure
• Time it takes to recover from failure
• Network’s robustness
3) Security: includes
• Protecting data from unauthorized users
• Protecting data from damage and development.
• Implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breach and data loss.

Goals Of Network
• Resource Sharing: The main goal of
networking is "Resource sharing", and it is to
make all programs, data and equipment
available to anyone on the network without the
regard to the physical location of the resource
and the user.

Goals of Network
• High reliability: A second goal is to provide
high reliability by having alternative sources of
supply. For example, all files could be
replicated on two or three machines, so if one
of them is unavailable, the other copies could
be available

Goals of Network
• Saving Money:
• Small computers have a much better
price/performance ratio than larger ones.
• Mainframes are roughly a factor of ten times faster
than the fastest single chip microprocessors, but
they cost thousand times more.
• This imbalance has caused many system designers
to build systems consisting of powerful personal
computers, one per user, with data kept on one or
more shared file server machines.

Goals of Network
• Increase Performance:
• Another closely related goal is to increase the
systems performance as the work load increases by
just adding more processors. With central
mainframes, when the system is full, it must be
replaced by a larger one, usually at great expense
and with even greater disruption to the users

Goals of Network
• Increase Communication:
• Computer networks provide a powerful
communication medium. A file that was
updated/modified on a network, can be seen by the
other users on the network immediately.

Goals of Network
• Distribution of workload
If one computer becomes saturated with too much load the
work can be reloaded through the network onto other
computers in the computer.
• Expandability
The network can be expanded by adding more
processors. There is no restriction on the size of
network.
• Preserving information
information is protected even if a node doesn’t work.

Application of Network
• Business Applications:
• Most business requires the resources to be shared,
apart from the physical resources information is
major resource that needs to be shared. You can
think of Banks, Inventory systems etc as an
example.
• Communication becomes easy. When a manager
takes a decision, every one can view the decision
immediately and work accordingly. Saves lot time
unlike previous system.
Application of Network
• Business Applications:….
• With the help of video conferencing meeting and
training is easy, previously distance plays a major
role.
• Finding the partners and consumer becomes easy.
Electronically a company can put his order for
particular automobile part by searching it’s client.
• Customer reach is widened with e-commerce.
Customer can buy and pay on line.

Applications of Network
• Home Applications: Some of the more popular
uses of the Internet for home users are as
follows:
• Access to remote information: The world wide web
has given access to every information we needed no
subject is restricted. News papers go online. Digital
libraries are open to users. Hobbies and fun are
now unlimited for network users.

• Home Applications: ….
• Person-to-person communication: emails, chat
rooms, news rooms, social sites, internet phone,
internet radio, video phone and so on. World is
really a small place.
• Interactive entertainment: video on demand, live
tv, games on line, music, you find the day is too
short.
• Electronic commerce: home shopping, virtual
markets, paying phone bills, EMIs etc
• Mobile users: mobile computers, notebook,
PDA’s are increasing and even their use.
• Portable office
• Wireless network allows you to do the routine
tasks no matter where you are even you can be in
taxi and on GPS finding the location.
• M-commerce already spread its way.

• Social issues: provides a platform for sharing
issues, likes, debates, and even to protest.
• It’s a new kind of freedom to express and it brings
with it many unsolved social, political, and moral
issues.

Network Hardware
• Broadly there are two types of transmission

technology:
• Broad cast links
• Point to point links
• BroadCast Network: have single communication
channel shared that is shared by all the machines
on network.
• Short message, called packets are send by a
machine could be received by every machine on
network.
Network Hardware
• Broad Cast Network…

Network Hardware

• An address field within a packet contains a special
field which specifies the intended recipient.
• Upon receiving the packet, a machine checks the
address field, if it is intended for the receiving
machine, it posses the packet.
• If the packet is intended for some other machine it
is just ignored.

Network Hardware

• Broadcasting system also allows the possibility of
addressing a packet to all destination.
• In a address field, a special bit is reserved when a
packet of such code is transmitted, it is received
and transmitted by every machine in the network
this mode of operation is called broadcasting.
• If the system support transmission to subnet of
machines it is multicasting.

Network Hardware

• The broadcast networks are classified depending
upon the channel allocation.
• 1) Static allocation: Here each machine is allocated
a discrete time interval in which the machine can
transmit the packet.
• 2) Dynamic allocation: divides in two parts
• Centralized dynamic allocation
• Decentralized dynamic allocation

Network Hardware

• 2) Dynamic allocation:
• Centralized dynamic allocation : Here central or single
entity decides which machine is going to transmit next.
It may accept requests and take decisions according
to algorithm defined.
• Decentralized channel allocation: There is no
central entity. Each machine decide whether to
transmit or not.

Network Hardware
• Point to Point:
• Consist of many connections between individual
pairs of machine
• To go from source to destination, a packet may
have to travel one or multiple intermediate
machines.
• Often there will be multiple paths one has to select
the shortest path.
• Point to point network with one sender and one
receiver is called unicasting.
Network Hardware
• Point to Point:

Network Hardware
• Point to Point: However, the point-point
network is impractical from a networking
standpoint because rarely is only one
connection between two nodes adequate.

Network Topologies
• Topology refers to the way a network is laid
out, physically or logically.
• Two or more links forms a topology.
• The topology of the network is the geometric

representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices (called nodes) to one
another.
Network Topologies
Topology Types

Network Topologies
• Mesh Topology

Network Topologies
• Mesh Topology
• Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to
every other device.
• Dedicated means links carries traffic between the
two devices it connects.
• To find the number of physical links in a Fully
connected mesh network with n nodes, first
consider that each node must be connected to every
other node.

Network Topologies
• Mesh Topology…
• Node 1 must be connected to n-1 nodes, Node 2
must be connected to n-1 nodes and so on. Finally
Node n must be connected to n-1 nodes.
• Thus we need n(n-1) physical links.
• If each physical link allows communication in both
the directions, divide the number of links by 2. i.e.
In mesh network we need n(n-1)/2 physical
channels to link ‘n’ devices and n-1 ports.

Network Topologies
• Mesh Topology Advantages …
1. Dedicated links guarantees that connection carry
its own data load thus eliminating the traffic
problems that can occur when links are shared by
multiple devices.
2. A mesh topology is robust.
3. It provides privacy / security. – When every
message travels along a dedicated line, only the
intended recipient sees it.
4. Finally point-to-point links make fault
identification and fault isolation easy.
Network Topologies
• Mesh Topology Disadvantages …
1. Since every device must be connected to each other,
installation and reconnection are difficult.
2. Bulk of wires can be greater than available space
accommodate.
3. The hardware requirement is expensive.

Network Topologies
• Star Topology

Network Topologies
• Star Topology...
• In star topology each device has dedicated
point-to-point look only to central controller,
usually called hub.
• In star topology the devices are not linked directly
to each other hence no direct traffic between
devices.
• The controller acts as exchange: if one device
wants to send data to another, it sends the data to
controller, which then relays the data to the other
connected device.
Network Topologies
• Star Topology Advantages...
1. Each device needs only one link and one I/O ports
to connect it to any number of other devices,
makes it easy to install and configure. Hence less
expensive than mesh topology.
2. Additions, moves and deletions involve only one
connection: between that device and the hub.
3. Robust: if any link fail, only that link is affected.
All other links remain active.

Network Topologies
• Star Topology Disadvantages...
1. More cabling is required in a star than in other
topologies (except mesh).
2. Entire network collapse if central controller fails.

Network Topologies
• Bus Topology

Network Topologies
• Bus Topology

Network Topologies
• Bus Topology…
• In such type of topology, long backbone cable is
used to link all the devices in the network.
• Drop lines and taps are used to connect node to
this backbone.
• A drop line is a connection between the node and
the Backbone.
• A tap is the Connector.

Network Topologies
• Bus Topology…
• As all nodes on the network share a common bus, This
topology allows only one device to transmit at a time.
• A device wanting to communicate with another device
on the network sends a broadcast message onto the
wire that all other devices see, but only the intended
recipient actually accepts and processes the message.
• Which node is to transmit next is determined by
distributed access protocol.

Network Topologies
• Bus Topology Advantages…
1. Backbone cable can be laid along the most
efficient path, and then connected to the nodes by
drop lines of various lengths. In this way, a bus
uses less cabling than mesh or star topology.
2. Redundancy of cable is eliminated.
3. Easier to install than other topologies

Network Topologies
• Bus Topology Disadvantages…
• It is difficult to add new devices.
• Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation
in quality. The degradation is controlled by
limiting number and spacing of devices connected
to given length of cable.
• The fault or break in the bus cable stops all
transmission, even between devices on same side
problem.

Network Topologies
• Ring Topology

Network Topologies
• Ring Topology:
• In ring topology each device has a dedicated
point-to-point line configuration only with the two
devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction,
from device to device until it reaches to destination.
• Sending and receiving of data takes place by the
help of TOKEN.
• All messages travel through a ring in the same
direction (either "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise").
Network Topologies
• Ring Topology…
• A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop
and can take down the entire network.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
• When device receives a signal intended for another
device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along.
• In ring, each device is linked only to its immediate
neighbors (physically or logically).

Network Topologies
• Generally in ring a signal is circulating at all times.
• If one device not receive signal in time, it issues
alarm , which alerts a network operator to the
problem.
• Ring topologies are found in some office buildings
or school campuses.

Network Topologies
• Token contains a piece of information which along
with data is sent by the source computer.
• This token then passes to next node, which checks
if the signal is intended to it.
• If yes, it receives it and passes the empty to into the
network, otherwise passes token along with the
data to next node.
• This process continues until the signal reaches its
intended destination.

Network Topologies
• The nodes with token are the ones only allowed to
send data.
• Other nodes have to wait for an empty token to
reach them.

Network Topologies
• Ring Topology Advantages
1. Relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
2. Very orderly network where every device has
access to the token and the opportunity to
transmit.
3. Performs better than a bus topology under heavy
network load.
4. Does not require network server to manage the
connectivity between the computers.

Network Topologies
• Ring Topology Disadvantages

1. A fault in the ring can disable the entire network.
This weakness can be resolved by using a dual
ring.
2. Token may get lost , or many tokens are
generated.

Network Topologies
• Tree Topology

Network Topologies
• Tree Topology:
• Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star
and Bus Topology.
• In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks are
connected using Bus. This main cable seems like a
main stem of a tree, and other star networks as the
branches.

Network Topologies
• Tree Topology Advantages:
• Expansion of Network is possible and easy.
• Here, we divide the whole network into segments
(star networks), which can be easily managed and
maintained.
• Error detection and correction is easy.
• Each segment is provided with dedicated
point-to-point wiring to the central hub.
• If one segment is damaged, other segments are not
affected.

Network Topologies
• Tree Topology Disadvantages:
• Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies
heavily on the main bus cable, if it breaks whole
network is crippled.
• As more and more nodes and segments are added, the
maintenance becomes difficult.
• Scalability of the network depends on the type of
cable used.

Network Topologies
• Hybrid Topology :

Network Topologies
• Hybrid Topology :
• A combination of two or more different topologies
makes for a hybrid topology.
• When different topologies are connected to one
another, they do not display characteristics of any one
specific topology. This is when it becomes a hybrid
topology.
• It is chosen, when there are more than two basic
working topologies in place already and these have to
be connected to one another.

Network Topologies
• Hybrid Topology ..
• When there is a star topology connected to another
star topology, it still remains a star topology.
However, when a star topology and bus topology are
connected to one another, it gives rise to the creation
of a hybrid topology.
• Often when the topologies are connected to one
another, the layout of the resultant topology is difficult
to comprehend, however, the new topology works
without any problems

Network Topologies
• Hybrid Topology Advantages
• Reliable : Unlike other networks, fault detection and
troubleshooting is easy in this type of topology. The
part in which fault is detected can be isolated from the
rest of network and required corrective measures can
be taken, WITHOUT affecting the functioning of rest
of the network.
• Scalable: Its easy to increase the size of network by
adding new components, without disturbing existing
architecture.

Network Topologies
• Hybrid Topology Advantages..
• Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according
to the requirements of the organization and by
optimizing the available resources.
• Effective: we can design it in such a way that
strengths of constituent topologies are maximized
while there weaknesses are neutralized.

Network Topologies
• Hybrid Topology Disadvantages..
• Complexity of Design: One of the biggest drawback
of hybrid topology is its design. Its not easy to design
this type of architecture and its a tough job for
designers. Configuration and installation process
needs to be very efficient.
• Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct
networks, are very expensive. These hubs are different
from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough
to work with different architectures.

Network Topologies
• Hybrid Topology Disadvantages..
• Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are
usually larger in scale, they require a lot of cables,
cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc.

Network Types
• The network is classified here according to the
scale, the physical area
• LAN: Local Area Network,
• are privately -owned networks within a single building
or campus of up to a few kilometers in size.
• They are widely used to connect personal computers
and workstations in company offices and factories to
share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange
information

Network Types
• LAN:..
• LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three
characteristics: (1) their size, (2) their transmission technology,
and (3) their topology.
• LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case
transmission time is bounded and known in advance. That
makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs. It also
simplifies network management.
• LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps and more.
• Various topologies are possible for broadcast LANs popular are
bus, star, ring.

Network Types
• LAN:..

Network Types
• LAN:..

Network Types
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN):-
• MAN, covers a city.
• The best-known example of a MAN is the cable television
network available in many cities.
• It is designed for the customers who needs high speed
connectivity, normally to internet, and have the end points
spread over city.

Network Types
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)..

Network Types
• Wide Area Networks (WAN)..
• spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent.
• It contains a collection of machines intended for running user
(i.e., application) programs. These machines are called hosts.
The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or just
subnet for short.
• The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's personal
computers), whereas the communication subnet is typically
owned and operated by a telephone company or Internet service
provider.

Network Types
• The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host,
just as the telephone system carries words from speaker to
listener.
• Separation of the pure communication aspects of the network
(the subnet) from the application aspects (the hosts), greatly
simplifies the complete network design.
• the subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission
lines and switching elements.
• transmission lines move bits between machines. They can be
made of copper wire, optical fiber, or even radio links.

Network Types
• Switching elements are specialized computers that connect
three or more transmission lines.
• when data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element
must choose an outgoing line on which to forward them.
• These switching computers are called router.

Network Types

Network Types
• when a process on some host has a message to be sent to a
process on some other host, the sending host first cuts the
message into packets, each one bearing its number in the
sequence.
• These packets are then injected into the network one at a time
in quick succession.

Network Types
• When a packet is sent from one router to another via one or
more intermediate routers, the packet is received at each
intermediate router in its entirety, stored there until the required
output line is free, and then forwarded. A subnet organized
according to this principle is called a store-and-forward or
packet-switched subnet.
• When the packets are small and all the same size, they are often
called cells.

Network Types
• The packets are transported individually over the network and
deposited at the receiving host, where they are reassembled into
the original message and delivered to the receiving process

Network Types
• Routing decisions are made locally. When a packet arrives at
router A, it is up to A to decide if this packet should be sent on
the line to B or the line to C. How A makes that decision is
called the routing algorithm.
• Not all WANs are packet switched. A second possibility for a
WAN is a satellite system. Each router has an antenna through
which it can send and receive. All routers can hear the output
from the satellite, and in some cases they can also hear the
upward transmissions of their fellow routers to the satellite as
well.

Network Types
• Wireless Networks: can be divided into three
main categories:
• System interconnection.
• Wireless LANs.
• Wireless WANs.

Network Types
• Wireless Networks:
i) System interconnection.
• System interconnection is all about interconnecting
the components of a computer using short-range radio.
• short-range wireless network called Bluetooth to
connect various components without wires.
• Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headsets,
scanners, and other devices to connect to a computer
by merely being brought within range.

Network Types
i) System interconnection.
Free
Components connected viaPowerpoint
blue tooth Templates
Network Types
i) System interconnection…..
• No cables, no driver installation, just put them down,
turn them on, and they work. For many people, this
ease of operation is a big plus.
• In the simplest form, system interconnection networks
use the master-slave paradigm .The system unit is
normally the master, talking to the mouse, keyboard,
etc., as slaves.

Network Types
ii) Wireless LAN:
• These are systems in which every computer has a
radio modem and antenna with which it can
communicate with other systems.
• Often there is an antenna on the ceiling that the
machines talk to.
• However, if the systems are close enough, they can
communicate directly with one another in a
peer-to-peer configuration. Wireless LANs are
becoming increasingly common in small offices and
homes. Free Powerpoint Templates
Network Types
ii) Wireless LAN:…

Network Types
iii) Wireless WAN:
• The radio network used for cellular telephones is an
example of a low-bandwidth wireless system.
• This system has already gone through three
generations. The first generation was analog and for
voice only. The second generation was digital and for
voice only. The third generation is digital and is for
both voice and data.

Network Types
iii) Wireless WAN:
• Cellular wireless networks are like wireless LANs,
except that the distances involved are much greater
and the bit rates much lower.
• Almost all wireless networks hook up to the wired
network at some point to provide access to files,
databases, and the Internet

Network Types
• Home Network:
• Every device in the home will be capable of
communicating with every other device, and all of
them will be accessible over the Internet.
• Many devices are capable of being networked. Some
of the more obvious categories (with examples) are as
follows:
• Computers (desktop PC, notebook PC, PDA, shared
peripherals).

Network Types
• Home Network …
• Entertainment (TV, DVD, VCR, camcorder, camera,

stereo, MP3).
• Telecommunications (telephone, mobile telephone,
intercom, fax).
• Appliances (microwave, refrigerator, clock, furnace,
lights).
• Telemetry (utility meter, smoke/burglar alarm,
thermostat, babycam).

Network Types
• Home Network …
• Home networking has some fundamentally different
properties than other network types.
• First, the network and devices have to be easy to
install.
• Second, the network and devices have to be foolproof
in operation.
• Third, low price is essential for success.
• home networks will need better performance than that
of existing office networks

Network Types
• Home Network
• Fifth, it must be possible to start out with one or two
devices and expand the reach of the network
gradually. The network interface will have to remain
stable for many years; the wiring (if any) will have to
remain stable for decades.
• Sixth, security and reliability will be very important.
Losing a few files to an e-mail virus is one thing;
having a burglar disarm your security system in your
house is something quite different.

Network Types
• Home Network :
• Cost favors wireless home network while security is
better for wired. User has to make the choice.
• In short, home networking offers many opportunities
and challenges. Most of them relate to the need to be
easy to manage, dependable, and secure, especially in
the hands of nontechnical users, while at the same
time delivering high performance at low cost.

Network Types
• Inter Networks:
• Many networks exist in the world, often with different
hardware and software. People connected to one
network often want to communicate with people
attached to a different one.
• A special machines called gateway is require to make
to make the connection of different and incompatible
networks.
• gateways provide the necessary translation, both in
terms of hardware and software.

Network Types
• Inter Networks:
• A collection of interconnected networks is called an
internetwork or internet.
• A common form of internet is a collection of LANs
connected by a WAN.
• An internetwork is formed when distinct networks are
interconnected.

Network Types
• Inter Networks:

Protocol and Standard
• Protocol:
• In computer networks, communication occurs
between entities in different systems, which is capable
of sending or receiving information.
• For communication to occur, two entities must agree
on protocol.
• A protocol is set of rules that govern data
communication.
• A protocol is set of agreement between the
communication parties on how the communication is
to proceed.
• Protocol:..
• A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when is communicated.
• The key elements of protocol are: syntax, semantics
and timing.
• Syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data.
For example, a simple protocol might expect the first
eight bits of data to be address of sender, the second
eight bits for address of receiver, and the rest of
stream to be the message.
• Protocol:..
• Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of
bits. How particular pattern is to be interpreted and
what action to be taken. For example: does an address
identify the route to be taken or the final destination of
the message?
• Timing refers to two characteristics: when data should
sent and how fast they can be sent. For example, if the
transmitter and receiver are of different speed
transmission will overload. And data may lost.
• Standard:
• Provides a model for development that makes it
possible for a product to work regardless of the
individual manufacturers.
• Essential in creating and maintaining an open and
competitive market for equipment manufacturers .
• Guarantees national and international interoperability
of data and telecommunications technology and
processes.
• Provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors and
other service providers.
• Standard: can be categorized into

• Defacto Standards(“by fact” or “by
convention” )
• Standards that have not been approved by an
organized body but have been adopted as standard
through widespread use are De facto standards.
• De facto standards are often established originally by
manufacturers seeking to define functionality of new
product.
• De facto standards can be further subdivided into two
classes: proprietary and nonproprietary.

• Defacto Standards:
• Proprietary standards:
• are those originally invented by commercial
organizations as basis for the operation of its products.
• They are called proprietary because they are wholly
owned by the company that invented them.
• They are also called closed standards because they
close off communication between systems produced
by different vendor.

• Defacto Standards:
• Non-Proprietary standards:
• Non-proprietary standards are those originally
developed by groups or committees that have passed
them into the public domain;
• they are open standards because they provide open
communications between different systems

• Dejure Standards(“by law” or “by
regulation”)
• De jure standards that have been legalized by an
officially recognized body.

Protocol Hierarchies
• To reduce their design complexity, most networks
are organized as a stack of layers or levels, each
one built upon the one below it.
• The number of layers, the name of each layer, the
contents of each layer, and the function of each
layer differ from network to network.

• The purpose of each layer is to offer certain
services to the higher layers.
• But the internal details of how the offered
services are actually implemented is completely
hided from other layers.
• In a sense, each layer is a kind of virtual
machine, offering certain services to the layer
above it.

• Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation
with layer n on another machine.
• The rules and conventions used in this
conversation are collectively known as the layer n
protocol.
• Basically, a protocol is an agreement between the
communicating parties on how communication is
to proceed.

Host 1 Host 2
Layer 5 Protocol
Layer 5 Layer 5
Layer 4 / 5 interface
Layer 4 Protocol
Layer 4 Layer 4
Layer 3/4 interface

Layer 3 Protocol
Layer 3 Layer 3
Layer 2 / 3 interface
Layer 2 Protocol
Layer 2 Layer 2
Layer1/2 interface
Layer 1 Protocol
Layer 1 Layer 1
Physical Medium
• The entities comprising the corresponding layers
on different machines are called peers.
• The peers may be processes, hardware devices, or
even human beings.
• In other words, it is the peers that communicate
by using the protocol

• In reality, no data are directly transferred from
layer n on one machine to layer n on another
machine.
• Instead, each layer passes data and control
information to the layer immediately below it,
until the lowest layer is reached.
• Below layer 1 is the physical medium through
which actual communication occurs

• Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface.
• The interface defines which primitive operations
and services the lower layer makes available to the
upper one.
• When network designers decide how many layers
to include in a network and what each one should
do, one of the most important considerations is
defining clean interfaces between the layers.

• It requires that each layer perform a specific
collection of well-understood functions.
• The advantage of using interface is
• It minimizes the amount of information that must be
passed between layers.
• clear-cut interfaces also make it simpler to replace the
implementation of one layer with a completely different
implementation (e.g., all the telephone lines are
replaced by satellite channels) different
implementations.
• A set of layers and protocols is called a network
architecture.
• The specification of an architecture must contain
enough information to allow an implementer to
write the program or build the hardware for each
layer so that it will correctly obey the appropriate
protocol.

• Neither the details of the implementation nor the
specification of the interfaces is part of the
architecture because these are hidden and not
visible from the outside.
• It is not even necessary that the interfaces on all
machines in a network be the same, provided that
each machine can correctly use all the protocols.
• A list of protocols used by a certain system, one
protocol per layer, is called a protocol stack.

Data Data
Data H4 Data H4
Data H4 H3 Data H4 H3
Data H4 H3 H2 Data H4 H3 H2
DATA DATA

• The peer processes in layer 4, for example,

conceptually think of their communication as
being ''horizontal,'' using the layer 4 protocol.
Each one is likely to have a procedure called
something like SendToOtherSide and
GetFromOtherSide, even though these procedures
actually communicate with lower layers across
the 3/4 interface, not with the other side.

• The peer process abstraction is crucial to all
network design.
• Using it, the unmanageable task of designing the
complete network can be broken into several
smaller, manageable design problems, namely,
the design of the individual layers.
• Nevertheless, complex protocol algorithms are
involved, lower layers are embedded (in whole or
in part) in hardware.
Design Issues for Layers
• Every layer needs a mechanism for identifying
senders and receivers.
• Since a network normally has many computers,
some of which have multiple processes, a means
is needed for a process on one machine to specify
with whom it wants to talk.
• some form of addressing is needed in order to
specify a specific destination

• rules for data transfer:
• In some systems, data only travel in one direction; in
others, data can go both ways.
• The protocol must also determine how many logical
channels the connection corresponds to and what their
priorities are.
• Many networks provide at least two logical channels
per connection, one for normal data and one for urgent
data.

• Error control
• is an important issue because physical communication
circuits are not perfect.
• Many error-detecting and error-correcting codes are
known, but both ends of the connection must agree on
which one is being used.
• In addition, the receiver must have some way of
telling the sender which messages have been correctly
received and which have not.

• Sequence
• Not all communication channels preserve the order of
messages sent on them.
• To deal with a possible loss of sequencing, the
protocol must make explicit provision for the receiver
to allow the pieces to be reassembled properly.
• An obvious solution is to number the pieces, but this
solution still leaves open the question of what should
be done with pieces that arrive out of order

• Flow Control
• An issue that occurs at every level is how to keep a
fast sender from swamping a slow receiver with data.
• Some of solutions may involve some kind of feedback
from the receiver to the sender, either directly or
indirectly, about the receiver's current situation.
• Others limit the sender to an agreed-on transmission
rate. This subject is called flow control.

• Length of message
• A problem of inability of all processes to accept
arbitrarily long messages. This property leads to
mechanisms for disassembling, transmitting, and then
reassembling messages.
• A related problem is of transmitting data in units that
are so small that sending each one separately is
inefficient. Here the solution is to gather several small
messages heading toward a common destination into a
single large message and dismember the large message
at the other side.
• Multiplex/de-multiplex
• When it is inconvenient or expensive to set up a
separate connection for each pair of communicating
processes, the underlying layer may decide to use the
same connection for multiple, unrelated conversations.
• Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across single data line.
• Demultiplexing is done at the receiving end to separate
the signal stream into transmission component.

• Routing
• When there are multiple paths between source and
destination, a route must be chosen. Sometimes this
decision must be split over two or more layers. For
example, to send data from London to Rome, a
high-level decision might have to be made to transit
France or Germany based on their respective privacy
laws. Then a low-level decision might have to made to
select one of the available circuits based on the current
traffic load. This topic is called routing

Connection-Oriented and
Connectionless Services
• Layers can offer two different types of service
to the layers above them: connection-oriented
and connectionless.
• Connection-oriented service:
• is modelled after the telephone system.
• Similarly, to use a connection-oriented network
service, the service user first establishes a connection,
uses the connection, and then releases the connection.

• The essential aspect of a connection is that it acts like
a tube: the sender pushes objects (bits) in at one end,
and the receiver takes them out at the other end.
• In most cases the order is preserved so that the bits
arrive in the order they were sent.
• The source first makes connection, when the
connection is established, a sequence of packet can be
sent one after another.

• There is relation between packets, they are sent on
same path, in a sequential order.
• A packet is logically connected to packet travelling
before and after it.
• When all packets of a message have been delivered,
the connection is terminated.
• The decision about route and sequence of message is
taken only once, at the time of establishment of the
connection.
• In some cases when a connection is established, the
sender, receiver, and subnet conduct a negotiation
about parameters to be used, such as maximum
message size, quality of service required, and other
issues.
• Typically, one side makes a proposal and the other
side can accept it, reject it, or make a counterproposal.

• Connectionless service:
• is modelled after the postal system.
• Each message (letter) carries the full destination
address, and each one is routed through the system
independent of all the others.
• Normally, when two messages are sent to the same
destination, the first one sent will be the first one to
arrive.
• However, it is possible that the first one sent can be
delayed so that the second one arrives first.
• Each service can be characterized by a quality of
service.
• Some services are reliable in the sense that they
never lose data.
• Usually, a reliable service is implemented by
having the receiver acknowledge.
• The acknowledgement process introduces
overhead and delays, which are often worth it but
are sometimes undesirable.
• Reliable connection oriented service can be of
two variations
• message sequences : where the boundaries of message
are preserved. When 2 message of size 1024 byte are
sent, they are received as 2 message and never a
message of 2048 bytes.
• byte streams: the connection is simply a stream of
bytes, with no message boundaries. When 2048 bytes
arrive at the receiver, there is no way to tell if they
were sent as one message or two.
• When we send files, we wants to be sure that all
the bits arrive correctly and in the same order they
were sent. So here reliable connection oriented
services are preferable.
• But in video conferencing, its not a big issue if
one or two pixels are not appropriate. So
acknowledge overhead is not acceptable.

• Datagram service:
• The applications like electronic junk mail need not
require connection. Here what needed is a way to
send a single message that has a high probability of
arrival, but no guarantee.
• Unreliable (meaning not acknowledged)
connectionless service is often called datagram
service, in analogy with telegram service, which also
does not return an acknowledgement to the sender.

• Acknowledged Datagram service:
• In situations, where to establish a connection to send
one short message is not desired, but reliability is
essential. The acknowledged datagram service can be
provided for these applications.
• It is like sending a registered letter and requesting a
return receipt. When the receipt comes back, the
sender is absolutely sure about delivery.

• Request-reply service.
• In this service the sender transmits a single datagram
containing a request; the reply contains the answer.
• For example, a query to the local library asking about
a category.
• Request-reply is commonly used to implement
communication in the client-server model: the client
issues a request and the server responds to it.

Service Example
Reliable message Sequence of pages
stream
Connection
oriented Reliable byte stream Remote login
Unreliable connection Digitized voice
Unreliable datagram Electronic junk mail

Connection Acknowledge Registered mail
less datagram
Request reply Database query.

Service Primitive
• A service is formally specified by a set of
primitives (operations) available to a user
process to access the service.
• These primitives tell the service to perform
some action or report on an action taken by a
peer entity.
• Most of the times the protocol stack is located
in the operating system, so the primitives are
normally system calls.
Service Primitive
• The set of primitives available depends on the
nature of the service being provided.
• The primitives for connection-oriented service
are different from those of connectionless
service.

Service Primitive
• service primitives for implementing a simple
connection-oriented service:

Service Primitive
Feature Connectionless Connection-oriented
as continuous stream of
How is data sent? one packet at a time
packets
virtual circuit: yes

Do packets follow same route? no
without virtual circuit: no
Are resources reserved in virtual circuit: yes

no
network? without virtual circuit: no
Are resources reserved in

no yes
communicating hosts?
Can data sent can experience

yes yes
variable latency?
Is connection establishment
no Free Powerpoint Templates
Yes
done?
Service Primitive
Feature Connectionless Connection-oriented
Is state information stored at virtual circuit: yes

no
network nodes? without virtual circuit: no
What is impact of node/switch all virtual circuits through node

only packets at node are lost
crash? fail
virtual circuit: a virtual circuit

What addressing information is full source and destination number
needed on each packet? address without virtual circuit: full
source and destination address
virtual circuit: easy if

Is it possible to adapt sending sufficient buffers allocated
hard to do
rate to network congestion? without virtual circuit: harder
to do
Service Primitive
• First, the server executes LISTEN to indicate that
it is prepared to accept incoming connections.
• A common way to implement LISTEN is to make
it a blocking system call.
• After executing the primitive, the server process
is blocked until a request for connection appears.
• Next, the client process executes CONNECT to
establish a connection with the server.

Service Primitive
• The CONNECT call needs to specify who to
connect to, so it might have a parameter giving
the server's address.
• The operating system then typically sends a
packet to the peer asking it to connect.
• The client process is suspended until there is a
response.
• When the packet arrives at the server, it is
processed by the operating system there.
Service Primitive
• When the system sees that the packet is
requesting a connection, it checks to see if there is
a listener.
• If so, it does two things: unblocks the listener and
sends back an acknowledgement .
• The arrival of this acknowledgement then releases
the client.
• At this point the client and server are both
running and they have a connection established.
Service Primitive
• It is important to note that the acknowledgement
is generated by the protocol code itself, not in
response to a user-level primitive.
• If a connection request arrives and there is no
listener, the result is undefined. In some systems
the packet may be queued for a short time in
anticipation of a LISTEN.

Service Primitive
• The next step is for the server to execute
RECEIVE to prepare to accept the first request.
• Normally, the server does this immediately upon
being released from the LISTEN, before the
acknowledgement can get back to the client. The
RECEIVE call blocks the server.

Service Primitive
Client Machine Server Machine

1 connect Request
Server
Client 2. Acknowledge process
process
3. Request for data
4. reply
System
call
5. Disconnect Protocol
Protocol kernel
kernel Driver Stack Driver
Stack 6. Disconnect
Packets sent in a simple client-server interaction on a connection-oriented network

Service Primitive
• Then the client executes SEND to transmit its
request followed by the execution of RECEIVE to
get the reply.
• The arrival of the request packet at the server
machine unblocks the server process so it can
process the request.
• After it has done the work, it uses SEND to return
the answer to the client .

Service Primitive
• The arrival of this packet unblocks the client,
which can now inspect the answer.
• If the client has additional requests, it can make
them now. If it is done, it can use DISCONNECT
to terminate the connection.
• Usually, an initial DISCONNECT is a blocking
call, suspending the client and sending a packet to
the server saying that connection is not needed

Service Primitive
• When the server gets the packet, it also issues a
DISCONNECT of its own, acknowledging the
client and releasing the connection.
• When the server's packet gets back to the client
machine, the client process is released and the
connection is broken. In a nutshell, this is how
connection-oriented communication works.

The Relationship of Services to
Protocols
• A service:
• is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides
to the layer above it.
• The service defines what operations the layer is
prepared to perform on behalf of its users, but it says
nothing at all about how these operations are
implemented.
• A service relates to an interface between two layers,
with the lower layer being the service provider and the
upper layer being the service user.
Protocols
• A protocol:
• is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of
the packets.
• Entities use protocols to implement their service
definitions.
• They are free to change their protocols at will,
provided they do not change the service visible to
their users.

Protocols
• services relate to the interfaces between layers, In
contrast, protocols relate to the packets sent between
peer entities on different machines.
• A service is like an abstract data type or an object in
an object-oriented language. It defines operations that
can be performed on an object but does not specify
how these operations are implemented. A protocol
relates to the implementation of the service and as
such is not visible to the user of the service.

Protocols
Layer K+1 Layer K+1

Service provided by Layer K
Layer k Layer k
Protocol
Layer K-1 Layer K-1
The relationship between a service and a protocol


Data Communication

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Introduction to

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• We communicate means we share. The sharing

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• For data communication, the communication

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• Message: is the information to be

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• Receiver: is a device that receives a message. It

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• Protocol: is a set of rules that govern data

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Message The information or data being Video, Text

• Information comes in different formats like:

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• Numbers: also represented by bit pattern, but

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• Audio: Audio is continues not discrete. So there are

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• Simplex Communication: In a simplex mode

Only one of the 2 devices can on a link can

• Half Duplex: each station can transmit and

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• Full Duplex: also called duplex, both stations

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• A network is a set of devices called nodes

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2) Reliability: it must be measured in terms of

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• Broadly there are two types of transmission

• Broad Cast Network…

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• Broad Cast Network…

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• Broad Cast Network…

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• Broad Cast Network…

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• Broad Cast Network…

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• Two or more links forms a topology.