Raus PRE COMPASS 2024 SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.
com/
https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/
CONTENTS
BIOTECHNOLOGY 6
1. WHAT IS DNA? 6
2. DNA AS CODE OF LIFE 6
3. WHAT IS CHROMOSOME? 6
4. WHAT IS GENOME? 6
5. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA 7
6. WHAT IS RNA? 8
7. GENOME SEQUENCING: READING THE CODE OF LIFE 10
8. CELL-FREE DNA 11
9. VARIATIONS IN THE GENOME: IDENTITY MARKERS 12
10. INDUCED-PLURIPOTENT STEM CELLS: IPSCS 13
11. STEM CELL THERAPY 14
12. SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER (SCNT) OR REPRODUCTIVE CLONING 14
13. TISSUE ENGINEERING/ REGENERATIVE MEDICINE/ ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION 15
14. AUTOLOGOUS, ALLOGENIC AND XENOGENIC TRANSPLANTS 15
15. XENOTRANSPLANTATION 15
16. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA TREATMENT 16
17. R-DNA TECHNOLOGY: MANIPULATING THE CODE OF LIFE 16
18. APPLICATIONS OF R-DNA TECHNOLOGY 17
19. CONCERNS OF R-DNA TECHNOLOGY 17
20. GM CROPS 17
21. GM CROPS: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 18
22. CRISPR-BASED GENE EDITING 20
23. BASE EDITING 21
24. PRIME EDITING 21
25. CAR-T CELL THERAPY: THE FUTURE MAINSTAY OF CANCER TREATMENT 24
26. CAR T-CELL THERAPY 24
27. MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES 28
28. WHAT IS SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY? 29
29. 1ST ARTIFICIAL CELL: SYNTHIA 29
30. SYNTHETIC BASES: A 8-LETTER DNA: HACHIMOJO 29
31. SYNTHETIC E.COLI 29
32. DISEASES IN NEWS 30
SPACE TECHNOLOGY 35
1. STANDARD MODEL OF PHYSICS 35
2. EVOLUTION OF UNIVERSE 36
3. GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY (GTR) 37
4. IMPORTANT PARTICLES YOU OFTEN HEAR 38
5. DARK MATTER AND DARK ENERGY 38
6. BLACK HOLES 39
7. LASER INTERFEROMETER GRAVITATIONAL-WAVE OBSERVATORY (LIGO) 41
8. LARGE HADRON COLLIDER (LHC) 42
9. ICECUBE NEUTRINO OBSERVATORY 43
10. MUON TOMOGRAPHY OR MUOGRAPHY 45
11. SUPERNOVA 45
12. NEUTRON STARS 47
13. QUASARS 47
14. FAST RADIO BURST (FRB) 47
15. SUN 48
16. TYPES OF ORBITS 49
17. ROCKET PROPULSION 50
18. LAUNCH VEHICLES OF ISRO 51
19. VIKAS ENGINE 52
20. LOX METHANE ENGINE 52
21. ION ROCKETS 52
22. ISRO’S CRYOGENIC ENGINE (CE-20) 52
23. ROCKET LAUNCH STATIONS IN INDIA 53
24. LAUNCH STATIONS OF ISRO 53
25. ADITYA L1 MISSION 54
26. GAGANYAAN MISSION 55
27. CHANDRAYAAN-3 56
28. PSLV ORBITAL EXPERIMENTAL MODULE (POEM) 57
29. LUNAR POLAR EXPLORATION MISSION (LUPEX) OR CHANDRAYAAN-4 57
30. SHUKRAYAAN MISSION 58
31. INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION 60
32. NAVIGATION WITH INDIAN CONSTELLATION (NAVIC): 61
33. X-RAY POLARIMETER SATELLITE (XPOSAT) MISSION: 62
34. NASA-ISRO JOINT SATELLITE – NISAR 63
35. RE-ENTRY OF SATELLITE AND SPACE DEBRIS 63
36. RLV LEX-02 MISSION 64
37. BLUEWALKER 3 SATELLITE 64
NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY 67
1. BASICS 67
2. NUCLEAR PROCESSES 68
3. NUCLEAR FUEL: FISSILE AND FERTILE 69
4. TYPES OF REACTORS 70
5. IMPORTANT TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS IN INDIA 71
6. THREE-STAGE NUCLEAR PROGRAMME OF INDIA 72
7. INTERNATIONAL THERMONUCLEAR EXPERIMENTAL REACTOR (ITER) 75
8. COLD FUSION 75
INTERNET AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY 76

1. SEMICONDUCTORS 76
2. LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED) 76

3. MICROLED DISPLAY TECHNOLOGY 77
4. OPTICAL FIBRES 77
5. INTERNET 78
6. WEB 3.0 79
7. DARK WEB 80
8. INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT) 81
9. EVOLUTION OF MOBILE NETWORKS 81
10. 5G TECHNOLOGY 83
11. WI-FI AND LI-FI 84
12. WIFI 6.0 85
13. NEAR FIELD COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY 85
14. RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID) TECHNOLOGY 85
15. FREE SPACE OPTICAL COMMUNICATION 86
16. DEEP SPACE OPTICAL COMMUNICATION 87
17. CYBER SECURITY THREATS 87
18. DARK PATTERNS 88
19. END-TO-END ENCRYPTION 89
20. OPEN-SOURCE SOFTWARE 90
21. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 90
22. DEEP FAKES 92
23. NEUROMORPHIC COMPUTING 92
24. NEURALINK BRAIN CHIP IMPLANT 93
25. IMMERSIVE TECHNOLOGIES 93
26. BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY 94
27. NON-FUNGIBLE TOKENS 95
28. DECENTRALISED FINANCE (DEFI) 95
FRONTIER TECHNOLOGIES 96
1. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM 96
2. QUANTUM PHENOMENON 96
3. APPLICATIONS OF QUANTUM TECHNOLOGY 98
4. NANOTECHNOLOGY 99
5. IMPORTANT NANOMATERIALAS 100
6. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGY 103
7. ATTOSECOND PULSES OF LIGHT (NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSICS 2023) 104
8. PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT 105
9. RHODAMINE-B 105
10. THALLIUM 105
11. SLAG 105
ENERGY TECHNOLOGY 107

1. INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY 107
2. COALIFICATION 108
3. WAYS TO CLEAN COAL 110
4. COAL CONVERSIONS 111

5. GASIFICATION OF COAL 111
6. LIQUEFACTION OF COAL 112
7. COAL BURNING AND CCUS: COMBINATION TO COMBAT CLIMATE CHANGE 112
8. CCUS TECHNOLOGIES: CARBON CAPTURE UTILIZATION AND STORAGE 113
9. CARBON CAPTURE 114
10. POST-COMBUSTION CARBON CAPTURE 114
11. PRE-COMBUSTION CARBON CAPTURE 114
12. OXY-FUEL COMBUSTION 115
13. CARBON STORAGE 115
14. GEOSEQUESTRATION 115
15. ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (EOR) 115
16. SALINE AQUIFERS 116
17. DIRECT CAPTURE BY ALGAE 116
18. CARBON CAPTURE IN SOILS AND VEGETATION 116
19. CARBON SINKS 116
20. ENERGY IN TRANSPORTATION 118
21. CHALLENGES IN BURNING TRANSPORTATION FUELS 121
22. INDIA'S STRATEGY OF EMISSION CONTROL: BHARAT STAGE NORMS 123
23. GASEOUS ALTERNATIVES 124
24. NATURAL GAS 124
25. CNG 126
26. LIQUID ALTERNATIVES 126
27. LNG (GAS-TO-LIQUID ALTERNATIVE) 127
28. LPG 127
29. METHANOL 127
30. DME: DI-METHYL ETHER 128
31. HYDROGEN 128
32. FUEL CELLS: BEST WAY TO USE ENERGY FROM HYDROGEN 130
33. BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS 132
34. LITHIUM-ION BATTERY 133
35. ALTERNATIVES 135
36. BIOFUELS 136
37. ETHANOL 138
38. METHANOL 138
39. BIODIESEL: FROM TRANSESTERIFICATION 140
40. BIOFUELS: GENERATIONS 141
41. GASIFYING BIOFUELS: BIOMETHANATION AND CBG 142
42. SATAT 143
43. SOLAR ENERGY 143
44. PATHWAYS OF CAPTURING ENERGY FROM THE SUN 143
45. SOLAR THERMAL 144
46. SOLAR CONCENTRATORS 144
47. SOLAR PV CELLS 145

48. ENERGY STORAGE 146
49. GRID-LEVEL BATTERY STORAGE: FLOW BATTERIES 146
50. FLOW BATTERIES 147
51. SUPER CAPACITORS 147
DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY 148

1. MISSILES OF INDIA 148
2. SHORT-RANGE BALLISTIC MISSILE 148
3. INTERMEDIATE-RANGE BALLISTIC MISSILE 149
4. INTER-CONTINENTAL BALLISTIC MISSILE 149
5. SUBMARINE-LAUNCHED BALLISTIC MISSILE 149
6. CRUISE MISSILES 150
7. SHORT-RANGE SURFACE-TO-AIR MISSILES 151
8. AIR-TO-AIR MISSILE 152
9. ANTI-TANK GUIDED MISSILE 152
10. BALLISTIC MISSILE DEFENCE SYSTEM 152
11. MULTI-LAYERED AIR DEFENCE SYSTEM: S-400 153
12. BARAK-8 LONG AND MEDIUM RANGE SAM 153
13. AKASH MEDIUM-RANGE SURFACE TO AIR MISSILE SYSTEM 153
14. MULTI-LAYERED AIR DEFENCE SYSTEM FOR DELHI 153
15. HYPERSONIC MISSILES 153
16. IMPORTANT HYPERSONIC MISSILES 154
17. INS VIKRANT 154
18. INS VIRAAT 154
19. INS VIKRAMADITYA 154
20. INS VIKRANT 154
21. INS VISHAL 155
22. PROJECT 75-I 155
23. SSN: (SUBMERSIBLE SHIP NUCLEAR) 155
24. SSBN: (SUBMERSIBLE SHIP BALLISTIC NUCLEAR) 155
25. NUCLEAR-POWERED SUBMARINE FLEET OF INDIA 155
26. IMPORTANT FIGHTER JETS OF INDIA 156
27. IMPORTANT HELICOPTERS 157
28. AIRBORNE EARLY WARNING & CONTROL SYSTEM (AWACS) 158
29. NETRA 158
30. ANTI SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY 159
31. MISSION SHAKTI 159
32. NAGASTRA-1 SUICIDE DRONE 160
33. INDRAJAAL 160
34. HIGH ALTITUDE PSEUDO SATELLITES (HAPS) 160
35. BHAR OS SOFTWARE 161
36. MAYA OS 161
1
Chapter BIOTECHNOLOGY
 BASICS: DNA, RNA, CHROMOSOME, GENOME
1. WHAT IS DNA?
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) can be looked at in two ways:
• As code of life
• As vehicle of heredity
2. DNA AS CODE OF LIFE

• DNA carries the genetic information in the form of genes, which encode a complete set of instructions for
building and maintaining an organism.
• The code is present in the nucleus of every cell of every living organism (with few exceptions like RBC, certain
viruses etc.)
• The code is read by a host of machineries in the cell to build proteins which are the building blocks of life.
(Proteins constitute 55% of the dry mass of the cell. Everything from the cell's structure to enzymes are made
of proteins.)
3. WHAT IS CHROMOSOME?
• Chromosomes are thread-like structures found in the nucleus of cells that carry genetic information. They are
composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and proteins.
• Normally, each cell in the human body has 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total chromosomes). This includes 22
pairs of autosomes plus one pair of sex chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while males
have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).
4. WHAT IS GENOME?
A genome is an organism’s complete set of DNA or genetic material. It is a collection of all the genes and the
regions between the genes contained in our 23 pairs of chromosomes.
BUILDING BLOCKS OF DNA

• The building blocks of DNA are called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is made up of three main components:
(i) Sugar molecule: A five-carbon sugar molecule, called deoxyribose, provides structural support to the DNA
molecule.
(ii) Phosphate group attached to the deoxyribose sugar molecule. The phosphate groups contribute to the overall
negative charge of the DNA molecule and play a role in linking nucleotides together to form the sugar-
phosphate backbone of the DNA strand.
(iii) Nitrogenous base (4 bases): Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T).
Specific sequence of these four nitrogenous bases determines the genetic code. These bases pair up specifically
(A-T and C-G) forming the "rungs" of the double helical structure of DNA. (So if you know one strand you know
what is on the other)
RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 6

BIOTECHNOLOGY
Note: While in nature only 4 lettered-DNA is found, scientists have recently created a synthetic DNA with 8 letters.
The human genome is made of 3 billion base pairs. (So total 6 billion bases)
5. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA
• In addition to the nucleus, some DNA is also present in the mitochondria (mtDNA). Mitochondria are cellular
organelles found in the cytoplasm, aka powerhouse of the cell as they generate most of the cell's energy
currency- ATP
(adenosine
triphosphate).
• mtDNA codes for
a small number
of genes,
essential for the
proper
functioning of
mitochondria. In
humans, mtDNA
is circular and
much smaller
(consists of
about 16,500
base pairs),
compared to
nuclear DNA.
• Inheritance:
Unlike nuclear
DNA which come from both parents, mtDNA is inherited almost exclusively from the mother. This is because
mitochondria are primarily contributed by the egg cell during fertilisation. While sperm cells do contain
mitochondria, these mitochondria are typically not incorporated into the developing embryo.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
6. WHAT IS RNA?
• RNA (Ribonucleic acid) in a single-stranded molecule/ nucleic acid found in most living organisms and viruses.
It is made up of nucleotides, which are ribose sugars attached to nitrogenous bases and phosphate groups.
• The nitrogenous bases include adenine (A), guanine (G), uracil (U) and cytosine (C).
• Major types of RNA:
○ mRNA: messenger RNA molecules copies the genetic information/ instruction from DNA and carries it to
ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs. In order to transcribe, mRNA uses an enzyme called RNA
polymerase.
○ tRNA: transfer RNA assists in translation of mRNA into proteins by bringing amino acids to the ribosome. t-
RNA brings amino acids that are lying in the cell after reading 3 letters of mRNA at a time (3 letters or codon
translate into one amino acid).
○ rRNA: ribosomal RNA molecules are structural components of ribosomes (cellular structures where protein
synthesis takes place).
• RNA is generally less stable than DNA due to the presence of an extra hydroxyl (OH) group on the ribose sugar
in RNA. This makes RNA more prone to degradation by enzymes called ribonucleases. DNA, with its deoxyribose
sugar lacking the extra OH group, is more stable and less susceptible to enzymatic degradation.
CENTRAL DOGMA
Central dogma of molecular biology explains how genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to proteins.
• Gene expression is the process our cells use to convert instructions in DNA into proteins. This happens in two-
stages called transcription (occurs in the nucleus, in eukaryotic organisms) and translation (occurs in cytoplasm).
○ Transcription: mRNA copies the sequence of a gene from DNA, and then leaves the nucleus and travels to
cytoplasm.
○ Translation: Using the template encoded by mRNA, translation is carried out by ribosomes, i.e., the
information in the mRNA is used to synthesise proteins (building blocks of life).

BIOTECHNOLOGY
CENTRAL DOGMA (COOKBOOK ANALOGY)
• Consider DNA to be a cookbook of recipes for making proteins. Transcription is the process of photocopying
the recipe (done by mRNA inside the nucleus).
• Once copied the recipe mRNA goes outside the nucleus to the chef (ribosome). There is also a translator, tRNA
who translates mRNA recipe to rRNA of the ribosome which then makes Amino acids (the building blocks of
proteins).
• A block of 3 letters in the mRNA corresponds to ‘cooking’ of 1 Amino acid. Each 3-letter base in mRNA that is
read by tRNA that corresponds to one amino acid is called ‘codon’.
• Many Amino acids come together to form the primary structure of protein. The primary structure is twisted and
folded to make a 3-D structure of protein.
GENE
• The Human Genome Project (completed in 2003) found that only 1.5% of the total human genome (3 billion
base pairs) codes for proteins. (The coding parts of protein are called genes)
• It also found that humans have about 20,000–25,000 genes. Remaining 98.5% of the genome is non-coding,
meaning it does not provide instructions for making proteins.
EPIGENETICS: IT’S ALL ABOUT GENE EXPRESSION

• For a long time, non-coding regions of the genome (98.5%) were thought to be ‘dark area’ or ‘Junk DNA’, because
they did not appear to have any specific purpose.
• However, new studies suggest that they play a huge role in gene expression which has become an important
area of study in recent times called epigenetics.
• Epigenetics deals with the processes that control how the genes are expressed.
○ We know that all the cells in our body have the same genome. Average human body contains approximately
37.2 trillion cells and about 220 different cell types.
○ If the same code (genome) exists in the nucleus of all these cells, how 220 odd cell types make up for 4
different tissue types and 78 different organ types, all working in unison to make human life possible?
• The answer lies in gene expression. Different genes are expressed in different cells that perform different
functions that look differently. (like your heart cell and your kidney cell)
INTRONS, EXONS AND RNA SPLICING

• As we have seen, mRNA is a copy of only the coding part of
DNA (gene).
• The coding part does not occur on chromosomes in one
single sequence as one whole. It is spread out on a
chromosome in parts. Each part is separated by a non-
coding part of the genome.
• In fact, 25% of all the non-coding parts occur in between
genes.
• The non-coding parts between genes are called introns and the coding parts that mRNA is interested in are
called exons.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
• So, mRNA must copy only exons and cut out all the introns. This cutting of introns to join only exons is called
RNA splicing.
• The final mRNA after splicing of introns is called exome (which represents only 1.5% of the genome). It is this
final mRNA after splicing that is important for coding for protein.
MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
• One type of muscular dystrophy, a genetic disease, is a result of defect in RNA splicing while copying X-
chromosome.
• Since it is associated with the X-chromosome it is more prevalent in males as they have only one X-chromosome.
7. GENOME SEQUENCING: READING THE CODE OF LIFE

Genome sequencing in simple words is reading the entire book of genome letter by letter (base by base). It is a
procedure for determining the precise order of the four nucleotide bases (A,T,C,G) in DNA.
Sequencing Technologies:
• Short-read: Earlier approach to sequencing, where the genome was chopped into small fragments which could
be reassembled like a jig-saw puzzle. In this approach we read 150 bases at a time. Reading short segments of
the genome was time-consuming and labour intensive.
• Next-Generation sequencing: Use of computers to read multiple fragments at the same time in an automated
process which makes whole-genome sequencing relatively faster, accurate, automated and cheap. (dominant
method)
• Nanopore sequencing: Use of nanotechnology enabled reading longer sequences of the genome (2.3 million
base long sequences at once). The technique is also suitable for identifying pathogens in food, disease control
and diagnosis of infection.
Applications of Genome Sequencing:
• Disease diagnosis and Personalised drug development: Identify genetic mutations and variations, evaluate
rare disorders and even cancer from genetical viewpoint. E.g., Mutation in MYBPC3 (Cardiac Myosin binding
protein) leads to cardiac arrest at young age (found in 4.5% of Indian population but is rare globally).
• Agriculture: Help identify genes that contribute to desirable traits in plants and animals, allowing for selective
breeding of crops and livestock.
• Tool for prenatal screening to investigate whether a foetus has genetic disorders/anomalies.
• Identify suspects in criminal investigations and establish paternity in cases of disputed parentage.
• Help trace the evolutionary history of species and understand the mechanisms underlying evolution.
Important Genome Sequencing Initiatives:
NAME SIGNIFICANCE
Human Genome Project Led to the decoding of the entire human genome for the first time, giving the ability
(1990-2003) to read nature’s complete genetic blueprint.
Initiated by Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) from April 2019 to
IndiGen (completed October 2019.
2019) Aim: To sequence whole genomes of 1029 individuals from diverse ethnic groups
across India.
To create a comprehensive reference database of genetic variations and

subsequent data analysis of 10,000 individuals representing India’s diverse
Genome India Project
population.
(2020-2023)
Entire dataset will be stored at Indian Biological Data Centre (India’s only data
bank for life-sciences) and made available as a digital public good or research.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
Wheat Genome Sequencing Programme

Rice Functional Genomics
Genomic in Indian
National Plant Gene Repository programme
agriculture
Next Generation Challenge Programme on Chickpea Genomics
INDIGAU: Genomics of cow
Aim: To collect cancer cells and tissues to facilitate cancer research in India. Uses
National Genomic Grid genome sequencing of cancer cells to study genomic factors influencing cancer in
the Indian population.
International effort to sequence and digitise the genomes of every eukaryotic

Earth Bio-genome biodiversity on Earth over a period of 10 years.
Project It is an open-source DNA database.
Application: Planning environmental conservation initiatives.
To study genes of microbes in the human body including gut, skin, oral cavity and
Human Microbiome
vagina to study their role in human health and diseases.
Project
Note: Human body contains 10 times as many microbes as human cells.
DeepVariant: AI in Google’s AI system that converts sequencing data from high-throughput

genomics sequencing into an accurate picture of the entire genome.
Google’s AI system that is capable of predicting protein modelling.

AlphaFold
Important to understand diseases and corresponding drug development.
8. CELL-FREE DNA
• Cell-free DNA (cfDNA) refers to
fragments of DNA found in bodily fluids
such as blood, urine, saliva, and
cerebrospinal fluid.
• They are released into the bloodstream
by cells that underwent programmed cell
death or an unplanned cell death due to
any injury or disease.
• These degraded (non-functional)
fragments of nucleic acids do not possess
the ability to replicate or carry out cellular
processes.
• However, cfDNA can carry genetic
information from the cells they originated from, making them a valuable source for various applications.
Important applications of cfDNA:
• Non-invasive prenatal testing to screen for chromosomal abnormalities in a developing foetus like Down
syndrome, Edwards syndrome etc.
• Can provide information about genetic mutations and alterations present in tumour cells and early cancer
detection.
• Aid in diagnosis of infectious diseases and in forensics.
• Used as a biomarker for neurological disorders like Alzheimer’s disease etc.
• Provide an early indication of graft rejection in patients who underwent organ transplants.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
9. VARIATIONS IN THE GENOME: IDENTITY MARKERS

• Humans are 99.9% identical in genome to one another. But given the size of the human genome (3-billion base
pairs), even a small (0.1%) proportion of variation is huge.
• The variation in the base pairs is called polymorphism. They are very important to decide the complete make-
up of an individual including one's eye colour, susceptibility to disease, one’s parentage and even ancestry etc.
• Further variations can be of many types, like single base variation, large sequence variation, variations in the
way sequences are structured etc.
• Study of variations has interesting applications. (see table)
• There are some sequences in our genome (15 to 100 bases) that keep repeating over
and over again. Say, like a word ‘green’ keeps on repeating in a book.
• It so happens that the number of times this repetitive sequence occurs on a
chromosome differs. These are called VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats)
• By counting the number of times the repetitive sequence occurs on chromosomes
DNA (both mother’s and father’s
Fingerprinting / versions), we can establish
DNA profiling the identity of an individual.
This is the DNA fingerprint of
that individual.
Applications:
• Forensics
• Establishing parentage
• Single letter changes in DNA is called Single Nucleotide Polymorphism.

• They occur throughout a person’s DNA, one in every 300 letters on an average.
• It could occur due to mutation during DNA replication (cell division) or may be inherited.
Applications:
• Can act as biological markers to locate a gene associated with disease. Could help in
Single dealing with future pandemics.
Nucleotide • Some SNPs which are inherited act as markers to indicate ancestry. (very important in
Polymorphism studying population genetics). SNPs keep changing as they flow from one generation to
and Population another. Tracing gene flow by observing SNPs is one way of establishing ancestral links.
genetics (related Nobel Prize for 2022 (paleogenetics):
Nobel Prize 2022)
• The scientist who won the Nobel prize in 2022 had studied the gene flow from hominins
to homo sapiens after the migration out of Africa, 70000 years ago.
• He studied the gene flow of Neanderthals and Denisovan (both extinct hominin species)
to Homo sapiens.
• Some genes inherited from these ancient relatives might influence how our immune
system reacts to infections.
1000 Genome It is an effort to study different variations in DNA including SNPs and also larger
Project organisational variations in the genome.
 STEM CELLS
Stem cells: Undifferentiated cells with the potential to develop into specialised cell types in the body.
Types of Stem cells:
• Totipotent: Most versatile with potential to differentiate into all different cell types of an organism and
extraembryonic cells (including placenta and umbilical cord). Only found in fertilised egg (zygote).

BIOTECHNOLOGY
• Pluripotent: Derived from inner cell mass of a blastocyst (an early-stage embryo). Can differentiate into all
three primary germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm), which give rise to all different cell types in
the body (except extraembryonic cells). E.g., Embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells
(reprogrammed from adult cells).
• Multipotent: More specialised than pluripotent stem cells and can differentiate into limited range of cell types
within a specific tissue or organ. E.g., Hematopoietic stem cells (give rise to various blood cell types),
mesenchymal stem cells (can differentiate into bone, cartilage, fat cell etc.)
Unipotent: Most specialised type of stem cells, can only renew themselves and differentiate into one specific cell
type. E.g., Stem cells in skin that can only differentiate into another skin cell.
10. INDUCED-PLURIPOTENT STEM CELLS: IPSCs

• iPSCs are a type of pluripotent stem cell that can be generated directly from a somatic cell.
○ If one can reprogram specialised cells (somatic cells) to tweak the transcriptional factors, it can reverse into
embryonic stem cells.
○ Reprogramming adult cells to become
pluripotent is done by introduction of
four specific genes, collectively known
as Yamanaka factors. It was awarded
the Nobel prize in 2012.
• Advantage: Since iPSCs can be derived
directly from a patient's own cells, it
eliminates the need for embryonic cells
and avoids issues related to immune
rejection.
• iPS cells hold promise in both regenerative
medicine (tissue engineering/organ transplantation) and drug development, and allow researchers to study
diseases at cellular level.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
11. STEM CELL THERAPY

Stem cell therapy: Use of stem cells to grow healthy adult cells in the lab to replace damaged, defective, or
degraded adult cells in the body.
• It is particularly useful when:
○ cells are degraded as in case of neurological
disorder with degeneration of neurons
(Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s etc.) as neurons
do not multiply.
○ damage of organs due to accidents, old age
etc.
○ the body produces defective cells as in case
of blood related disorders like sickle cell
anaemia, beta thalassemia where regular
blood transfusion is needed. In this case
there are 3 ways:
i. Stem cell transplantation of a healthy
donor
ii. Make iPS cells and grow healthy adult
cells
iii. Gene-edited stem cells from one's own
body
• As per the National Guidelines for Stem Cell
Research (NGSCR) 2017, only bone marrow transplant or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for blood
disorders (including blood cancers and thalassemia) is permitted in India.
Note: Stem cells from humans can be introduced in pigs to grow organs in them as they have a faster life cycle.
12. SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER (SCNT) OR

REPRODUCTIVE CLONING
• SCNT technology, also known as
"cloning by nuclear transfer," is a
technique used in the field of
reproductive cloning.
• Cloning involves 3 steps:
1. Take any adult cell (skin, hair, nail
etc) and suck out its nucleus.
2. Take an egg cell from a donor and
remove the nucleus from the
egg/oocyte. (enucleated)
3. Inject the nucleus of the adult cell
in the enucleated egg. You have
an oocyte with somatic cell
nucleus.
• Oocyte cytoplasm reprograms the nucleus of the somatic cell and it makes an embryonic stem cell.
• The embryonic stem cell can then be grown into an organism identical to the person from whom the adult cell
was taken. (since it is the nuclear DNA that codes for proteins) This is how Dolly the sheep was cloned.
• Applications: Help preserve endangered species, replicate highly valuable animals, and advance scientific
research in areas such as regenerative medicine and genetic engineering.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
• Disadvantage: Reproductive cloning is very inefficient as the nucleus from somatic cells resists reprogramming.
13. TISSUE ENGINEERING/ REGENERATIVE MEDICINE/

ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION
• One major challenge of organ transplantation or stem cell transplantation is finding suitable donors, as
matching of HLA (human leukocyte antigen) plays a crucial role in the success of these procedures.
• HLA genes encode proteins essential for the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self cells and
respond to foreign substances (pathogens or transplanted tissues).
• When the HLA match is absent the immune system rejects organ transplants. HLA matches are best among
same-sex siblings. Even between parents and offspring, there is no suitable HLA match.
Note: To find healthy donors for stem cell transplantation, a database called National Stem Cell Registry is
maintained in India.
14. AUTOLOGOUS, ALLOGENIC AND XENOGENIC

TRANSPLANTS
• In the context of organ or stem cell transplantation, depending on its source, donor cells plantation can be
classified as:
1. Autologous: Cells from one’s own body (including stem cell therapy, iPS cells etc).
2. Allogenic: Cells from another's body but of the same species.
3. Xenogenic: Cells from another species.
• With advancements in gene editing techniques, gene therapies and Xenotransplantation are seen as the
potential alternatives to supply organs for transplantation. However, the major challenge is immune reaction
from the human recipient.
15. XENOTRANSPLANTATION
• Organ transplantation from one species to another is called xenotransplantation.

Need for Xenotransplantation:
• While Autologous is the best method (as there won’t be immune rejection), making iPS cells takes a lot of time.
Allogenic is good when there are suitable donors.
• Given the shortage of donors with HLA match, scientists have been increasingly working on Xenotransplantation
as animals like pigs with lower lifespan can be bred to grow human organs.
• Gene editing in pigs to reduce immune rejection has made organ transplants from pigs to humans possible,
which could offer help to thousands of people who face organ failure, disease, or injury.
• Natural lifespan of a pig is 30 years, they are easily bred and can have organs of similar size to humans.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
16. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA TREATMENT

• Mitochondrial DNA is more prone to mutations compared to nuclear DNA. This is because mitochondria are
exposed to free radicals generated during energy production, which can damage DNA.
• When mitochondria are impaired they do not produce sufficient energy, which affects how organs function and
cause inherited conditions like heart problems, liver failure, brain disorders, blindness and muscular dystrophy.
There is no cure for mitochondrial DNA diseases at present.
Mitochondrial Donation Treatment (three parent baby):
• Mitochondrial donation involves replacing unhealthy mitochondria in the mother with healthy mitochondria
from a donor through in-vitro fertilisation (IVF). This would avoid passing faulty mitochondria to the child.
• The Process:
○ Mother’s egg with faulty mitochondria is collected in the laboratory.
○ Egg’s from the donor (female) with healthy mitochondria are collected, and its nucleus is removed.
○ Nucleus carrying the mother's DNA is inserted into the donor’s enucleated egg.
○ The ‘reconstructed egg’ is fertilised with the father's sperm via IVF.
○ The final product — ‘resulting embryo’ — having genetic material (DNA) from parents, and healthy
mitochondria from the donor, is implanted into the mother’s uterus. The baby thus produced has three
genetic parents.
 RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY: BIRTH OF GENETIC

ENGINEERING
17. R-DNA TECHNOLOGY: MANIPULATING THE CODE OF LIFE

• Recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering involves manipulation of the genetic code or DNA of living
organisms.
• Basic principle: Isolating a specific gene or DNA sequence of interest from one organism and inserting it into
the genome of another organism. The inserted gene can be from the same species or from a different species.
KEY STEPS IN R-DNA TECHNOLOGY

• Isolation of the gene or DNA sequence of interest from the source organism.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
• Fragmenting this DNA using ‘molecular scissors’ (Restriction endonuclease Enzymes).

• Screening the fragments for a ‘desired gene’.
• Inserting the fragments with the desired gene into a ‘vector’ (plasmids, bacteriophage, cosmid) to develop a
recombinant DNA. (done using an enzyme called DNA ligase which acts like molecular glue)
• Introducing the recombinant vector into the target organism or host cell. The vector integrates into the host's
genome and the gene of interest is expressed.
• Expression: The target organism produces the protein encoded by the inserted gene.
18. APPLICATIONS OF R-DNA TECHNOLOGY

• Creation of Genetically modified (GM) crops with desirable traits (resistance to pests, diseases, or herbicides).
• Production of therapeutic proteins such as insulin, interferon and human growth hormone (Human insulin was
the 1st therapeutic protein to be genetically cloned in E.coli using R-DNA technology)
• Creation of Mono-clonal antibodies.
• Production of vaccines against Hepatitis B.
• Backbone of Hepatitis and HIV diagnostic tests.
• Produce clotting factors for treating Haemophilia.
• Create genetically engineered microorganisms for bioremediation and cleaning up environmental pollutants.
19. CONCERNS OF R-DNA TECHNOLOGY

• Environmental release of GMOs may have unintended consequences. E.g., Herbicide-resistant crops could lead
to evolution of superweeds resistant to herbicides.
• Horizontal gene transfer from GMOs to other organisms could lead to spread of unwanted traits, such as
antibiotic resistance.
• Allows germline editing or genetic changes to human germline which would be passed onto future generations.
• Accidental release of GMOs/superbugs from laboratories may cause future pandemic and environmental
damage.
20. GM CROPS
• Transgenic plants are those that have been genetically modified using recombinant DNA technology.
• Genetic modification is done to confer a particular trait to the plant with one of the following properties:
○ Increased yield of a crop

BIOTECHNOLOGY
○ Increased nutritional content of a crop

○ Developing resistance to:
 Abiotic stresses like temperature, salinity
or herbicide-resistant
 Biotic stresses like insect-resistant crops.
• BT cotton is the only genetically modified crop
that is commercially allowed in India from 2002.
REGULATION OF GM CROPS IN INDIA

• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) and the
products thereof are regulated under the “Rules
for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and
Storage of Hazardous
Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered
Organisms or Cells, 1989” under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
• The rules include within its purview all molecular
genetics techniques including R-DNA, gene
editing techniques, gene drive etc. The rules are
enforced by the MOEFCC, DBT and State
Governments.
• Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee
(GEAC), a statutory body under MoEFCC, is the
final approval authority for allowing field trials
and commercial cultivation of GM crops. GEAC is also responsible for certification of GMOs.
• Food has been moved out of Regulation of Genome Engineering Technologies recently. Accordingly, the Food
Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) regulates manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import of
GM food in India.
21. GM CROPS: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

• Soil-dwelling bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis produce spores containing crystals that are
Bt Crops:
poisonous to the insect's digestive system (its gut) but harmless to crop plants and to
Importance of
people.
Bacillus
• Thus, all Bt crops involve inserting a gene from soil bacteria to the plant to make it
thuringiensis
express a crystal that kills the insect by attacking its digestive tract.
• Resistance to bollworm pest

Bt cotton
• Only GM crop allowed in India
• Bt brinjal is genetically engineered by inserting a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis for its insecticidal property.
Bt brinjal
• Since 2010 there has been an indefinite moratorium on commercial cultivation of Bt
Brinjal in India.
• Short for Herbicide Resistant Bt Cotton

• The cotton seed is inserted with a gene from a soil bacterium.
HTBT Cotton
• This produces a modified protein glyphosate which makes it herbicide resistant.
Problem with Glyphosate:

BIOTECHNOLOGY
• Glyphosate is a herbicide used in cotton fields which is known to be harmful to soil and
also classified as 'probable human carcinogen' by WHO.
• Besides glyphosate also impacts honeybee gut microbiome thereby affecting
pollination.
Recently, GEAC approved GM mustard for commercial use, the first genetically modified
crop in the country to get approval in two decades.
About GM Mustard
• Transgenic hybrid variety.
• Under normal conditions mustard plants do not cross across varieties as they are self-
pollinating in nature.
• As a result we do not have hybrid varieties of mustard due to which plant-breeders are
not able to induce desired traits in mustard plants.
GM Mustard(DMH- • Genetic modification is done to alter the genes of 2 mustard varieties including Varuna
11) and Heera.
Dhara Mustard • Genetic modification is done with the help of soil bacteria barnase and barstar which
Hybrid help create hybrid varieties of mustard.
Benefits:
• Increase in yield up to 20-30%
• Seeks to attain self-sufficiency in edible oil seeds production
Issues:
• Transgenic hybrid variety becomes tolerant to a herbicide called glufosinate-
ammonium upon genetic modification.
• Herbicides are extensively used in field trials including glyphosate, endosulfan.
• These may harm honey bees (the biggest pollinators of mustard fields).
Golden Rice Vitamin A (2 genes from daffodil and 1 from bacteria)
Soybean Sugarbeet
Herbicide tolerant (glyphosate, glufosinate)
Sugarcane
A new approach for delivering vaccine is transgenic food crops

Edible vaccines E.g., A rice-based mucosal vaccine for cholera.
Plant-based mRNA vaccines using transgenic lettuce are developed.
World's 1st planted in Assam. To make it more tolerant to colder climates as rubber is
GM Rubber
native to warm humid Amazon forests.
India will import GM soymeal for the 1st time to be used as livestock-feed particularly in
GM Soymeal
poultry.
Protato Protein packed GM potato that contains 60% more protein than a wild-type potato.
GM bacteria for Genetically modified bacteria are made that copy the action of Rhizobium to induce the
nitrogen fixation ability of nitrogen fixation in the roots of crops other than legumes.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
 GENE EDITING: CRISPR-CAS9: REVOLUTION IN GENETIC

ENGINEERING
22. CRISPR-BASED GENE EDITING

• CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) and Cas9 (CRISPR-associated protein 9) are
components of the bacterial immune system that have been repurposed for gene editing.
Working of CRISPR:
• In CRISPR-based genome
editing, the first step is
identification of the
targeted DNA sequence.
• Once identified, a guide
RNA molecule brings Cas9
protein to the specific spot
in the DNA.
• Cas9 protein acts like a pair
of molecular scissors and
cuts the DNA at that
specific spot.
• Once the RNA-guided Cas9
enzyme cuts the DNA at a specific site, we could make the following changes to the DNA:
○ Inserting a new sequence (gene insertion)
○ Deleting the sequence (gene removal)
○ Modifying the sequence (gene editing)
• If the existing (native) genome is altered, the end product would be genetically modified (GM) and if a foreign
genome is inserted then the end product would be transgenic.
Advantages of CRISPR:
• CRISPR offers much greater precision in modifying DNA and targets specific locations with much greater
accuracy compared to R-DNA technology.
• Further, CRISPR can be used for a wider range of applications than R-DNA. This is because CRISPR is not just
limited to introducing new genes but can also be used to make precise edits within existing genes.
Concerns:
• Potential to make irreversible changes to the human genome and Risk of passing erroneous CRISPR-induced
changes to successive generations.
• Special traits in offspring/designer-babies can be created through CRISPR posing ethical concerns.
• Eliminating dangerous species of pests by gene-editing or recreating extinct species may disrupt the food
web/ecological cycle.
• Potential weapon of mass destruction by creating harmful biological agents or products.
Limitations:
• In CRISPR-based editing, mutations are corrected by cutting the double strand of the DNA. As a result, it can cut
only large portions of the genome and not single letter changes.
• Additionally, it can induce unintended off-the-target mutations or incomplete edits in some places.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
 ADVANCEMENTS IN GENE EDITING SYSTEMS
23. BASE EDITING

• Advanced form of CRISPR, which is suitable for single letter editing.
• While Cas9 cuts double stranded DNA targets, base editing uses an enzyme to rearrange some atoms in the
base molecule of the DNA, thereby altering it.
• It involves rewriting the DNA instead of cutting the target sequence and adding new base molecules. This makes
it suitable for single-letter mutations.
24. PRIME EDITING

• Another advanced form of CRISPR, but unlike CRISPR which chops DNA in half, prime editing nicks it (small nick
instead of complete cut) and writes a new section of DNA in the specified region similar to base editing.
• Though it is similar to base editing, it includes an additional enzyme, a reverse transcriptase, to copy and paste
new DNA sequences into the genome.
• Thus, it is suitable for precise insertions, deletions, and augmentation of the genome.
• While base-editing is suitable for single-letter modifications, prime editing is suitable for more extensive large
edits.
REGULATION OF GENE EDITING IN AGRICULTURE IN INDIA: (SDN1 AND SDN2)

• “Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically
Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989” notified under the Environment Protection Act, 1986, regulate
genetically modified organisms.
• There is no explicit mention of the term gene editing. Recently an amendment was introduced to the
aforesaid regulation in order to encourage gene editing in agriculture.
• Gene editing techniques using native genome are allowed in India. However, gene editing techniques using
foreign genomes are not allowed.
• The gene editing techniques called SDN 1 and 2 (Site-Directed Nuclease) use native genome and hence, are
allowed under the Rules under EPA, 1986.
• However, gene editing techniques using foreign genomes like SDN 3, 4 and 6 are placed under GMO
regulation and therefore not allowed in India.
SCOPE AND APPLICATIONS

Following are some landmark achievements of the CRISPR system.
GENETIC ENGINEERING: RECENT ADVANCEMENTS
GENE EDITING: DNA AND RNA BOTH

• Both coding and non-coding parts including RNAs (gene expression)
• Initially only DNA was the target, recently RNA is also being modified using the CRISPR
system.
What can all • Conventionally could change a section of DNA (large cuts)
CRISPR systems
• Now with base editing suitable for single-letter mutations.
do?
APPLICATION
Gene therapies can not only repair faulty genes but also regulate healthy genes, either by
silencing certain genes or activating silent/non-expressive genes.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS
In addition to editing, CRISPR can be used to detect single target DNA or RNA molecule
(CRISPR-Cas13). This makes it a sensitive diagnostic tool to detect mutations.
SHERLOCK
A biological detective that uses CRISPR-Cas13 to detect RNA sequences associated with
diseases like Zika virus and Dengue virus.
• Scientists have demonstrated administration of CRISPR-based gene therapy both in-vivo

(directly in the human body) and ex-vivo (from lab culture to human body).
• CRISPR-based gene therapy is most suitable in mono-genetic diseases in which we can
identify a single gene responsible for the disease trait. Examples of such diseases:
○ Blood-related disorders: Sickle-cell anaemia, beta thalassemia, Haemophilia etc.
○ Corneal diseases and skin diseases
○ Degenerative neurological diseases
○ Immunological diseases like HIV, bubble boy syndrome etc.
○ Immune-therapy for cancer (CAR T-cell therapy)
CRISPR in Gene
therapy • Scientists have demonstrated how CRISPR-CAS9 can be used to eliminate HIV in infected
mice.
• Gene editing is tried in mice to correct genes involved in muscular dystrophy.
• Gene editing has been carried out inside the human body for the 1st time to treat
Hunter’s syndrome.
• The US has approved CAR-T cell therapy which involves modifying immune cells to attack
cancer cells in case Leukaemia. In 2021 Department of Biotechnology supported 1st CAR-
T cell therapy was conducted in India.
• 1st in-vivo administration of gene therapy to modify photoreceptor cells in the eye to
treat blindness was done in 2020.
CRISPR AND CELL THERAPY

CRISPR in tissue CRISPR is increasingly being used in tissue engineering to genetically modify pig cells to
engineering make them suitable for growing human organs in them. Stem cells from humans can be
and organ introduced in pigs to grow organs in them as they have a faster life cycle.
transplantation The challenge was that a section of the pig genome was known to cause cancer which
acted as a major hurdle in organ transplantation from pigs to humans. These cancer-
causing genes are edited using CRISPR to silence them.
• Engineer crops to increase their nutritional value, pest-resistance, drought-tolerance.

• ICAR is using SDN 1 and 2 to produce rice varieties which are drought-resistant, salinity-
resistant and high-yielding.
CRISPR IN CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE

CRISPR in CRISPR is used in plants to increase their photosynthetic efficiency by up to 25%. E.g.,
agriculture: GM tobacco plants.
Crops
CRISPR AND CCUS TECHNOLOGIES
The CRISPR system is being used to increase the carbon fixing property in algae by
increasing its photosynthetic efficiency.
CRISPR AND BIOFUELS

BIOTECHNOLOGY
• CRISPR is used to genetically modify microbes like yeast to improve its efficiency of
fermentation and producing ethanol at a faster rate.
• CRISPR is used to genetically modify methanogens (microbes) to improve their
performance in biogas production.
LAB-GROWN MEAT
• Cell-based meat produced by culturing cells in a lab does not have a suitable texture and
flavour. CRISPR systems are used to genetically modify cells to produce proteins
responsible for texture and flavour.
CLEAN MEAT PROJECT: INDIA

GM food
• The Clean Meat project will be taken up by CCMB and the National Research Centre on
Meat of ICAR. Gene edited lab-cultured meat to augment its nutritional content.
INDUSTRIAL FERMENTATION
CRISPR is used to genetically modify microbes like yeast used in wine making, baking and
brewing to improve its efficiency of fermentation.
MORATORIUM ON GENE EDITING OF EMBRYONIC CELLS

• In 2018, a Chinese scientist announced the birth of the 1st gene-edited babies. After this
WHO urged countries to ban experiments that would lead to more gene-edited babies.
• Gene editing of embryonic cells is banned across the world. In 2019, ICMR issued the
National Guidelines for Gene Therapy which also bans gene-editing of embryonic cells.
Note: The Chinese scientist modified the CCR5 gene on the embryonic cells of the couple
to make them resistant to the HIV virus. (CCR5 is a gene that codes for receptors in our
Gene editing immune cells which HIV uses like a gateway to get inside the cell).
and embryonic
RESEARCH ON EMBRYONIC CELLS
cells
• In spite of the world-wide moratorium on gene editing of embryonic cells, research is
allowed on embryonic cells less than 14-days old to understand the nature of many
inherited diseases.
• Accordingly following research is going on:
○ Pre-implanted human embryos are being tested for understanding inherited heart
disease.
○ Genome of embryonic cells is edited using CRISPR-Cas9 to study the cause of infertility.
○ Research on genes linked to beta thalassaemia, inherited blood disorder, in human
embryos using base editing techniques is being carried out.
WHAT IS GENE DRIVE?

• Under normal law of inheritance, a specific trait from an organism has a 50/50 chance
to be passed. (Offspring inherit one copy of each gene from each parent, resulting in a
random chance of expressing either mother’s version or father’s version)
CRISPR and • Gene Drive is the use of gene-editing techniques to alter the law of inheritance to pass
Gene Drive: on a particular genetic trait from one generation to next, faster than normal.
Global fight for
• This is achieved by editing a particular gene in a way that it can copy and paste itself into
Malaria
its corresponding location on the other chromosome, instead of the 50/50 inheritance
pattern that occurs naturally.
• This copying and pasting occurs during the production of reproductive cells (sperm or
egg), resulting in a higher probability that the gene will be passed down to the next
generation.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
• CRISPR is being used to edit a gene called ‘doublesex’ in female mosquitoes which are
the main transmitters of malaria.
• When the female mosquitoes inherit two copies of the disrupted gene, they develop like
males and are unable to bite or lay eggs.
• This genetic tweak of double-sex gene follows gene drive inheritance. With this, in 8
generations female mosquitoes were completely eliminated.
25. CAR-T CELL THERAPY: THE FUTURE MAINSTAY OF

CANCER TREATMENT
BASICS OF CANCER
• Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two daughter cells. If this process goes on forever
unchecked, cell division reaches dangerous levels which is not desirable.
• Thus, in order to maintain balance (homeostasis), cells have adapted themselves to a process called apoptosis
(programmed cell death).
• Cancer is a condition of uncontrolled cell growth and division due to absence of apoptosis. Cancer occurs when
some disruption of the DNA in a normal cell interferes with the cell’s ability to regulate cell division.
• DNA disruption can be caused by chemicals that mutate DNA or by sources of high energy (Sun, X-rays, Nuclear
radiation), even infection by viruses and also due to environmental, and lifestyle factors.
TREATMENT OF CANCER
• To treat cancer, the rapidly dividing cells must be removed surgically or killed, or their division slowed down.
This is done in two ways: (i) Chemotherapy and (ii) Radiation therapy.
CHEMOTHERAPY
• Drugs that interfere with cell division are administered, slowing down the growth of tumours.
• But these drugs disrupt the cell division of normal cells too, causing complications. E.g.,
○ Extreme fatigue due to reduction in production rate of red blood cells (RBCs).
○ Increases bruising and bleeding, as well as a susceptibility to infection as it reduces production of platelets
and white blood cells (WBCs).
RADIATION
• Also works by disrupting cell division, but it is more targeted. It directs high-energy radiation only at the part of
the body where a tumour is located.
• However, the radiation process is not perfect, and the nearby tissues are often harmed.
26. CAR T-CELL THERAPY

• Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy is a cell-based gene therapy which involves genetically modifying
our immune cells called T-cells to help them attack cancer cells.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
○ T-cells are special cells (a type of WBCs) whose primary function is cytotoxic (attack and kill pathogens and
foreign cells).
○ It is the job of B-cells (another type of WBCs) to identify the pathogen and signal other immune cells to do
their job. Now, as cancer cells are not foreign cells, B-cells cannot recognise them as foreign bodies and
hence, cannot present it to the immune system (T-cells) as enemy cells.
• Alternatively, if we can genetically alter T-cells to recognise the cancer cells, it will kill the cells. This is what CAR
T-cell therapy does.
Mechanism:
• In the therapy, T-cells are harvested from the patient’s blood.
○ Researchers genetically modify these cells, using the CRISPR system, so that they express specific proteins
on their surface known as chimeric antigen receptors (CAR).
○ These cells are then multiplied in the laboratory and inserted back into the patient.
○ This genetic modification allows CAR T-cells to effectively bind to the cancer cells (identify them) and destroy
them.
• As CAR T-cells directly activate the patient’s immune system against cancer, it makes the treatment more
clinically effective than Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy.
• Presently, CAR T-cell therapy has been approved for leukaemia and lymphoma.
Limitations:
CAR T-cell therapy could induce an immune response like increased cytokine release which can lead to fever, low
blood pressure, neurological symptoms and organ damage.
• Further, CAR T-cell therapy is best suited for certain blood cancers and may not be effective for all types of
cancer.
NexCAR19: India’s own CAR-T cell therapy

• Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) has granted market authorisation/approval for
NexCAR19. With this India has its indigenous CAR-T and gene therapy platform.
• NexCar19 is developed indigenously by ImmunoACT (a company incubated at IIT Bombay).

BIOTECHNOLOGY
• The therapy is designed to target cancer cells that carry CD19 protein. This protein acts like a flag on cancer
cells, which allows CAR-T cells to recognise and attach themselves to the cancer cells and start the process of
elimination.
• The therapy is for people with B-cell lymphomas who did not respond to standard treatments like
chemotherapy, leading to relapse or recurrence of the cancer.
IMPORTANT CUTTING-EDGE TECHNOLOGIES FOR CANCER CARE
S. No. Technology Details
1. Image-guided Form of radiation therapy that uses imaging techniques to precisely locate and
Radiation Therapy treat cancerous tissue.
Allows for higher doses of radiation to be delivered to tumour while minimising
exposure to surrounding healthy tissues.
2. Proton Therapy Type of radiation therapy that uses high-energy proton beams to destroy
cancerous cells.
Particularly useful to treat tumours located in sensitive areas (brain, eyes and
spinal cord) where traditional radiation therapy can cause severe side effects.
3. Precision Medicine Uses genomic information (genetic profile of their tumour) to personalise
treatment for cancer patients.
4. Radiomics Uses advanced computer algorithms (AI-powered healthcare) to analyse

medical images, such as X-rays, CT scans, and MRIs to improve diagnosis,
treatment planning and prognosis.
 NOBEL PRIZE IN MEDICINE 2023

• The Nobel Prize in Medicine for 2023 has been awarded to Hungarian biochemist Katalin Karikó and American
physician-scientist Drew Weissman for their ground-breaking work on nucleoside base modification of
messenger Ribonucleic Acid (mRNA). Their discoveries were critical in the development of effective mRNA
vaccines, including those used against COVID-19.
Working Principle of mRNA Vaccine:
• Unlike most vaccines containing a weakened or killed bacteria or virus, mRNA vaccines use the mRNA molecule
instead of an actual bacteria or virus.
• When mRNA enters the human body through a vaccine, our cells read the mRNA as a set of instructions to build
proteins (translation) that match up with parts of the pathogen called antigens. E.g., Cells produced the spike
proteins found on the surface of COVID-19 virus.
• Our immune system recognises the foreign protein as an invader and triggers an immune response by creation
of antibodies and T-cells specifically designed to target that protein.
• Also, the immune system also develops memory T-cells, which remember the viral protein to trigger a strong
immune response if the body encounters the real virus in the future.
The Challenge:
• Initially, the significant challenges in mRNA-based therapies, including mRNA vaccines, was the rapid
degradation of mRNA by the body.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
○ When introduced into the body, mRNA

molecules were quickly broken down by
cellular enzymes and the immune system.
○ This problem of rapid degradation of
mRNA was solved after the innovation of
nanoparticles and use of lipid
nanoparticles (LNPs) which encapsulated
and protected the mRNA.
• Further, mRNA vaccine when administered in
the initial stage of trials had shown adverse/
unwanted inflammatory responses in the
body.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF KARIKÓ AND

WEISSMAN: (NUCLEOSIDE BASE
MODIFICATION)
• Nucleoside base modification of mRNA
refers to the chemical alteration (changes to the structure or composition) or modification of the individual
nucleotide bases (Adenosine (A), Cytidine (C), Guanine (G), and Uridine (U)) present in the mRNA molecule.
• Instead of using the standard A, C, G, and U, scientists can replace them with modified/synthetic bases that have
different chemical properties. Hence, A nucleoside-modified messenger RNA (modRNA) is a synthetic
messenger RNA (mRNA).
• Karikó and Weissman were able to successfully deliver modified mRNA into the body. They replaced Uridine
with modified bases like Pseudouridine to reduce inflammation and harmful cytokine production associated
with mRNA-based therapies.
Benefits of modRNA include:
• ModRNA can help prevent unwanted immune reactions in the body by making the mRNA appear more "natural"
to the immune system.
• Modified bases can help stabilise the mRNA, making it last longer.
• Modified bases can improve efficiency of translation (process of converting mRNA into protein), leading to
higher protein production.
• ModRNA can be used in vaccine development, protein production and developing personalised medicines.
VACCINES AND THEIR TYPES
Type of
Description Diseases covered
vaccines
Measles, mumps, rubella (MMR

combined vaccine)
Live attenuated Contains a weakened version of the living microbe so
Varicella (chickenpox)
vaccines that it can not cause disease.
Influenza (nasal spray)
Rotavirus
Virus is first killed with chemicals, heat, or radiation and

then is used to make the vaccine.
Inactivated Hepatitis A, Influenza, polio,
Inactivated vaccines usually do not require
vaccines rabies
refrigeration, and they can be easily stored and
transported in a freeze-dried form.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
A piece of the virus that is important for immunity, like

Sub-unit Hepatitis B
the spike protein of COVID-19, is used to make the
vaccine Human papillomavirus vaccines
vaccine.
Contains a toxin or chemical made by the bacteria or

Toxoid vaccines virus. They make a person immune to the harmful Diphtheria and tetanus
effects of the infection, instead of to the infection itself.
Unique type of inactivated subunit vaccine composed of Pneumococcal disease,

Polysaccharide
long chains of sugar molecules that make up the meningococcal disease, and
Vaccines
surface capsule of certain bacteria. Salmonella Typhi
Biosynthetic Contains man-made substances that are very similar to

HIV
vaccines pieces of the virus or bacteria.
The gene that codes for the COVID-19 spike protein is

DNA vaccine inserted into a small, circular piece of DNA, called a ZyCoV-D
plasmid. The plasmids are then injected as the vaccine.
The vaccine contains mRNA. mRNA is processed in cells

to make proteins. Once the proteins are produced, the Covishield
m-RNA vaccine
immune system will make a response against them to Covaxin
create immunity.
27. MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES

• Recently, India reached out to Australia to procure monoclonal antibody doses to combat the Nipah virus
outbreak in Kerala. The dosage has to be administered at an early stage of infection.
ANTIBODY
• Proteins produced by the immune system that neutralise any foreign substance (bacteria, virus) entering the
human body.
• Antibody attaches itself to an antigen (a foreign substance, usually a disease-causing molecule) and helps the
immune system eliminate it from the body.
MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY
• Laboratory-made proteins to serve as substitute antibodies and mimic their behaviour to protect against
diseases and foreign substances.
• They are specifically engineered and generated to target certain diseases and are meant to attach themselves
to the specific disease-causing antigen.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
• E.g., Monoclonal antibodies during COVID-19 pandemic were engineered to bind to the spike protein of SARS-
CoV-2 virus. The binding prevents the protein from exercising its regular functions, including its ability to infect
other cells.
 SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY: FUTURE OF BIOENGINEERING

• In February 2022, DBT mooted the need for a National Policy on Synthetic Biology aimed at striking a balance
between harnessing the potential benefits and mitigating potential risks of synthetic biology.
28. WHAT IS SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY?

• While biotechnology is the use and modification of
biological organisms to produce useful products, synthetic
biology is the construction of novel biological systems to
produce useful products.
• It is a novel field in biology that works bottom-up as
opposed to the top-down approach of biotechnology.
• This has been made possible as a result of the development
of bioinformatics which has opened the gate for producing
novel products by mimicking nature.
• As we understand the design of plants at the molecular level, we will be able to design similar systems to do the
same artificially. This is what we do in an artificial leaf.
• Another way is to engineer two or more biological systems to produce useful products. Under the following
example we are merging photosynthesis of cyanobacteria to produce a chain of carbohydrates (starch) and
anaerobic respiration of so-produced starch by E.coli to produce alcohol.
29. 1ST ARTIFICIAL CELL: SYNTHIA

• In 2010, a US scientist created of the world’s first artificial cell with a synthetic chromosome. (Synthia)
• In 2016, the same scientist created an artificial cell with the smallest known genome ever, that he completely
created from scratch (473 genes) called syn 3.0.(Synthia 3.0).
30. SYNTHETIC BASES: A 8-LETTER DNA: HACHIMOJO

• Japanese scientists have produced an 8-letter DNA instead of the 4-lettered one that nature has produced.
• 4 out of 8 were natural (AGCT) and 4 artificial ones (SBPZ). This could have potential benefits in DNA Data
storage.
31. SYNTHETIC E.COLI

This is the latest synthetic genome we have created till date.
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS
• With the advancement in our understanding of genes and gene expression we could make synthetic genomes
to express very specific traits with specific applications.
• Some potential areas could be:
○ Producing synthetic algae for high-efficiency photosynthesis that can be used in CCUS technology.
○ Synthetic microbes as agents of bioremediation: E.g., Plastic-eating bacteria are suitable only for certain
kinds of plastics. If we can mimic the process with a synthetic genome, we can have novel organisms that can
be used for bioremediation.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
○ Antibiotics are now being made by engineering a completely artificial gene sequence to code for a protein
(polypeptides). These are known to kill E.coli, Staphylococcus aureus etc.
○ Can replace Genetically Modified biologics like Insulin.
○ Anti-malarial polypeptide is made using an artificial sequence.
32. DISEASES IN NEWS

• Zoonotic disease that can be transmitted to humans through direct contact with infected
animals, especially bats and pigs. Can also be transmitted through contaminated food or
Nipah Virus directly from person to person.
(NiV) • Fruit Bats (flying foxes) are natural reservoir/primary carriers of Nipah virus.
• Symptoms: Fever, muscle pain, and respiratory problems (similar to that of influenza).
Inflammation of the brain and late onset of Encephalitis can also occur.
• Treatment: Currently, there are no approved vaccines available.
• Small, double-stranded DNA virus capable of infecting women and men.

• Can cause cancer in the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, anus, and throat.
Human • Transmission: Any intimate skin-to-skin contact and sexually transmitted via vaginal, anal,
papillomavirus or oral sex.
(HPV) • Cervavac, India's first Quadrivalent HPV Vaccine, developed by the Serum Institute of India,
prevents entry of four of the most common types of HPV 16, 18, 6 and 11.
• The vaccine has been approved for girls and boys aged between 9 and 26 years.
• Zoonotic disease caused by the virus belonging to the Orthopoxvirus genus.

• Animal-to-human transmission can occur from direct contact with the blood, bodily fluids,
Monkey Pox or cutaneous or mucosal lesions of infected animals.
• Symptoms: Characterised by rash or skin lesions that are usually concentrated on the face,
palms of the hands, and soles of the feet.
• Rare and progressive genetic disorder in which a complex sugar called glycogen builds up
in the lysosomes.
• The autosomal recessive disorder is caused by a deficiency or malfunction of a specific
digestive enzyme called acid alpha-glucosidase (GAA) responsible for breaking down
Pompe
glycogen into glucose.
Disease
• This leads to accumulation of glycogen which causes progressive muscle weakness and can
affect various organs, including heart, respiratory system, and liver.
• Treatment: Currently, no cure exists, and Enzyme replacement therapy to replace the
deficient GAA enzyme is the mainstay of treatment.
• Rare genetic disorder characterised by progressive muscle degeneration and weakness due
to the alterations of a protein called dystrophin (dystrophin helps in wear and tear and
regeneration of muscles).
Duchenne’s
• As a result, the body cannot produce dystrophin, which weakens the muscles, and patients
Muscular
become wheelchair-bound in early teens and die prematurely.
Dystrophy
• Cause: Most cases of DMD are inherited as an X-linked recessive trait (passed on through
the mother, who is a carrier). The disease primarily affects boys, but in rare cases, it can
affect girls.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
• Slow progressing Neglected Tropical Disease and zoonotic infection caused by a protozoan
parasite of genus Leishmania.
Kala Azar or
• Transmitted by the sand fly found in moist mud and sand close to livestock.
Visceral
• The parasite primarily infects the reticuloendothelial system and may be found in
leishmaniasis
abundance in bone marrow, spleen and liver.
• It is the second-largest parasitic killer in the world after Malaria.
• Bacterial illness caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi and transmitted to humans through

bites of infected chiggers (small mites).
Scrub Typhus
• These mites inhabit areas with dense vegetation (grassy fields, forests) with ample moisture
to thrive.
Kyasanur • Tick-borne viral haemorrhagic fever caused by a virus.

Forest • Endemic to the South-western part of India (first noticed in the Kyasanur Forest area in
Disease/ Karnataka).
Monkey fever
• Transmission: Primates (Monkeys) come in contact with infective ticks. Human beings who
visit the endemic forest area can contract the disease.
• Highly contagious disease caused by lumpy skin disease virus that primarily affects cattle.
• Transmission: Biting insects such as flies and mosquitoes and possibly ticks. Also spread
Lumpy Skin by direct contact to skin lesions, saliva, nasal discharge, milk, or semen of infected animals.
Disease Not a zoonotic virus i.e., cannot spread to humans via milk consumption.
• Symptoms: Formation of nodules/lumps on skin, head, neck, back, and genitalia, high
fever, sharp drop in milk yield, loss of appetite, thinness or weakness in animals.
• Highly contagious viral vesicular disease of cloven-hoofed animals such as cattle, buffaloes,
sheep, goats and pigs etc.
Foot and • Symptoms: Abscesses and ulcers to the mouth and foot that prevent the animal from
Mouth Disease eating and walking, reduced milk yield, infertility, reduced working capacity.
• Human infection is rare, and is not transmitted to humans via meat consumption.
• The Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying aims to eradicate FMD by 2030 through
vaccination of livestock.
• Inherited/genetic blood disorder that affects haemoglobin, the protein in RBCs that carries
oxygen to all parts of the body.
• Healthy RBCs are soft and round. In SCD, the haemoglobin is abnormal, which causes the
Sickle Cell RBCs to become hard and sticky and look like a “sickle.”
Anaemia (SCD) • These rigid, sticky cells die early and often get stuck in blood vessels, clogging the flow of
blood. As a result, different parts of the body do not get the oxygen they need.
• This can cause pain and other serious health problems such as infection, acute chest
syndrome and stroke.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
• Rare inherited/genetic bleeding disorder that impairs the body’s ability to make blood clots.
• People with haemophilia have lower levels of clotting factors, which can lead to excessive
bleeding, even after a minor injury.
Haemophilia • It is an X-chromosome linked recessive disorder which means that it is more common in
males than in females (Females are carriers of haemophilia genes).
• Lifelong condition with no permanent cure. Treatment typically involves replacing deficient
clotting factors through infusions.
• Inherited blood disorder characterised by abnormal haemoglobin production, which in

turn, leads to Anaemia.
• Results from a mutation in one or more of the genes that make haemoglobin. It is passed
down from one or both parents through their genes.
• Treatment: Bone marrow transplantation (very costly). Mainstay treatment is repeated
blood transfusions every two to three weeks to survive.
Thalassemia
• Progressive neurological disorder that causes the brain to shrink (atrophy) and brain cells
Alzheimer to die, which primarily affects memory (dementia) and cognitive function.
• Caused by abnormal build-up of proteins in and around brain cells, which either form
plaques (Amyloid protein) or tangles (Tau protein) around brain cells.
• Genetic condition caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21.

Down’s
• People with Down’s syndrome have 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46.
syndrome
• Lifelong condition that affects physical and intellectual development with no cure.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
• RNA virus that damages the immune system. HIV primarily targets CD4 cells (type WBCs),
essential for the proper functioning of the immune system.
Human
• If left untreated, HIV can lead to AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).
immuno-
• Transmission: Contact with certain bodily fluids (infected blood, semen, or vaginal fluids)
deficiency
of a person with HIV. Can transmit from an HIV-positive mother to child during childbirth,
virus (HIV)
breastfeeding, or pregnancy.
• Not transmitted by insect vectors (HIV can only survive in human blood).
• Vaccine-preventable zoonotic disease caused by a RNA virus which infects the central
nervous system of mammals, including humans.
• Transmission: Bite of an infected animal (dogs, cats, bats, monkeys, foxes), contact with
Rabies saliva or other bodily fluids of infected animal.
• Symptoms: Fever and headache, hallucinations, paralysis and hydrophobia.
• Treatment:
• Once symptoms appear, no cure for rabies (100% fatal).
• Influenza (flu) is a highly-contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses.

• Influenza viruses are of four different types: A, B, C and D.
Influenza • H3N2 (HongKong Flu) and H1N1 (Swine Flu) viruses are subtypes of Influenza A virus.
Influenza A is associated with severe respiratory illness and deaths in humans.
• H5N1 (Avian influenza/ Bird Flu) is also a subtype of the Influenza A virus that primarily
infects birds but can also infect humans and other mammals.
• Airborne communicable disease caused by bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

• Can cause- Pulmonary TB (infection in lungs, 80% cases) and extra-pulmonary TB which can
infect brain, uterus, stomach, mouth, kidneys and bones.
Tuberculosis • High-risk groups: People with weak immunity like those infected with HIV, Under-nutrition,
(TB) Diabetes, Smoking and Alcohol consumption.
• India has more than 25% of the total TB patients in the world.
• Treatment: DOTS strategy (Directly Observed Treatment Short Course) is a WHO-
recommended cost-effective strategy.
• Potentially life-threatening disease caused by plasmodium parasites transmitted through

the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
• Mosquirix is the world’s first vaccine against the parasitic disease.
Malaria • Currently, Malaria is a notifiable disease in 33 (States and UTs) in India. (Notifiable disease
is required by law to be reported to government authorities, any failure to notify would be
a criminal offence).
• India has the vision to be malaria-free by 2027 and to eliminate it by 2030.
• Not a specific disease but name given to a potential novel infectious agent currently
Disease X
unknown but could pose a serious microbial threat to humans in the future.
• Resistance acquired by any microorganism (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasite) against

Antimicrobial antimicrobial drugs or treatments to which they were previously susceptible.
resistance
Sources of development of AMR:
(AMR)
• Microbes may develop resistance to antibiotics over time through natural mutation.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
• Can be acquired from vertical gene transfer i.e., during the process of bacterial division, the
drug resistance gene is transmitted from parent to offspring.
• Can be acquired by a microbe from other microbes through swapping genes via horizontal
gene transfer i.e., genetic sequences associated with antimicrobial resistance may pass on
from one microbe to another in the community.
• Incomplete doses of medication and self-medication.
• Inappropriate disposal of unused or expired medication can expose microbes in the
environment.
• Using antibiotics in farm animals and herbicide use to control weeds may enrich
Antimicrobial resistance gene (ARGs) and Mobile genetic element (MGEs) by altering soil
microbiomes.
• Microplastics and untreated solid and liquid waste, biofilms can act as a reservoir of AMR
microbes.
Note: In India, Antibiotics are included in Schedule H and H1 of the Drugs Rules, 1945. These
drugs have specific caution labelling requirements and are sold by retail only under the
prescription of a Registered Medical Practitioner.

2
Chapter SPACE TECHNOLOGY
 BASIC PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY
1. STANDARD MODEL OF PHYSICS

• The fundamental questions that have intrigued humans for long are “What is the world made of?” and “What
holds it together?”.
• The Standard Model is an attempt to explain these questions. The Model describes the behaviour of six types
of quarks, six types of leptons, three fundamental forces (Strong force, Electromagnetic force & Weak force)
and their four associated particles (Bosons), plus the Higgs boson.
• As per the Model:
○ All the known matter is made up
of fundamental particles
called quarks and leptons.
○ These particles interact with
each other in accordance with
rules known as the
‘fundamental forces’.
• Limitations: Currently, the Model
is incomplete and does not explain
Gravitational force. (Graviton, the
force-carrying particle for gravity,
has not been discovered yet) and
does not explain the existence of
dark matter and dark energy.
FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES
1. Quarks:
• Quarks are elementary particles
that are considered fundamental
constituents of matter.
• They combine to form composite
particles known as hadrons (such
as protons and neutrons), which are the building blocks of atomic nuclei.
• There are 6 principal quarks, and they interact through the exchange of other elementary particles called
gluons.
• A quark exhibits confinement, which means that the quarks are not observed independently but always in
combination with other quarks. This makes determining their properties (mass, spin, and parity) impossible to
measure directly.
2. Leptons:
• Leptons, alongside quarks, are fundamental building blocks of matter.
• There are 6 known leptons - Electron, Muon, Tau, three types of Neutrinos.
Note: Fermions (Quarks + Leptons) are the particles which have half-integer spin.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
3. Bosons:
• Boson is a collective name given to particles that carry fundamental forces.
• Each fundamental force has its own corresponding force carrier (boson).
○ Strong force is carried by gluon
○ Electromagnetic force is carried by photon
○ W and Z bosons are responsible for the Weak force.
2. EVOLUTION OF UNIVERSE
BIG BANG THEORY
• Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe's origin and evolution.
• Origin from a Singularity: Approximately 13.8 billion years ago, all the matter and energy in the universe were
created from an incredibly hot, dense state called a Singularity in an enormous explosion- “Big Bang”.
• Inflation (Rapid expansion): After the explosion, the universe underwent a period of rapid expansion called
inflation.
• Cooling and Particle formation: As the universe expanded and cooled, fundamental forces and particles
formed. The first fraction of a second witnessed the creation of elementary particles like quarks and gluons.
• Big Bang nucleosynthesis (light element formation): After a few minutes, protons and neutrons formed,
allowing for the creation of the light elements - Hydrogen, Helium - through a process called Big Bang
nucleosynthesis.
• Formation of stars and galaxies: Over billions of years, gravity caused the light elements to clump together,
forming stars and galaxies. Over time, heavier elements were forged within stars and dispersed through stellar
explosions, enriching the universe for future solar system formation.
Hubble’s Law and Expanding Universe:

• Discovered by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Hubble's law states that galaxies farther away from us are receding at a
faster velocity compared to closer galaxies.
• This recession velocity is proportional to the distance of the galaxy. The farther a galaxy is, the faster it's moving
away from us. Thus, the universe is constantly expanding.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
SUPPORTING EVIDENCE FOR BIG BANG THEORY

1. Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation:
• CMB is a form of electromagnetic radiation that permeates the entire universe and is almost uniform in all
directions.
• It is considered to be the oldest light in the universe and is often referred to as the faint afterglow heat radiation
from a very hot, early universe.
• The expansion of the universe stretched CMB's wavelength, shifting it from high-energy photons to the
microwave range (long wavelength) as we observe today. This expansion is indeed evidence for the Big Bang.
2. Redshift of Galaxies:
• Redshift is a phenomenon observed in the light emitted by distant objects, such as galaxies or quasars.
• When an object moves away from an observer, the light it emits gets stretched or "shifted" toward longer
wavelengths or towards the red end of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is interpreted as a consequence of
the universe's ongoing expansion.
3. Abundance of Light Elements:

• The observed abundance of light elements like hydrogen and helium closely matches the predictions of Big
Bang nucleosynthesis.
3. GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY (GTR)

• GTR is a fundamental theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915.
• According to the theory:
○ Massive objects cause a curvature in space-time structure, which causes other objects to move along a
curved path.
○ Speed of light is constant in all inertial reference frames. (Speed of light remains the same for all observers,
regardless of their position or motion within a gravitational field)
• GTR predicted the existence of gravitational waves, black holes, time dilation, gravitational lensing (light is
deflected by objects with very strong gravity), and expansion of the Universe.
KEY PREDICTIONS OF GTR

1. Gravitational waves:
• Ripples in space-time caused by accelerating massive objects (similar to ripples in a water pond). The curvature
of spacetime is directly proportional to the mass of the object causing the curvature, i.e., the greater the mass,
the greater the curvature of spacetime it causes.
• The waves travel at the speed of light and squeeze and stretch anything in their path.
• Gravitational radiation is exceedingly difficult to detect because gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental
forces. The waves were finally detected in 2015 by LIGO - Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
2. Black holes:
• Regions of spacetime where gravity is so strong that not even light can escape. Black holes have been
observationally confirmed. (Details later in the segment )
3. Time dilation:
• Time dilation refers to the idea that time is relative and runs/passes at different rates for different observers,
depending on their relative motion or their positions in a gravitational field.
• Closer an object's velocity is to the speed of light, the more pronounced the time dilation effect becomes.
• GTR predicts that time runs slower in stronger gravitational fields. This has been experimentally verified using
high-precision atomic clocks, observations of Quasars etc.
4. IMPORTANT PARTICLES YOU OFTEN HEAR

1. Higgs Boson:
• In the 1960s, Peter Higgs suggested that just after the Big Bang, in the early stages, the fundamental particles
did not have any mass. As the Universe cooled, an invisible force field got formed which has been termed as
Higgs Field.
• The associated particles with the Higgs field are the Higgs Bosons. It has been theorised that any particle that
interacted with these Higgs Bosons got mass, and those particles that were left out of the Higgs field remained
massless.
• As these Higgs bosons grant mass to particles like electrons, quarks, etc. (the primary condition for existence of
matter), they were termed as the ‘God particle’.
• The Higgs boson was discovered by the Large Hadron Collider in 2012.
2. Neutrinos:
• Neutrinos belong to a group of fundamental particles called leptons in the Standard Model.
• They have no electric charge and very little mass (nearly massless).
• They very rarely interact with matter and that is why they are called “ghost particles”. This means they can travel
through vast distances, including entire planets, almost undetected.
• Source of Neutrinos: Stars, Supernovae, Galaxies, Nuclear reactions.
5. DARK MATTER AND DARK ENERGY

• Dark matter and dark energy together make up 95% of the Universe. (68% dark energy and 27% dark matter).
• Only the remainder (5%) is composed of fermionic matter, i.e., things on the Earth, planets, stars, etc.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
Dark Matter:
• Dark matter is completely invisible. It does not interact with matter, emits no light or energy and thus cannot
be detected directly by conventional sensors and detectors.
• Scientists are confident it exists, because of the gravitational effects it has on galaxies and galaxy clusters.
Dark Energy:
• Existence of dark energy was theorised 25 years ago, when a team of researchers found that the expansion of
the Universe was speeding up or accelerating, instead of slowing down due to gravity (inwards pulling force).
This is hypothesised to be happening due to a mysterious form of energy called dark energy.
Characteristics of Dark Energy:
• Dark energy has been hypothesised as a repulsive force or anti-gravity, i.e. while gravity tends to make objects
attract, dark energy would pull them apart by increasing the space between them. Thus, dark energy has an
expansionary effect.
• As our universe is expanding, it indicates that dark energy has a greater abundance than dark matter.
• Dark energy is a property of space, so it does not get diluted as space expands.
○ Normally, as the universe expands the density of mass and radiation in it decreases.
○ However, the density of dark energy remains constant throughout. This means the dark energy in the
universe is ever increasing, in order to keep the energy-density constant. Thus, dark energy should be energy
inherent in the fabric of space itself.
6. BLACK HOLES
• Regions of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing, including light and other electromagnetic waves,
has enough energy to escape.
• Formation: A black hole forms when a massive star (at least three times the mass of our Sun), exhausts its fuel,
explodes in a supernova, and collapses under gravity into an incredibly dense core called a singularity.
• Types:
○ Stellar Black Hole: Formed by the collapse of a single massive star.
○ Intermediate Black Hole: Formed by the collapse of a star having mass between 100 and 1,00,000 times
that of our sun.
○ Supermassive Black Hole: Masses ranging from millions to billions of times that of the sun, found at the
centres of most galaxies.
• Black holes are not directly observable with telescopes that detect X-rays, light, or other forms of
electromagnetic radiation. However, their presence can be inferred through their effects on surrounding matter
and the gravitational waves they produce.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
○ E.g., If a black hole passes through a cloud of interstellar matter or if a star passes close to a black hole, it will
draw matter inward in a process known as accretion. As the attracted matter accelerates and heats up, it
emits electromagnetic radiation into space. This reflects the presence of black holes.
○ Merger of two blackholes produces powerful gravitational waves. The detection of these waves (through
LIGO) can confirm the existence/ location of the black holes.
TERMS RELATED TO BLACK HOLES

Singularity:
• A singularity refers to a point of infinite density and infinitesimal size at the centre of a black hole.
• It is a region of extreme spacetime curvature, where the fabric of space and time becomes highly distorted.
Event Horizon (a point of no return):
• It is like a boundary around a black hole (around the singularity). Once anything (matter, energy, light) crosses
this boundary, it can not escape unless it travels faster than the speed of light (which is impossible).
• Hence, not even light, can escape the black hole's gravity because the speed needed to escape at the event
horizon should be greater than the speed of light.
Ergosphere:
• The Ergosphere is a bigger sphere, outside the event horizon of a black hole, where matter can enter and then
return (escape the black hole's gravitational pull), if they are moving with speeds very close to the speed of light.
• Rotating (Kerr) black holes have an ergosphere. In the Ergosphere, spacetime is dragged along with the rotation
of the black hole.
• Ergosphere derives its name from the fact that energy can be extracted from the black hole via the Penrose
process. Researchers have proposed the concept of directing objects into the ergosphere of a black hole,
allowing it to accelerate there along the black hole’s direction of rotation, resulting in an increased velocity upon
exiting. This energy ‘gain’ will translate to the black hole losing some angular momentum.
Accretion disc:
• A flat, rotating structure of matter (such as gas, dust, or other material) that forms around a black hole.
• The material in the accretion disc spirals inward due black hole’s gravitational attraction.
• As it spirals inward, the material often heats up due to friction and gravitational forces, emitting various forms
of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, X-rays, gamma rays and radio waves.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
Spaghettification:
• Spaghettification refers to the effect of extreme gravitational pressure on any particle or body of matter, in
particular, when exposed to the extreme forces of the black hole.
• When a particle draws too close to the event horizon, it is stretched into long thin shapes. E.g., If an astronaut
falls into the event horizon, as the gravity is inversely proportional to distance, the pull on the falling astronaut’s
legs will be substantially greater than the pull on his or her upper torso. Subsequently, stretching him like
spaghetti (pasta).
Black Hole Mass Gap
• Gap between the mass of the heaviest Neutron star (maximum mass around 2.2 solar masses) and the lightest
Black hole (around 5 solar masses) is called Black Hole Mass Gap.
• At the boundary between neutron stars and black holes there is always the possibility that some new, as yet
unknown, astrophysical object might exist.
• Recently, an object has been detected in the star cluster NGC 1851, whose mass (2.09-2.7 times solar Sun) falls
within the black hole mass gap.
 UNVEILING THE UNIVERSE'S SECRETS
7. LASER INTERFEROMETER GRAVITATIONAL-WAVE

OBSERVATORY (LIGO)
• LIGO consists of two widely-separated interferometers within the United States—one in Hanford, Washington
and another in Livingston, Louisiana—operated in unison to detect gravitational waves.
Working:
• LIGO comprises two 4-km-long vacuum chambers, built perpendicular to each other. Highly reflective mirrors
are placed at the end of the vacuum chambers.
• Light rays are fired simultaneously in both vacuum chambers. They hit the mirrors, get reflected, and are
captured back.
○ In normal circumstances, the light rays in both chambers would return simultaneously.
○ But when a gravitational wave arrives, one of the chambers gets a little elongated, while the other one gets
squeezed a bit. In this case, light rays do not return simultaneously, and there is a phase difference. The
presence of a phase difference marks the detection of a gravitational wave.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
Significance:
• Provides a direct measurement of gravitational waves to study their properties.
• Allows scientists to observe and study mergers of black holes and neutron stars.
• Provide valuable insights into the early universe and advances our understanding of fundamental physics.
LIGO India Project:

• Government has approved a gravitational-wave detector project in India costing Rs 2,600 crores, estimated
to be built by 2030.
• Location: Hingoli district, Maharashtra.
• While two LIGOs can detect gravitational waves, a third observatory is required for better triangulation of the
location of a source of gravitational waves.
8. LARGE HADRON COLLIDER (LHC)

• LHC is the world’s largest and most powerful particle accelerator constructed by the European Organisation for
Nuclear Research (CERN).
• It lies in a tunnel 27 kilometres in circumference and 175 metres beneath the France-Switzerland border near
Geneva.
• Inside the LHC, two high-energy particle beams of protons are directed at each other at nearly the speed of light
and made to collide in the 27-kilometre accelerator ring. The proton beam is guided around the accelerator ring
by a strong magnetic field maintained by superconducting electromagnets.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
• These high-energy collisions recreate conditions similar to the Big Bang, and generate new particles. Using
detectors scientists study their properties and interactions, which can provide insights into fundamental
particles, dark matter and possibly new physics beyond the Standard Model.
• The ATLAS and CMS detectors of LHC discovered the Higgs boson in 2012.
Hadrons: Subatomic particles composed of two or three fundamental particles known as quarks, which are
held together by strong Nuclear force. E.g., Protons, Neutrons.
Amaterasu particle:
• The Amaterasu particle, named after the sun goddess in Japanese mythology, is an extremely high-energy cosmic
ray detected in 2021 and later identified in 2023, using the Telescope Array Project observatory in the United States.
• It has an energy exceeding 240 exa-electron volts (EeV). This is millions of times more powerful than the particles
produced by the Large Hadron Collider.
• It is second only to the “Oh-My-God” particle, another high-energy cosmic ray detected in 1991 with 320 EeV energy.
9. ICECUBE NEUTRINO OBSERVATORY

• The world’s biggest ‘neutrino telescope’ is a cubic kilometre in size and contains thousands of sensors called
Digital Optical Modules (DOMs) buried more than 1.4 km beneath the ice plus multiple detectors above the
surface.
• These DOMs are designed to detect the Cherenkov radiation produced by neutrinos.
• Location: Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica.
Working:

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
• Neutrinos rarely interact with matter. However, when a neutrino interacts with an atom in the ice, it creates a
secondary particle that travels faster than light in the ice. This faster-than-light travel creates a faint blue light
called Cherenkov radiation.
• The DOMs detect the Cherenkov radiation and send a signal to the surface. By studying the pattern of
Cherenkov radiation, scientists can learn about the energy and direction of the neutrino that caused it.
Why study Neutrino?

• There are discrepancies between Standard Model's predictions (Neutrino is massless) and the observed
behaviour of neutrinos (have non-zero mass). Studying these anomalies could lead to the discovery of new
physics beyond the Standard Model.
• Mechanism by which neutrinos acquire mass is still not fully understood. Studying their properties might shed
light on the Higgs mechanism and mass generation in general.
• Neutrinos can travel vast distances with minimal interaction, hence, they carry information about the early
universe, moments after the Big Bang. Studying them can provide insights into the universe's evolution.
Important Observatories Description
• Proposed underground laboratory at Bodi West Hills near Madurai, Tamil Nadu.
Opposition:
• TN is opposing the move as the proposed site will fall within the confines of
Indian Neutrino
Periyar tiger corridor and Mathikettan Shola National Park in the Western Ghats.
Observatory
• As the observatory will be at a depth of 1 km mountain rock will be subject to
vertical stress and may create rock bust and roof collapse.
• Harmful effects of radiation. (This is misplaced as neutrinos are harmless)

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
Cubic Kilometre Neutrino • European detector under-construction off the coast of France, Italy, and Greece,
Telescope at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea.
• China is planning to build the world’s largest neutrino observatory under the
ocean.
China’s planned Neutrino

observatory
10. MUON TOMOGRAPHY OR MUOGRAPHY

Muons:
• Muons are elementary particles (a type of leptons) constantly produced in the Earth's upper atmosphere by
cosmic ray interactions.
• They are about 200 times more massive than electrons and do not lose much energy as they travel, which allows
them to penetrate more deeply into materials than X-rays or other forms of radiation.
Muon Tomography:
• A technique used to image the interior of dense objects or structures using cosmic ray muons.
• When muons pass through matter, their trajectory is affected by the density and composition of the material.
• By measuring the paths of muons as they pass through an object from different angles, it is possible to create
a 3D image of the object's internal structure.
• Advantage: Non-invasive imaging technique (does not require any drilling or excavation).
Uses:
• Image interior of archaeological sites (pyramids in Egypt), volcanoes to monitor for potential eruptions.
• Inspect integrity of spent fuel rods and other components of nuclear reactors.
• Used in customs security to detect contraband and other illicit materials in shipping.
 STARS AND STELLAR PHENOMENA
11. SUPERNOVA
• Incredibly powerful stellar explosions that occur when a massive supergiant star reaches the end of its life.
• These explosions release an astonishing amount of energy, up to 10^44 joules.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
TYPES:
Type I:
• Occur in binary star systems where one of the stars is a white dwarf (a dense, Earth-sized remnant of a star that
has exhausted its nuclear fuel and collapsed under its own gravity).
• The white dwarf accretes matter from its companion star until it reaches a critical mass, known as the
Chandrasekhar limit (1.4 times the mass of the Sun).
• The pressure and temperature at the core of the white dwarf become so high that carbon and oxygen nuclei in
the core begin to fuse rapidly into heavier elements, primarily iron.
• The fusion process proceeds at an ever-increasing rate, leading to a thermal runaway/uncontrolled nuclear
reaction that releases an immense amount of energy, causing the white dwarf to explode.
Type II:
• Star is a delicate balance between two forces: the outward energy and pressure created by nuclear fusion and
the inward gravitational force, as a result of the star’s large mass.
• Core-collapse supernovae occur when massive stars (at least 8 times the mass of our Sun) reach the end of
their lives. As the core runs out of nuclear fuel, gravity starts to gain the upper hand, and the star collapses
under the force of gravity.
• The core collapse triggers a massive shockwave that eventually blows off the outer layers of the star. It leads to
the formation of a neutron star (or a black hole, if the star is extremely massive).
Significance:
• Supernovae are responsible for creating and dispersing heavy elements like iron, gold, and uranium into space,
essential for the formation of stars, planets and life.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
• Supernovae have a consistent peak brightness and are used as "standard candles" in cosmology to measure
cosmic distances.
12. NEUTRON STARS

• Incredibly dense remnants/ leftover core of supermassive stars that have exploded as supernovae.
• The immense gravity of the core crams protons and electrons together, which combine to form neutrons.
Neutron stars do not have an event horizon.
• Size: Typically only 15-30 kilometres in diameter.
• Mass: 1.4 to 2.2 times our Sun. (densest known stellar objects, second only to black holes)
• Fast Spinners: Rotate incredibly fast, with periods as short as a fraction of a second. This rapid spin is a result
of the conservation of angular momentum.
• They possess extremely strong magnetic fields, which can give rise to intense radiation emissions (radio waves,
X-rays, and gamma rays) and particle streams, which are observable as pulsars.
Types of Neutron Stars:

(a) Pulsars: Emits an electromagnetic beam out of their poles. The difference between pulsars and neutron stars
is that other neutron stars do not shoot a pulse (beam) as strong as pulsars.
(b) Magnetars: Have powerful magnetic fields (in the range of 1015 gauss) as compared to other neutron stars.
They are the most powerful known magnetic objects in the Universe.
13. QUASARS
• Quasars are not actually stars but active galactic nuclei (AGN) located at extreme distances from Earth.
• They are the bright cores of distant galaxies powered by supermassive black holes. The intense gravitational
forces exerted by these black holes cause the surrounding material to heat up and emit enormous amounts of
energy, including visible light and radio waves.
• They are the most luminous objects (equivalent to the combined light of hundreds of billions of stars) in the
known universe, outshining entire galaxies. As a general rule, the most luminous quasars indicate the fastest-
growing supermassive black holes.
• The nearest quasar is Markarian 231, which lies about 600 million light-years from Earth.
14. FAST RADIO BURST (FRB)

• Bright and brief bursts of electromagnetic radiation seen in radio-wave frequencies (usually last a thousandths
of a second).
• Exact cause of FRB is unknown but the sources include magnetars, colliding neutron star binaries, and merging
white dwarfs.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
15. SUN
• Composition: Hydrogen (about 74%), Helium (24%) and other elements in trace amounts.
• Energy Source: Nuclear Fusion (Hydrogen atoms combine to form Helium in its core).
• Size and Mass: Approximately 109
times Earth’s diameter and about
333,000 times Earth's mass.
• Distance: Average distance from
Earth to the Sun, known as one
astronomical unit (AU), is about 93
million miles (150 million
kilometres).
Layers of the Sun:
• Core: Innermost region where
nuclear fusion occurs.
• Radiative Zone: Above the core,
energy is transported outward by
photons through this layer.
• Convective Zone: This layer is
closer to the surface and transports energy through the movement of hot gas (plasma) cells.
• Photosphere: Visible surface of the Sun, where most of its energy is radiated into space as visible light.
• Chromosphere: Thin layer between photosphere and corona. (named for its reddish colour, most easily
observed during a total solar eclipse)
• Corona: Outermost and extremely hot layer of Sun's atmosphere, visible as a halo during solar eclipses.
Key terms:
• Heliosphere: Vast, bubble-like
region of space dominated by
the Sun's solar wind and
magnetic field emanating from
the Sun. It extends far beyond
the orbit of Pluto and protects
the solar system from harmful
cosmic rays.
• Solar Magnetic Field: Sun has
a complex magnetic field
generated by the motion of
charged particles in its interior.
This field plays a crucial role in
the behaviour of the Sun,
including the formation of
sunspots, solar flares, and
CMEs.
• Sunspots: Temporary spots on the Sun's photosphere that appear darker than the surrounding areas. They are
cooler parts of the Sun's surface caused by massive changes in its magnetic field.
• Solar Wind: Created by the outward expansion of plasma (a collection of charged particles) from the Sun's
corona. This plasma is continually heated to the point that the Sun's gravity can not hold it down. It then travels
along the Sun's magnetic field lines that extend radially outward.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
• Solar Flares: Massive explosion on the Sun's surface that releases intense bursts of radiation across almost the
entire electromagnetic spectrum (from radio waves to X-rays). Solar flares can disrupt radio communications,
satellite operations, and power grids on Earth.
• Coronal Mass Ejections: Large expulsions of plasma and magnetic fields from the sun's corona into space.
When they interact with Earth's magnetic field, they can cause geomagnetic storms, which can impact power
grids, GPS systems, communication networks and orbiting satellites and trigger Aurora displays.
• Picoflare jets: Relatively small jets of charged particles expelled intermittently from the sun’s corona at
supersonic speeds for 20 to 100 seconds. These charged jets are a source of the solar wind. These jets carry
approximately one-trillionth the energy of the largest flares the sun is capable of producing. (“Pico” denotes 10-
12
or one trillionth of a unit). It has significant effects on the large-scale solar system as well as on Earth’s
magnetic field and poses risks to satellites.
• Geomagnetic storms: A geomagnetic storm is a disturbance in the Earth's magnetic field caused when a solar
wind shock wave or cloud of the magnetic field interacts with the Earth's magnetic field.
 SPACE TECHNOLOGY AND MISSIONS
16. TYPES OF ORBITS

1. Low Earth Orbit (LEO):
• Altitude: Between 160 km and 1000 km above Earth.
• Satellites in this orbit take approximately 90 minutes to circle Earth.
• Utility: Satellite imaging, location of International Space Station.
2. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO):
• Altitude: 2,000 to 36,000 km above the Earth's surface.
• Utility: Satellite navigation, Communication, and Earth observation. E.g., Global Positioning System.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
3. Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO):

• GEO is located at an altitude of 35,786 km above Earth.
• Satellites in GEO circle Earth above the equator from West to East following Earth’s rotation – taking 23 hours
56 minutes and 4 seconds – by travelling at the same rate as the Earth. This makes satellites in GEO appear to
be ‘stationary’ over a fixed position from the Earth.
• Utility: Telecommunication satellites, weather monitoring satellites to continually observe specific areas.
4. Polar Orbit:
• Orbit that passes over or near the Earth's poles and covers the entire surface of the Earth over a period of time.
• A type of LEO (between 200 to 1000 km).
5. Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO):
• A particular kind of polar orbit. Satellites in SSO are synchronous with the Sun i.e., they are synchronised to
always be in the same ‘fixed’ position relative to the Sun. Hence, the satellite will always observe a point on the
Earth as if constantly at the same time of the day.
• Satellites in SSO can be used to investigate how weather patterns emerge, monitor emergencies (like forest
fires, floods), accumulate data on deforestation & rising sea levels.
6. Transfer Orbits:
• Special kind of orbit used to transfer a satellite from one orbit to another, typically used for interplanetary
missions.
• When satellites are launched from Earth and carried to space with launch vehicles, they are not always placed
directly in their final orbit.
• Satellites are instead placed on a transfer orbit from where, by using relatively little energy, the satellites can
move to the destination orbit.
17. ROCKET PROPULSION

• A rocket has to clear earth’s atmosphere to travel in space or go into an orbit.
• The minimum height for a satellite to go into the Earth’s orbit is approximately 200 km.
• At a certain initial speed, as the satellite tries to go off at a tangent to the earth, the Earth’s gravity pulls it back.
PRINCIPLE BEHIND ROCKET PROPULSION: NEWTON’S 3RD LAW OF MOTION

• The only means available for any object to be put in orbit is rocket propulsion.
• Newton’s third law of motion governs the working of a rocket engine, viz., For every action, there is an equal
and opposite reaction.
• The mass of gas escaping through a rocket’s nozzle gives a push or commonly called thrust to the rocket to fly
in the opposite direction.
Performance metric of a rocket: Thrust and Specific impulse

• Power generated by the rocket engine is balanced by the thrust in the opposite direction on the rocket itself,
resulting in pushing the rocket at a certain initial velocity. More the power of the engine, more the thrust, more
is the initial velocity.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
• Efficiency of a rocket is expressed in terms of specific impulse (the amount of thrust derived from one kilogram
of propellant (rocket fuel) in one second of engine operation). Specific impulse depends on two things: quality
of fuel used and performance of the engine. Higher the specific impulse, the higher is the push to the rocket.
18. LAUNCH VEHICLES OF ISRO

1. POLAR SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE
• Workhorse of ISRO known for its reliability, versatility, and cost-effectiveness since 1994.
• Stages: Four-stages launch vehicle
○ First stage is powered by a solid rocket motor (strap-on motors to provide additional thrust to the rocket to
overcome air resistance).
○ Second stage uses a liquid propulsion system (Vikas Engine)
○ Third stage is a solid rocket motor
○ Fourth stage is a liquid-fueled engine
• PSLV can deliver payloads of up to:
○ 3250 kg to Low Earth Orbit
○ 1600 kg to Sun Synchronous Orbit
○ 1400 kg to Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit
• Successful launches: Chandrayaan-1 Mission (2008), Mars Orbiter Mission/Mangalyaan (2013), 104 satellites
at one go (2017).
GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE

• Stages: Three-stage launch vehicle
○ First Stage: Uses four strap-on solid boost motors (HS200).
○ Second Stage: Liquid core stage (L110) powered by two Vikas liquid engines.
○ Third Stage: Cryogenic Upper Stage with cryogenic engine using liquid Hydrogen and liquid Oxygen for high
specific impulse and efficiency.
• GSLV can carry more than 2,200 kg to geostationary orbits, and over 6,000 kg to LEO.
• Issues: GSLV has a patchy track record, has flown 16 times of which 4 are unsuccessful (high failure rate for any
rocket). The problems have mainly been with the cryogenic engine used by GSLV that is reverse-engineered on
a Russian design.
LAUNCH VEHICLE MARK-3

• LVM3 (previously referred to as Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III, GSLV Mk III) is a three-stage
medium-lift launch vehicle developed by ISRO.
• Stages: Three-stage launch vehicle
○ First stage: Solid fuel S200 stage.
○ Second stage: Liquid fuel L110 stage. (Vikas Engine)
○ Third stage: Cryogenic fuel C25 stage (uses 25 tonnes of a mixture of liquid Hydrogen and Liquid oxygen).
This upper stage (CE-20 cryogenic engine) is developed entirely in India.
• Payload capacity (one of the most powerful rockets in ISRO's fleet):
○ 4,000 kilograms to geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO).
○ 10,000 kilograms to low Earth orbit (LEO).
• Primarily designed to launch communication satellites into geostationary orbit.
• Successful launches: Chandrayaan-2, Chandrayaan-3. Human-rated LVM-3 is due to launch crewed missions
under Gaganyaan Mission.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
SMALL SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE

• New small satellite launch vehicle developed by ISRO to launch small satellites to LEO on ‘launch-on-demand’
basis.
• Three-stage Launch Vehicle configured with three Solid Propulsion Stages and liquid propulsion based Velocity
Trimming Module (VTM) as a terminal stage.
• Can launch Mini, Micro, or Nanosatellites (10 to 500 kg mass) up to 500 km in LEO.
• Capable of multiple orbital drop-offs i.e., launch multiple microsatellites in one launch.
• SSLVs will cost 1/10th of a PSLV and will need only 72 hours for launch in comparison to 45 days for PSLV.
 ROCKET FUEL TECHNOLOGIES
19. VIKAS ENGINE

• Family of liquid-fueled rocket engines.
• Hypergolic propellant - ignites spontaneously on contact.
• Fuel: Dimethyl Hydrazine
• Oxidizer: Nitrogen Tetroxide (N2O4)
• Applications: Powers various stages of India's launch vehicles:
○ Second stage of the PSLV
○ Second stage and strap-on boosters of GSLV Mark II
○ Core stage (L110) of LVM3
20. LOx METHANE ENGINE

• Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre of ISRO is developing Lox methane-powered rocket engines.
• The ‘LOx methane’ engine uses methane as fuel and liquid oxygen as oxidizer.
Advantages:
• Can be synthesised in space (Methane can be synthesised using water and carbon dioxide in space).
• It is non-toxic. (Di-Methyl Hydrazine and Nitrogen tetroxide is said to be highly toxic)
• Higher specific impulse
• Less bulky and easy to store
• Does not leave a residue upon combustion.
21. ION ROCKETS

• Ion rockets are the rockets of the future for deep space exploration.
• They are much more efficient than conventional rockets that use chemical fuels.
• While chemical fuels generate velocities of up to 2 to 3 km/s, ion rockets can achieve velocities around 20-80
km/s.
• Ion rockets use electric propulsion systems, typically ions, to generate thrust and propel rockets.
• The ions are accelerated using an electric field and expelled at high velocities, resulting in a continuous thrust.
• Small scale ion propulsion is used in a number of missions including NASA’s Dawn mission and Deep Space
mission, ESA’s LISA Pathfinder and Japan’s Hayabusa Mission.
22. ISRO’S CRYOGENIC ENGINE (CE-20)

• CE-20 is an indigenous cryogenic engine developed by ISRO.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
• Fuel: Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen as propellants stored at extremely low temperatures (around -253°C
for hydrogen and -183°C for oxygen).
Advantages:
• Cryogenic propellants have a high energy density, high fuel efficiency and high specific impulse (more thrust
per kilogram of propellant). This allows rockets to carry less fuel, reduces their overall weight and can carry
heavier payloads or travel further.
• Cryogenic engines are throttleable (ability to vary/adjust their thrust levels during flight). This capability is
essential for precise control during ascent, orbit insertion, manoeuvring, and controlled reentry of a rocket.
Challenges:
• They require complex and expensive infrastructure to store and handle extremely cold propellants.
• Initial development process of cryogenic engines and maintenance is expensive.
23. ROCKET LAUNCH STATIONS IN INDIA

Considerations for selecting a rocket launch site in India:
• Proximity to Equator: Satellites launched from near the equator towards the east direction will get an initial
boost equal to the velocity of the Earth surface. The initial boost helps in cutting down the cost of rockets used
to launch the satellites.
○ Earth rotates counterclockwise (West to East), and the surface velocity of rotation varies from point to point
on the Earth.
○ It is about 1600 km per hour or about 465 metres per second near the equator. The velocity gradually reduces
moving towards the poles and is zero at the poles.
○ However, this initial boost can only benefit satellites in geo-stationary orbit or which circle the Earth parallel
to the equator. (usually communication satellites)
○ Polar satellites are launched in southward or northward direction and therefore cannot take advantage of
the Earth’s rotation.
• Location on Eastern coast: This is so that in case of any launching failure, the debris falls harmlessly in Bay of
Bengal or Indian Ocean and not on the main hinterland.
24. LAUNCH STATIONS OF ISRO

1. Satish Dhawan
Space Centre (SHAR):
• India has SHAR in
Sriharikota, Andhra
Pradesh spread over
145 sq. km. that has
two launch pads for
PSLV and GSLV flights
(heavier satellites).
2. Kulasekarapattinam
spaceport:
• Foundation stone for
India’s new spaceport
for SSLV was laid at
Kulasekarapattinam.
• Location:
Thoothukudi district,
Tamil Nadu.
• Will launch: Smaller payloads like Nano and Microsatellites.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
• Project cost: ₹950-crores, expected to take nearly two years to complete.
ADVANTAGE OF KULASEKARAPATTINAM
• Kulasekarapattinam gives the benefit of launching straight in southward direction, i.e., dogleg manoeuvre is not
required, thereby saving the rocket's fuel and improving payload capability.
 IMPORTANT SPACE MISSIONS OF ISRO
25. ADITYA L1 MISSION

• India’s first space-based observatory to study the Sun successfully launched from SHAR in September 2023.
• Launched into low earth orbit using PSLV. Aditya-L1 went multiple orbital manoeuvres and took around 126
days to travel to its final destination at Lagrangian Point L1.
• Objectives: To study Solar upper atmospheric dynamics (photosphere, chromosphere, and Corona), coronal
heating mechanism, origin of coronal mass ejections, and flares etc.
• Payloads: Weighing 1475 kg, it will carry seven payloads, including:
○ Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT): To image the Sun in 200-400 nanometre (nm) of Ultraviolet
band. SUIT’s imager will continuously record the entire disk of the Sun. Images of various layers could
improve understanding of the Sun's immediate atmosphere.
○ Visible Line Emission Coronagraph (VELC) is the Corona/Imaging and Spectroscopy payload to focus on
Sun's Corona.
○ Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer (SoLEXS) and High Energy L1 Orbiting X-ray Spectrometer
(HEL1OS) will study X-ray flares emitted by the Sun over a wide range of X-ray energy range.
○ Aditya Solar wind Particle Experiment (ASPEX), during the cruise phase, will turn on and start performing
in-situ measurements of solar particles and ions.
○ Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya (PAPA) will study solar wind and energetic ions.
○ Magnetometer (MAG) to measure low-intensity interplanetary magnetic field in space.
○ Lagrange points are positions in a moving two-body system where the combined gravitational forces
of two large bodies (such as the Sun and Earth or Earth and the Moon) acting on a third body of smaller
mass cancel each other out.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
○ While absolute neutralisation is not achievable due to the influence of other celestial bodies (such as
Moon, Mars, and Venus etc.), they provide a stable position where a spacecraft may be "parked" to make
observations.
○ There are five Lagrange points located along the line connecting the two larger celestial bodies.
○ L1 point: Located roughly 1.5 million kilometres from Earth. It provides an uninterrupted view of the Sun
(the satellite can view the Sun without eclipses).
○ L2 point: Provides an unobstructed view of the Universe and is stable enough for long-duration
observations. Location for space-based observatories (James Webb Space Telescope).
○ L3 point: Lies behind the Sun, opposite to Earth. Offers the potential to observe the far side of the Sun.
Possible location for a future space-based observatory.
○ L4 and L5 point: Stable locations but are relatively farther from Earth than L1.
26. GAGANYAAN MISSION

• Envisages demonstration of human spaceflight capability by launching a crew of 3 members to a Low earth
Orbit of 400 km for a 3 days mission and bringing them back safely to earth, by landing in Indian sea waters.
• Crewed flight is planned for 2025 on the Human Rated LVM3 as the launch vehicle.
• Human Space Flight Centre will coordinate the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme and will be responsible
for the implementation of the project.
• If completed on schedule, India will become the world's fourth nation to conduct independent human
spaceflight after Russia, United States and China.
COMPONENTS OF GAGANYAAN
Crew Module
• A crew module and service module. The crew members have been shortlisted by the IAF and ISR.
• Crew will perform micro-gravity and other scientific experiments.
Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment (CARE)
• Gaganyaan would return back to Earth. While re-entering Earth’s atmosphere, the spacecraft needs to withstand
very high temperatures created due to atmospheric friction.
• A prior critical experiment was carried out in 2014 along with LVM3, when the CARE capsule successfully
demonstrated that it could survive atmospheric re-entry.
Crew Escape System - PAT
• The Crew Escape System is an emergency accident avoidance measure.
• In July 2018, ISRO completed the first successful flight ‘pad abort test’ or Crew Escape System.
Environmental Control & Life Support System ECLSS
• ECLSS will:
○ Maintain steady cabin pressure and air composition
○ Remove carbon dioxide and other harmful gases
○ Control temperature and humidity
○ Manage parameters like fire detection and suppression
Vyom Mitra
• ISRO’s female humanoid robot that will test-flight Gangayaan.
• Vyom Mitra was built by ISRO’s Inertial Systems Unit, Thiruvananthapuram.
Space-borne Assistant and Knowledge Hub for Crew Interaction (SAKHI) App
• A digital platform integrated to the space suits of astronauts to:
○ Assist astronauts regarding technical documents and training manuals digitally.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
○ Monitor vitals (blood pressure, heart rate and oxygen saturation), hydration level, sleep patterns throughout
the mission.
○ Maintain mission log and keep crew connected with the onboard computer and ground-based stations on
Earth.
27. CHANDRAYAAN-3
• Lunar exploration mission by ISRO, a follow-on mission to Chandrayaan-2.
• Successfully demonstrated ISRO’s end-to-end capability in safe landing and roving on the South pole of the
Moon (near side of the moon).
• Comprised an indigenous propulsion system, lander module (Vikram) and a rover (Pragyan).
• Major objectives:
○ Demonstrate a safe and soft landing on the surface of the Moon
○ Conduct rover operations on the Moon
○ Conduct on-site experiments on the Lunar surface.
• On August 23rd, 2023, Vikram Lander made its historic
touchdown on Moon and subsequently Pragyan rover
was deployed.
• Duration: Rover operated for one lunar day (roughly
equals 14 Earth days).
• The lander and the rover have scientific payloads to
collect samples of the moon, do in-situ experiments.
The Vikram lander would transmit data back to Earth
for comprehensive analysis by scientists.
• The Virtual Launch Control Centre at the Vikram
Sarabhai Space Centre played a vital role in
continuous real-time monitoring of the launch
activities from SHAR.
• The International Astronomical Union (IAU) has
approved the name “Statio Shiv Shakti” for the
landing site of Chandrayaan-3’s Vikram lander.
• With the success of the mission, India joined the
United States, Russia, and China to successfully land
on the Moon.
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES IN
CHANDRAYAAN-3
Propulsion module:
• Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) to gather data on the polarisation of light reflected
by Earth to assist with exoplanet searches.
Lander payloads:
• Chandra's Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE) to measure thermal conductivity and temperature
on the surface.
• Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA) to detect Moonquakes.
• Radio Anatomy of Moon Bound Hypersensitive ionosphere and Atmosphere (RAMBHA) to measure the
density of near-surface plasma, encompassing ions, and electrons, and monitor its temporal variations.
• Langmuir Probe to estimate the density and variation of plasma, or superheated gas, in the Moon's
environment.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
• Laser Retroreflector Array (from NASA) to measure distances using laser ranging to understand the dynamics
of the Moon system.
Rover payloads:
• Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) to look for elements in the lunar soil and rocks
• Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) to examine the chemical and elemental composition of the
lunar surface.
Why was the South Pole chosen?
• Water ice has been detected at both poles of the Moon, but the South Pole has more area in permanent shadow
and colder temperatures, having higher possibility of presence of water.
• Due to extremely cold temperatures, anything trapped in the South Pole would remain frozen without
undergoing much change. The rocks and soil, here, could provide clues to the early solar system.
• The South Pole is located in the South Pole-Aitken basin, which is a huge crater. There may be material from
the deep crust and upper mantle of the Moon on or near the surface.
Facts about Moon:

• Lunar soil contains several elements such as iron, silicon, potassium, manganese, and magnesium. However,
it does not contain organic matter such as microbes and insects.
• Lunar soil is hydrophobic and is exposed to extremely unhealthy amounts of solar radiation.
• The Moon takes roughly the same amount of time to complete one full orbit around the Earth as the Earth
takes to complete one full rotation on its axis.
• As a result, one side of the Moon always faces the Earth, while the other side (far side) faces away from Earth.
Thus, we can see only one side of the Moon.
• Far side of the Moon has a dramatically different landscape as compared to the near side (face of the Moon
visible from Earth). It has a thicker crust by almost 20 km.
• Far side of the Moon has almost no characteristic dark spots. Dark spots are large basaltic plains formed
from ancient volcanic eruptions on the Moon.
• Chandrayaan-1 (India’s first lunar mission, 2008) gave definitive proof of the presence of water ice in more
than 40 craters on the poles of the Moon.
• In 2020, NASA’s SOFIA Observatory found the first evidence of water on the Moon in a sunlit spot, indicating
that the presence of water on the Moon was widely distributed.
• Chang'e 4 mission (China 2019) is the only one to have landed on the far side of the Moon, till 2024.
28. PSLV ORBITAL EXPERIMENTAL MODULE (POEM)

• POEM is an experimental mission or platform to perform in-orbit experiments using the final, and otherwise
discarded, stage of ISRO’s PSLV.
○ PSLV is a four-stage rocket where the first three spent stages fall back into the ocean, and the final stage
(PS4) — after launching the satellite into orbit — ends up as space junk.
○ In POEM, the spent final stage will be utilised as a stabilised platform to perform experiments.
• POEM has a dedicated Navigation Guidance and Control (NGC) system which will act as the platform’s brain for
attitude stabilisation with specified accuracy.
• POEM will derive its power from solar panels mounted around the PS4 tank, and a Li-Ion battery. It will navigate
using four sun sensors, a magnetometer, gyros & NavIC.
29. LUNAR POLAR EXPLORATION MISSION (LUPEX) OR

CHANDRAYAAN-4
• Planned joint lunar mission by ISRO and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
• Expected to be launched in 2026 or later.

• Objective:
○ To confirm the presence of water in the polar regions of the moon and investigate its potential usability.
○ To explore the lunar polar region’s suitability for establishing a base on the Moon.
• Launch vehicle for the mission will be a Japanese rocket, the lander system will be developed by ISRO while the
Rover by JAXA, and its landing point will be the South pole of the moon.
30. SHUKRAYAAN MISSION

• ISRO’s planned orbiter to Venus, expected by 2028.
• Main goals to study:
o surface and atmosphere of Venus and its chemistry
o Interaction of the planet with solar radiation.
Venus:
• Venus has a solid surface by virtue of being one of the four inner planets besides Mercury, Earth and Mars.
It is nearly the same size as the Earth.
• Its atmosphere is composed of 95% carbon dioxide (high greenhouse effect), making it the hottest planet in
our Solar system.
• Volcanic eruptions on Venus release sulphur dioxide (SO2) which interacts with the atmosphere to produce
hot sulfuric acid clouds that envelop the planet.
• About 80% of the surface of Venus is composed of flat plains of volcanic origin.
• Its rotation period is longer than its orbital period. (Rotation on its own axis - 243 days, Orbital period around
the sun - 224.7 days)
• It has retrograde rotation, i.e., Venus spins on its axis from east to west.
• Due to the slow rotation of Venus, it has no global magnetic field. (Earth’s magnetic field is due to rotation of
iron core)
 IMPORTANT GLOBAL SPACE MISSIONS
S.No. Space Missions Description
1. Artemis Mission • Joint mission of NASA, ESA, JAXA and Canadian Space Agency.
• Aim: To land the first woman and person of colour on the Moon, create a
lunar base, and lay the groundwork for a future trip to Mars.
• Artemis 1: An uncrewed test flight of the Orion spacecraft around the
Moon (launched in 2022)
• Artemis 2: Fly astronauts around the Moon and back without landing,
planned in 2025.
• Artemis 3: Land the first humans near the lunar south pole, planned in
2026.
• Artemis 4: Mission to the Gateway lunar space station in 2028.
2. Jupiter Icy Moons • Launched by: European Space Agency in April 2023
Explorer (Juice)

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
mission • Mission spacecraft to study Jupiter and its three largest icy moons —
Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.
• Particular emphasis on Ganymede as a planetary body and potential
habitat.
• The spacecraft will arrive at Jupiter in 2031.
• After a series of visits to Europa and Callisto, Juice will enter the orbit of
Ganymede in 2034.
3. Origins, Spectral • Asteroid study and sample return mission by NASA.

Interpretation, • Launched in 2016 to study asteroid Bennu and returned to Earth with a
Resources sample for analysis in 2023.
Identification and
• Sample analysis may reveal clues about the birth of our solar system (4.5
Security-Regolith
billion years ago) and genesis of life on Earth.
Explorer (OSIRIS REx)
About Bennu:
• Small Carbon-rich asteroid.
• Little less than 500 metres in depth.
• More than 4.5 billion years old.
• Classified as a “near-Earth object” because it passes relatively close to
Earth every six years.
4. Ingenuity Mars • Launched by: NASA

Helicopter • Autonomous helicopter that operated on Mars from April 2021 to January
2024 as part of Mars 2020 mission.
• Travelled to Mars attached to the belly of the Perseverance rover and was
deployed to the surface after landing in Jezero Crater.
• Ingenuity became the first aircraft to conduct a powered and controlled
extra-terrestrial flight.
• The helicopter has been retired/grounded after flying 72 times over three
years, after a portion of its twin rotor blades broke off, leaving it incapable
of further operation.
5. Psyche Mission • Launched by: NASA in 2023

• To explore a 225-kilometre metallic asteroid called Psyche located
between Mars and Jupiter.
• Psyche is believed to be primarily composed of iron-nickel.
• Studying it could provide invaluable insights into the composition of
Earth's core.
• The Psyche spacecraft also hosts NASA’s Deep Space Optical
Communications (DSOC) experiment.
6. Double Asteroid • Collaboration between NASA and the Johns Hopkins University Applied
Redirection Test Physics Laboratory.
(DART) • Successfully crashed a spacecraft into asteroid Dimorphos in 2022.
• First ever test of a planetary defence technique involving a kinetic impactor
to deflect an asteroid.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
• Demonstrated the capability of redirecting the trajectory of an asteroid by

impacting it with a spacecraft.
31. INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION

• Modular space station (habitable artificial satellite) and the single largest man-made structure in low Earth orbit.
• Launched in 1998, it is a multinational collaborative project involving five space agencies: NASA (United States),
Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), CSA (Canada)
• It circles the Earth in roughly 92 minutes and completes 15.5 orbits per day, hosting a maximum of seven
astronauts.
• Serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which scientific research is conducted
in astrobiology, astronomy, meteorology, physics, and other fields.
• Note: ISRO is working to set up Bhartiya Antariksh Station by 2035.
 SATELLITE-BASED NAVIGATION SYSTEM

• Satellite-based navigation system consists of a network of satellites and receiving devices that allows users to
determine their precise location (in latitude, longitude, and altitude) and obtain accurate time information
anywhere on Earth.
• Presently, there are four global satellite-based navigation systems.
○ United States: Global Position System (GPS)
○ Russia: Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)
○ China: BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS)
○ European Union: Galileo
• Japan has a four-satellite regional navigation system (Quasi-Zenith Satellite System).
• India has its own Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System- NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation).
How does GPS work?
• GPS receiver picks up signals from multiple GPS satellites that are in view of the receiver's location.
• Each satellite sends out radio signals at the speed
of light that includes information about the
satellite's location and the precise time the signal
was transmitted.
• GPS receiver measures the time it takes for the
signals to reach it from each satellite.
• Using the known locations of the satellites and
the time it took for the signals to travel, the GPS
receiver can calculate the distance between itself
and each satellite.
• With the distance measurements from at least
four satellites (trilateration), the GPS receiver can
determine an object's precise 3-D position
(latitude, longitude, and altitude).
• A GPS receiver can also provide additional
information such as speed, direction, and time by
continuously updating its position based on the
signals received from the satellites.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
Applications of GPS (navigation system) include:

• Terrestrial, aerial, and marine navigation E.g., Location-based services in mobile devices, visual and voice
navigation for drivers.
• Vehicle tracking and supply chain management
• Mapping, survey and geodetic measurements E.g., Mapping of terrains, creating digital maps, and conducting
land surveys, Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travellers
• Precision agriculture E.g., Yield monitoring, variable rate application of fertilisers and pesticides.
• Meteorology E.g., GPS receivers on weather balloons and satellites provide data on atmospheric conditions to
monitor and predict weather patterns more accurately.
• Seismology- To monitor ground movements and tectonic plate activity, aiding in earthquake research and early
warning systems
• Disaster Management
• Military Operations- GPS for navigation, target tracking, and coordination of operation.
32. NAVIGATION WITH INDIAN CONSTELLATION (NavIC):

• NavIC (earlier known as Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System) is a satellite navigation system developed
by ISRO.
• Consists of a constellation of seven satellites. Three satellites are located in the geostationary orbit and the
remaining four are located in geosynchronous orbits.
• Can provide positioning, navigation, and timing services to users across India and the region extending up to
1,500 km around the country.
• Designed to provide position accuracy of better than 20 metres and timing accuracy of better than 50
nanoseconds.
• NavIC offers two
types of services:
○ Standard
Positioning
Service:
Available to all
users and
provides
positioning
accuracy of
around 20
metres
throughout
the Indian
region.
○ Restricted
Service:
Encrypted
service
primarily
intended for
authorised users such as the military, government agencies, and other security-sensitive applications.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
Second-generation NavIC satellite (NVS-01):

• ISRO launched NVS-01 on board GSLV MK-II in 2023. NVS-01 is the first of the second-generation satellites envisaged
to augment the NavIC services.
• Existing satellites in NavIC use L5 (protected frequency specifically assigned to India) and S band frequency signals.
• NVS-01 will send signals in a third frequency, L1, besides the L5 and S. This will enhance NAVIC’s compatibility with
other global navigation systems like GPS that also use L1.
• The satellite will have a Rubidium atomic clock onboard, indigenously developed by Space Application Centre-
Ahmedabad.
 IMPORTANT SATELLITE MISSIONS
33. X-RAY POLARIMETER SATELLITE (XPOSAT) MISSION:

• India’s first dedicated satellite to study the polarisation of cosmic X-rays and dynamics of bright astronomical X-
Ray sources like pulsars, black holes and neutron stars.
• World’s second polarimetry mission using X-Ray. The first is NASA’s imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer launched
in 2021.
• Launched in: 2024 (lifespan: 5 years)
• Designated for observation from LEO (~650 km altitude)
• Carries two scientific payloads:
○ POLIX (Polarimeter Instrument in X-Rays) will observe about 40 bright astronomical sources, and measure
the degree and angle of polarisation, in the medium X-ray energy band (8-30keV).
○ XSPECT (X-Ray Spectroscopy and Timing) will observe a variety of sources like X-ray pulsars, black hole
binaries, low-magnetic field neutron stars, active galactic nuclei, and conduct fast timing and high
spectroscopic resolution in the soft X-ray energy band (0.8-15 keV).
What is Polarisation?
• Light travels in the form of transverse
electromagnetic waves. The light emitted by sources
like the sun, bulb, candle etc. has vibrations in
several planes (oscillates in all directions), and it is
called unpolarised light.
• Polarisation is the phenomenon of restricting the
vibration of light waves to one specific
direction/plane. E.g., Polarised sunglasses have a
special filter that allows only light with a specific
polarisation direction to pass through, which helps
to reduce glare and improve visibility by blocking
unwanted polarisations.
Significance of X-ray polarisation measurements:

• In space, X-rays get polarised due to multiple reasons. E.g., X-rays can be polarised when subjected to strong
magnetic fields or due to interactions with material present around black holes etc.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
• Polarisation measurements of X-rays (angle and degree of polarisation) emanating from sources like magnetars,
neutron stars, black holes etc. can provide information about the bright X-ray emitting sources (their
composition, temperature, and density) and complex processes they undergo.
• Can help in deducing the orientation and strength of magnetic fields in celestial objects.
• Can help to understand the behaviour of high-energy particles in extreme environments.
34. NASA-ISRO JOINT SATELLITE – NISAR

• Joint active remote sensing satellite project between NASA and ISRO.
• Low Earth Orbit earth observation satellite placed in sun-synchronous orbit (747 km).
• Can scan nearly all the planet's land and ice surfaces twice every 12 days to collect data.
• First radar imaging satellite to use dual frequencies. Consists of both L-band and S-band synthetic aperture
radar (SAR) instruments.
○ L-band SAR operates at a frequency of around 1-2 GHz. Lower frequency (higher wavelength) of L-band SAR
allows it to penetrate through vegetation and soil, making it useful for monitoring changes in forest cover,
soil moisture etc.
○ S-band SAR operates at a frequency of around 2-4 GHz. S-band SAR has a higher resolution than L-band SAR.
Typically used for applications where higher resolution is required, such as monitoring changes in urban
areas or coastal zones.
Applications:
• Earthquakes and volcanology
• Distribution of carbon stocks in terrestrial biomass.
• Vulnerability of wetlands by studying the extent of inundation
• Geomorphology, movement of sea ice and hydrology
• Movement of glaciers and ice sheets thereby monitoring climate change.
35. RE-ENTRY OF SATELLITE AND SPACE DEBRIS

Space Debris:
• Human-made objects in space that are no longer in use, such as discarded rocket stages, defunct satellites etc.
• The debris can remain in orbit for years or decades, increasing the risk of collisions with active spacecraft.
Kessler’s Syndrome:
• Phenomenon in which the density of objects in the Low Earth Orbit grows so high that collisions between two
objects could cause a massive cascade of space junk and trigger further collisions.
Controlled re-entry attempt by ISRO:
• ISRO attempted the controlled re-entry of a decommissioned weather satellite (Megha Tropiques-1) to clear out
space debris.
• After a series of 20 manoeuvres over eight months, the orbit of the satellite was lowered such that it re-entered
the dense atmosphere of Earth and burnt up over the Pacific Ocean. (Upon re-entry, the atmospheric friction
causes satellites to heat up to extremely high temperatures).
• Controlled re-entry is possible only for satellites in LEO. These manoeuvres, however, are not usually attempted
because fuel reserves have to be maintained in the satellite after mission life is over.
• For attempting to bring down a satellite from geo-stationary or geosynchronous orbit, a huge fuel reserve would
be needed, thus making the satellite heavier and costlier at launch.
Project NETRA:
• Initiative by ISRO, an early warning system in space to detect debris and hazards to Indian satellites and thus gaining
capability in space situational awareness (SSA).

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
• NETRA will use telescopes, radars, data processing units, and other tools to spot and track objects as small as 10
cm, up to a range of 3,400 km.
36. RLV LEX-02 MISSION

• ISRO's RLV LEX-02 mission was conducted at the Aeronautical Test Range (ATR) in Chitradurga, Karnataka in
2024.
• Second in a series of test flights to demonstrate the autonomous landing capability of a reusable launch vehicle
(RLV).
• The mission involved a winged vehicle called Pushpak, which was carried to an altitude of 4.5 kilometres by an
Indian Air Force Chinook helicopter.
• Once at the
designated altitude,
Pushpak was
released and had to
autonomously
perform a series of
manoeuvres to
precisely land on
the runway.
KEY
ACHIEVEMENTS
OF THE MISSION
• Simulated the
autonomous landing capability of a reusable launch vehicle returning from space. Would be a critical step
towards developing future Orbital Re-entry missions.
• Validated the performance of indigenously developed technologies in control, navigation, landing gear, and
deceleration systems.
• Provided valuable data for the design and development of future reusable launch vehicles.
37. BLUEWALKER 3 SATELLITE

• A prototype satellite, a part of a planned constellation of over a hundred similar satellites intended to deliver
mobile or broadband services anywhere in the world.
• Launched by a US-based company. The largest commercial antenna system ever deployed in low-Earth orbit.
• The satellite is among the brightest objects in the night sky resulting from a massive phased-array antenna.
• Concerns: Its large size and bright reflective surfaces could interfere with astronomical observations, and radio
frequencies (close to bands reserved for radio astronomy) may hamper radio telescope observations.
 IMPORTANT TELESCOPES
S. No. Telescopes Description
• Asia’s largest Liquid Mirror Telescope was inaugurated at Devasthal observatory

International
in Uttarakhand.
1. Liquid Mirror
• Employs a 4-metre-diameter rotating mirror made up of a thin layer of liquid
Telescope
mercury, to collect and focus light.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
• Enhances India’s capabilities to explore the mysteries of the deep celestial sky
and astronomy.
Giant • Location: Near Pune, Maharashtra.

Metrewave • Array of 30 fully steerable parabolic radio telescopes, each 45 metres in
2. Radio diameter, spread over a 25-kilometre area.
Telescope • One of the world's largest and most sensitive radio telescopes operating at
(GMRT) metre wavelengths (low frequencies).
• Group of radio telescopes being built in South Africa and Australia in two
phases. First phase is expected to begin operations by 2029.
• Capable of detecting faint radio signals from extreme distances, with eventually
Square over a square kilometre (one million square metres) of collecting area.
Kilometre
3. • Will operate in two different ranges of radio frequency.
Array (SKA)
○ South-African array will scan for mid-frequency signals, between 350 MHz
project
and 15.4 GHz.
○ Australian telescopes will work in the low-frequency range of 50-350 MHz.
• India officially gained full membership in the SKA Project in January, 2024.
• International project which aims at building a 30-metre diameter telescope at

Mauna Kea, Hawaii, USA.
• The telescope has a segmented mirror (made up of 492 individual segments)
Thirty Meter which makes it three times as wide as the world’s largest existing visible-light
Telescope telescope.
4.
(TMT) • Precisely aligned, these segments will work as a single reflective surface of 30
m diameter.
• Upon construction, TMT would be one of the world’s most advanced and
capable ground-based optical and infrared observatory.
• Joint effort of institutions in Canada, China, India, Japan, USA.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY
• Launched in 2023 by the European Space Agency.

• Location: Lagrangian Point 2 (1.5 million km away from Earth)
Euclid Space • To create the largest cosmic 3D map of the universe to better understand the
5. Telescope (EST) distribution of dark matter and reveal the influence of dark energy in the early
universe.
• The European Space Agency has unveiled the first images captured by EST.
(picture of a group of thousands of galaxies)
• Network of 8 radio telescopes located in Hawaii, Arizona, Chile, Mexico and

Spain, and at the South Pole.
• It is synchronised in such a way that, in effect, they form a radio telescope of
Event Horizon
6. the size of the earth itself.
Telescope (EHT)
• In 2019, the 1st ever picture of a black hole was captured by EHT.
• In May 2022, the supermassive blackhole at the centre of the Milky way galaxy
was captured.
• Location: Low Earth orbit (540 km)

Hubble Space
7. • Large optical/ultraviolet telescope for deep sky observations
Telescope
• Launched: 1990 by NASA and ESA.
James Webb • Launched: 2021 by NASA.

Space • Location: Orbiting the Sun at the L2 Lagrange point (1.5 million km from Earth)
8. Telescope • Largest infrared telescope ever built (6.5 metre primary mirror).
(JWST)
• Detects near-infrared and mid-infrared wavelengths to observe faint and
distant objects.

3NUCLEAR
Chapter TECHNOLOGY
1. BASICS
• An atom is made up of a Nucleus (with Protons and Neutrons) and electrons revolving around the nucleus.
• Mass of the atom is concentrated in the Nucleus.
○ Number of protons (Z) in an atom determines the atomic number of an element.
○ Total number of Protons and Neutrons, called Nucleons, is called the Atomic Mass Number (A).
• Atoms can be stable or unstable, and the instability is caused by the neutrons in their nucleus.
• All elements with atomic numbers greater than 83 are considered radioactive, including Uranium (92),
Plutonium (94), and Thorium (90).
• These elements have unstable atomic nuclei, and over time, they decay by releasing energy and radiation to
reach a more stable configuration.
• They release energy in the form of three types of radiations: alpha, beta, and gamma.
THREE TYPES OF RADIATIONS

Feature Alpha (α) Radiation Beta (ß)Radiation Gamma (γ) Radiation
Helium nucleus (2 protons, 2 Beta-minus (electron). Beta- High-energy electromagnetic

Composition
neutrons) plus (positron) wave (photon)
Beta-minus
Charge Positive (2+) (negative –), Neutral (no charge)
Beta-plus (positive +)
Lighter than alpha, heavier

Mass Largest and heaviest No mass (pure energy)
than gamma
Penetrating Power Lowest Medium Highest
Stopped by Paper, skin Aluminum sheet Concrete, human tissue
Ionizing Power High Medium Low
RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE
• For a given radioisotope, the radioactive half-life is the time for half the radioactive nuclei in any sample to
undergo radioactive decay.
• After two half-lives, there will be one fourth the original sample, after three half-lives one eighth the original
sample, and so forth.
APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY
1. Radioisotope Thermo-electric Generator: A radioactive material is used which when decays produces heat.
This heat is in turn used by a generator to produce electricity. E.g., New Horizon spacecraft which went to Pluto
uses this kind of device.
2. Medical Imaging: Radioactive isotopes are used in medical imaging techniques such as X-rays, CT scans, PET
scans, and MRI scans.
3. Radiation Therapy: Radioactive isotopes are used to treat various types of cancer through radiation therapy.

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
4. Smoke Detectors: Smoke detectors use a small amount of radioactive material to detect smoke and trigger an
alarm.
5. Industrial Radiography: Radioactive isotopes are used in industrial radiography to test the integrity of metal
structures such as pipelines and oil rigs.
6. Carbon Dating: Radioactive isotopes are used in carbon dating to determine the age of ancient fossils and
artefacts.
7. Nuclear Power: Radioactive isotopes are used to generate electricity in nuclear power plants.
8. Food Irradiation: Radioactive isotopes are used to sterilise and preserve food products, preventing spoilage
and disease.
9. Geological Dating: Radioactive isotopes are used to determine the age of rocks and minerals in geology.
10. Sterilisation: Radioactive isotopes are used to sterilise medical equipment, surgical instruments, and other
devices to prevent the spread of infection.
RADIOACTIVE DATING
• Carbon-14 is produced in the atmosphere due to the interaction of cosmic rays with Nitrogen-14.
• We all have a certain amount of C-14 in our bodies (23% of the human body) as do plants and all living beings.
• Each gram of radioactive C-14 in our bodies decay at the rate of 12 per minute. (Means it becomes 1/2, 1/4, 1/8,
1/16 etc. every 12th minute.) The decayed C-14 is further replaced with atmospheric C-14 as we eat.
• When an organism dies, the remaining C-14 gradually turns into Carbon-12.
• C-14 dating measures the ratio of C-14 to C-12 to determine how many years have passed since an organism died.
• Carbon-14 dating can be used to determine/estimate the age of organic remains between 500 years and
approximately 60,000 years.
2. NUCLEAR PROCESSES
• Nuclear Fission: It involves disintegrating a heavy atom’s nucleus, such as uranium or plutonium, into two or
more smaller nuclei. E.g., A high-energy neutron collides with the nucleus of a U-235 atom, causing it to split
into two smaller nuclei, additional neutrons (usually 3) and enormous energy.
• Nuclear Fusion: Process of combining two or more nuclei to form a heavier nucleus and release high-energy
radiation. This process occurs naturally in stars, where the high temperature at the core allows for the nuclei to
overcome the repulsive electromagnetic force and fuse together. E.g., Combination of hydrogen nuclei to form
helium, releasing energy in the form of neutrinos, gamma rays, and positrons.

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
Parameter Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
Fusing of two or more tighter atoms into a

Definition Splitting of a large atom into smaller ones
larger one
Spontaneous fission of some elements

Natural occurrence Occurs in stars
occurs at a slow rate
By-products Highly radioactive particles Neutrons (can induce radioactivity)
Conditions High-speed neutrons required High density & high temperature
Energy Requirement Relatively low Extremely high
Millions of times more than chemical Three to four times more than fission (can
Energy Released
reactions vary depending on isotopes)
Fusion bomb (hydrogen bomb) uses fission to

Nuclear weapon Fission bomb {atomic bomb)
trigger fusion
Used in nuclear power plants (current Experimental technology for power

Energy production
technology) production
Hydrogen isotopes (Deuterium and

Fuel Uranium (primary fuel)
Tritium)
3. NUCLEAR FUEL: FISSILE AND FERTILE

FISSILE MATERIAL: READY FUEL FOR FISSION
• Fissile isotopes readily undergo fission when hit by neutrons, releasing a tremendous amount of energy. E.g.,
Uranium-235 (U-235), Uranium- 233 (U-233) and Plutonium-239 (Pu-239).
• However, fissile materials like U-235 make up a small portion of Natural Uranium (less than 1%). Naturally
occurring Uranium is composed of three major isotopes:
○ Uranium-238 (99.284% natural abundance)
○ Uranium-235 (0.711%)
○ Uranium-234 (0.005%)
• U-235 atoms is the only nuclide existing in nature (in appreciable amount) that is fissile with thermal neutrons.
URANIUM ENRICHMENT
• Since naturally occurring Uranium does not have a high enough concentration of U-235, Uranium enrichment
is necessary to create an effective nuclear fuel out of mined Uranium.
• In enriched Uranium, the percent composition of U-235 has been increased through the process of isotope
separation.

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
• Enriched Uranium is a critical component for both civil nuclear power generation and military nuclear
weapons.
○ Typically, Uranium used for power generation is enriched to levels between 3% and 5% U-235.
○ Weapon-grade uranium is considered to have been enriched above 90% U-235.
FERTILE MATERIAL: BREEDING POTENTIAL

• Though not directly fissile by slow neutrons, fertile isotopes can absorb neutrons and transmute into fissile
materials through radioactive decay.
○ Nuclear transmutation often refers to the conversion of one nuclide into another within the fuel or target
material. This process can involve the absorption of a neutron, the emission of a neutron, or the capture and
subsequent decay of a particle.
• Common fertile materials include Uranium-238 (U-238) and Thorium-232 (Th-232).
○ Uranium U-238 cannot by itself make the reactor achieve criticality, so it has to be converted to fissile
plutonium (Pu-239) in a nuclear reactor.
○ Thorium Th-232 is a fertile material that has to be converted to fissile U-233.
Criticality of Nuclear Reactor:
• Nuclear reactor is said to be critical when the number of neutrons produced in Nuclear fission reactions
equals the number of neutrons lost through absorption, leakage, and other processes. This equilibrium state
allows for a sustained and controlled chain reaction.
• Supercriticality refers to a state where the rate of neutron production exceeds the rate of neutron losses,
causing the overall neutron population to increase rapidly. This can lead to an uncontrolled chain reaction and
a dangerous power surge.
4. TYPES OF REACTORS
• Presently, India operates 22 nuclear reactors across eight sites, with a total capacity of 6,780 MW.
• Among these 18 reactors are Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors and 4 are Light Water Reactors.
KEY COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR

Nuclear Fuel:
• Core of a nuclear reactor houses the fuel (typically enriched U-235) pellets contained in long, thin metal tubes
called fuel rods.
Moderator:
• Located within the reactor core, the moderator slows down neutrons released from fission.
• These neutrons are initially high-energy (fast neutrons). For a sustained chain reaction, neutrons need to be
slowed down to thermal neutrons, which are more likely to cause fission in other U-235 atoms.
• E.g., Ordinary water (light water reactors), heavy water (deuterium oxide), and graphite.
Control Rods:
• Control rods are made of materials that readily absorb neutrons.
• They are inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of fission (regulate the number of neutrons
available to cause fissions) and the power output of the reactor.
Coolant:
• Coolant circulates throughout the reactor core, absorbing immense heat produced by the ongoing nuclear
chain reaction to prevent the reactor from overheating, which could lead to a meltdown. E.g., Water, Liquid
Sodium.

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
The heat generated by the chain reaction of nuclear fission produces steam. The steam is used to move a turbine
which generates electricity.
5. IMPORTANT TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS IN INDIA

1. Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR):
• Fuel: Natural uranium (unenriched)
• Moderator and Coolant: Heavy water as both moderator and coolant.
• Cooling System: Uses a combination of heavy water and light water to cool the reactor. Heat is transferred to
a secondary loop, which then generates steam to drive turbines.
• Control Rods: Boron or cadmium control rods.
• Fuel requirement: Annual requirement of fuel (UO2) of a 700 MW PHWR (at 85% Capacity Factor) is about 125
tons.
• Advantages: Use natural uranium fuel, produce less high-level radioactive waste, and operate at lower
pressures compared to some other reactor types.
2. Light Water Reactor (LWR):

• Fuel: Low-enriched Uranium
• Moderator and Coolant: Light water (ordinary H2O)
• Cooling System: Employs a pressurised water system to transfer heat from the reactor core to a secondary
loop, which generates steam for turbines.

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
• Control Rods: Boron or other neutron-absorbing materials.

• Fuel requirement: Annual requirement of fuel (UO2) of a 1000 MW LWR (at a capacity factor of 90%) is about
25 tons.
• Advantages: Have a proven track record for safety and reliability. However, they require enriched uranium and
produce more high-level radioactive waste compared to PHWRs.
3. Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR):
• Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) is being implemented by Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited
(BHAVINI).
• Fuelled by: Mixed Oxide (MoX) Fuel (It generally contains between 3% and 5% Plutonium Oxide blended with
95–97% natural or depleted Uranium Oxide).
4. Small Modular Reactors (SMR):

• Advanced nuclear reactors with a power capacity of up to 300 MW per unit, which is about one-third of the
generating capacity of traditional nuclear power reactors.
• They are characterised by smaller size, modular design, and enhanced safety features.
○ Small – a fraction of the size of a conventional nuclear power reactor.
○ Modular – possible for systems and components to be factory-assembled and transported as a unit to a
location for installation.
○ Reactors – harnessing nuclear fission to generate heat to produce energy.
• Applications: Electricity generation in remote regions, energy requirements for industrial processes, water
desalination, nuclear submarines etc.
Advantages:
• SMRs are adaptable and can be scaled up or down to supply more or less power.
• Only need to refuel every 3-7 years, as opposed to every 1-2 years for conventional nuclear plants.
• Extensive use of passive safety features to shut down and cool reactors under abnormal circumstances,
reducing the risk of catastrophic failures.
• Have relatively lower-capital requirements, can make nuclear power more accessible.
Challenges:
• Higher cost per unit of electricity production in SMRs due to supply-chain issues and the absence of economies
of scale.
• SMRs are inferior to conventional reactors with respect to radioactive waste generation and disposal options
and require spent fuel storage & disposal facilities.
6. THREE-STAGE NUCLEAR PROGRAMME OF INDIA

• The Department of Atomic Energy’s 3-stage nuclear programme is a strategy for a sustainable, continuous,
reliable, and self-dependent supply of nuclear energy.

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
• India has a limited availability of Uranium reserves (about 2% of global Uranium reserves). The programme is
developed with the aim of utilising the vast Thorium reserves of India.
○ India has about 25% of global thorium in the form of monazite sands along its coastline.
○ They are found in coastal and inland placer sands on the beaches of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat, and in the inland riverine sands of Jharkhand and West Bengal.
1ST STAGE: PRESSURISED HEAVY WATER REACTORS (PHWRS)

• First stage includes the setting up of PHWRs and associated fuel cycle.
• Based on natural Uranium that contains 99.3% U-238 and 0.7% U-235.
• U-235 being fissile sets up the chain reaction and U-238 being non-fissile gets converted to Pu-239 as a by-
product (spent fuel) which is in turn used in the Fast Breeder Reactors in the 2nd stage.
2ND STAGE: FAST BREEDER REACTORS (FBR)

• FBR uses the Uranium-Plutonium Mixed Oxide (MOX) fuel.
• The reactors use a mix of Plutonium-239 (byproduct/radioactive waste produced in the 1st stage) and Uranium-
238, as part of their MOX fuel.
○ The U-238 surrounding the fuel core undergoes nuclear transmutation to produce more fuel (Pu-239).
○ Since the amount of Plutonium produced inside the reactor is more than that initially used, it is called the
Breeder reactor.
• The reactor uses fast neutrons without the need for a moderator to slow them down. Fast neutrons are more
efficient at inducing fission in certain isotopes, such as plutonium-239.
• Further, FBR can aid in conversion of fertile Thorium 232 to fissile Uranium 233 that will be used in the 3rd
stage.
Significance of FBR:
• Significant reduction in nuclear waste generated as FBR utilises/reprocesses the radioactive waste (Plutonium-
239) as fuel from the first stage.
• Advanced reactor with inherent passive safety features ensuring a prompt and safe shut down of the plant in
the event of an emergency.
• Both the capital cost and the per unit electricity cost is comparable to other nuclear and conventional power
plants.
• Stepping stone for the third stage of India’s Nuclear Programme.

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
3RD STAGE: THORIUM-BASED REACTORS

• The third stage is focussed on building Advanced Heavy Water Reactor to utilise India’s vast Thorium reserves.
• In the thermal breeder reactors, Thorium-232 will be converted into Uranium-233, by transmutation.
To showcase the practicality of this phase, 40 kW Thorium based KAMINI reactor is already operational in
Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu.
CIVIL LIABILITY FOR NUCLEAR DAMAGE ACT (CLNDA), 2010

• India enacted the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA) in 2010 to provide a quick compensation
mechanism for victims of a nuclear accident.
• The Act establishes a strict and no-fault liability for nuclear plant operators, meaning they are liable for
damage regardless of fault.
• However, the operator of the nuclear installation, after paying the compensation for nuclear damage shall
have the right to recourse where-
○ The nuclear incident has resulted as a consequence of an act of supplier or his employee, which includes
supply of equipment or material with patent or latent defects or sub-standard services.
○ The nuclear incident has resulted from the act of commission or omission of an individual done with the
intent to cause nuclear damage.
• The operator will have to maintain a financial security to cover its maximum liability of ₹1,500 crore for
civil nuclear damage and requires the operator to cover liability through insurance or other financial security.
• In case the damage claims exceed ₹1,500 crore, the gap will be bridged by the Central Government. The
government liability amounts to the rupee equivalent of 300 million Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) or about
₹2,100 to ₹2,300 crore.
 FUSION REACTORS
• Fusion reactors is increasingly seen as the future of energy security due to following factors:
○ Abundance of fuel (Hydrogen in the form of water in oceans).
○ Clean source of energy as it involves no release of carbon dioxide.
○ Elimination of risk from nuclear waste.
• Two main factors to achieve fusion reaction are fuel and conditions for fusion.
○ A typical fusion reactor uses hydrogen as a fuel that is abundant in the water of the oceans.
○ However, the main problem in fusion is that the hydrogen nuclei repel each other.
• The electric repulsion of two hydrogen nuclei can be overcome by heating the hydrogen to temperatures of
millions of degrees C. This is what happens in a typical hydrogen bomb.
• However, the challenge for building a fusion reactor is that such high temperatures leads to high pressure
posing the problem of explosion.
• This problem of explosion is currently being addressed in three ways:
1. The first is to make the hydrogen work at a very low density, so the pressure will not get high. This is the
approach used in the Tokamak approach.
2. The second method is to let the hydrogen explode, but to keep the explosions small. This is done in the
laser method.
3. The third way to achieve fusion is by keeping the hydrogen cold. This is called cold fusion.

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
7. INTERNATIONAL THERMONUCLEAR EXPERIMENTAL

REACTOR (ITER)
PRINCIPLE
• ITER is a fusion reactor that works on the basis of the Tokamak approach.
• Objective: To demonstrate the scientific and technological feasibility of controlled fusion for future commercial
power generation.
• Tokamak is a specific type of magnetic confinement device. It utilises powerful magnetic fields to confine
extremely hot plasma heated to millions of degrees Celsius (creating a soup of charged particles).
• Inside the Tokamak, light isotopes of hydrogen (Deuterium and Tritium) are heated and compressed to undergo
nuclear fusion to release
enormous amounts of
energy.
Details:
• ITER is a fusion reactor
launched in 1985.
• Location: Saint-Paul-les-
Durance in southern France.
• Joint collaboration of 35
countries with members
China, European Union,
India, Japan, Korea, Russia
and the United States.
• ITER is designed to produce
500 MW of fusion power from
50 MW of input heating
power.
• ITER project is about 65%
complete and is expected to
be completed by 2025.
8. COLD FUSION
• Traditional hot fusion requires extremely high temperatures (millions of degrees Celsius) to overcome the
electrostatic repulsion between positively charged atomic nuclei (protons).
• Cold fusion proposes achieving fusion at much lower temperatures (possibly room temperature and pressure)
by creating an environment where this repulsion is somehow negated.
PROPOSED MECHANISM
• It suggests that introducing a negatively charged particle to a hydrogen nucleus (proton) could neutralise its
positive charge.
• This would allow two hydrogen nuclei to get close enough for the attractive nuclear force to overcome the
remaining repulsion and initiate nuclear fusion.
• Metals like palladium, zirconium, and nickel, known as "hydrogen absorbers" or "soakers," can potentially
facilitate this process.

4
INTERNET AND
COMMUNICATION
Chapter
TECHNOLOGY
1. SEMICONDUCTORS
A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling between a conductor (such as metallic copper)
and an insulator (such as glass). Lattice structure and atomic structure of constituent elements decide whether a
particular material will be insulator, metal or semiconductor.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS
I. Based on material:
(i) Elemental semiconductors: Silicon (Si) and (Ge)
(ii) Compound semiconductors:
a. Inorganic: CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP etc.
b. Organic: Anthracene, Doped pthalocyanines etc.
c. Organic polymers: Polypyrrole, Polyaniline, Polythiophene etc.
Most of the currently available semiconductor devices are based on elemental semiconductors Silicon or
Germanium (Ge) and compound inorganic semiconductors.
However, after the 1990s, a few semiconductor devices using organic semiconductors and semi-conducting
polymers have been developed.
II. Based on purity:
(i) Intrinsic semiconductor: They are pure semiconductors with no impurities. They have no or zero
conductivity at very low temperatures. However, as temperature rises, the conductivity of these materials
increases.
(ii) Extrinsic semiconductor: When a small quantity of small impurity is added to pure semiconductor, the
conductivity of the semiconductor is increased manifold. These semiconductors are called extrinsic or
impurity semiconductors. The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the impurity
atoms are called dopants.
2. LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)

• LED is an electric component or a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric current flows
through it.
• LEDs can produce all three primary colours (red, green, and blue) and different LEDs can be combined on a
display board to produce a large variety of colours.
Advantages:
• More efficient than incandescent bulbs and fluorescent lamps, as they convert a higher percentage of
electrical energy into light.
• Compact and can be made in very small sizes.
• Much longer lifespan and durability compared to conventional bulbs.
• Light up instantly to their full brightness without any warm-up time, and are particularly useful in applications
where quick and frequent switching is required.

INTERNET AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
3. MICROLED DISPLAY TECHNOLOGY

• MicroLEDs are self-illuminating diodes that have brighter and better colour reproduction than Organic Light
Emitting Diode (OLED) display technology.
• MicroLEDs are made up of numerous microscopic LEDs which self-illuminate per display pixel i.e., they
produce colours without backlighting or colour filters. It is called a MicroLED panel because its pixels are very
small and measured in micrometres.
• While OLEDs use tiny sub-pixels made from organic emissive materials, Micro-LEDs use an inorganic LED
structure.
ADVANTAGES OVER OLED

• Increased brightness and better colour reproduction
• Longer lifespan
• Lower power consumption
• Low response time
• Limitless scalability as they can be freely resized in any form.
DISADVANTAGE
High costs and technical difficulties in its development.
4. OPTICAL FIBRES
• Thin, flexible, and transparent fibre made of glass (high quality silica) or plastic.
• It is used to transmit information, such as text, images, videos, etc. encoded as digital information or
electromagnetic waves/light pulses almost at the speed of light.
• Optical fibres utilise the phenomenon of total internal reflection for transmission.
Structure:
An optical fibre consists of:
• Core, which is the innermost part where light
travels.
• Cladding, which surrounds the core and helps
contain the light within the core by reflecting it
back into the core.
○ Core and cladding are usually made of
materials with different refractive indices,
allowing for the total internal reflection of light
within the core.
○ Refractive index of the core is higher (denser
medium) than the refractive index of the
cladding (rarer medium).

Total Internal Reflection (TIR):

• TIR occurs when light travelling from a rarer medium to a denser medium, strikes the boundary of the
medium at an angle greater than the critical angle.
• If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, all the light is reflected back into the original
medium; none of it is refracted into the second medium.
• This phenomenon is crucial in optical fibres, where it allows light signals to be transmitted over long
distances by repeatedly undergoing TIR within the core of the fibre.
Advantages:
• Long distances with minimal loss of signal quality (low signal attenuation).
• Optical waves have high bandwidth, thus allowing a high data-transmission rate, up to several terabits per
second in a single fibre.
• Fibre cables are immune to electromagnetic interference and less sensitive to external perturbations such as
lightning and bad weather, unlike copper cables.
Applications:
• Telecommunications: Used to connect telephone lines, cable television systems, and internet service
providers.
• Medical imaging: Used in a variety of medical imaging applications, such as endoscopy, ultrasound, and laser
surgery.
• Sensors: Used in a variety of sensors, such as temperature sensors, pressure sensors, and chemical sensors.
• Lighting: Used in a variety of lighting applications, such as decorative lighting, stage lighting, and outdoor
lighting.
• Military: Used in a variety of military applications, such as communication, surveillance, and targeting.
5. INTERNET
• Internet: Global network of interconnected computers and devices that use standardised communication
protocols to exchange information.
• Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Companies or organisations that provide access to the Internet. They offer
various types of connections such as dial-up, broadband, and wireless.
• World Wide Web (WWW): An information system on the Internet that allows users to access and navigate
through web pages using hyperlinks.
EVOLUTION OF WORLD WIDE WEB

THREE STAGES OF INTERNET CONSUMPTION
Web1 Web2 Web3
Time period 1990-2005 2005-till date 2021 - under development
Where data is Blockchain, distributed

Server's file system On-premises/Cloud
stored across multiple networks

User generated content like Social

NFTs, cryptocurrency
Examples Static web pages media, and web applications like e-
transaction
commerce etc.
Companies running Companies that host application,

Who owns data No one owns the data
the web pages cloud service providers
No transaction Payment gateways for currency Transaction happens using

Transacting
possible transactions crypto tokens
• Web 1.0 [1990 – 2000]: It is regarded as the first generation of the World Wide Web. Also known as Syntactic
web or read only web. Mostly, Web 1.0 was limited to searching info and reading what’s already there. There
was little user interaction or content contribution. It was disorganised and overwhelming, and soon it came to
be dominated by AOL, CompuServe, early Yahoo and other portals. These online service providers were gateway
to Web 1.0. (HTML 1.0)
• Web 2.0 [from mid-2000s]: This phase was characterised by enhanced user experience and made the internet
interactive. Also known as Social Web or read-write web. It enabled users to participate in content creation on
social networks, blogs, sharing sites and more. Search engines (Google) and social media platforms (Facebook,
Twitter) driven by user-generated content disrupted media, advertising and retail industries. Web 2.0’s business
model relies on user participation to create fresh content and resultant data being sold to third parties for
marketing. Facilitated by HTML 2.0.
• Web 3.0 [yet to arrive]: Next stage of web evolution. It would make the internet more intelligent, or process
information with near-human-like intelligence through the power of AI systems.
6. WEB 3.0
• Web 3.0 is the next version of the internet where services will run on blockchain.
• It is a decentralised internet that runs on a public blockchain, which is also used for cryptocurrency
transactions.
• It will be permissionless and democratic. For instance: Twitter will not be able to censor posts and Facebook
will not be able to maintain a database of billions of users.
• In a Web 3.0 universe, people will control their own data and will be able to move around from social media to
email to shopping using a single personalised account, creating a public record on blockchain of all that
activity.
• All data will be interconnected in a decentralised way, unlike current generation of internet (Web 2.0), where
data is mostly stored in centralised repositories.
○ Key features of Web 3.0 are: Ubiquity, Semantic Web, Artificial Intelligence and 3D Graphics.
○ Examples of Web 3.0: Most recent examples of Web 3.0 are the NFTs or non-fungible tokens.
NEED FOR WEB 3.0

• Loss of privacy: Data is stored in servers of companies that people interact with. Intermediaries become
custodians of user data and profit from. For such companies, more time consumers spend creating content,
more data the company can collect, helping it to improve its AI algorithm and its advertising engine, a key
revenue model for the company. This gives rise to issues of privacy, wherein user data is shared for profit
without their consent.
• Data ownership: Only centralised repositories are the ones that own user data and profit from it. In Web 3.0,
users can own and be properly compensated for their time and data.
• Plagiarism: It is very easy to copy original content and build a following around it on social media. Plagiarism
makes it harder for creators to get compensated. Web3 might help address that issue as the transparent nature
of blockchain makes it easy for anyone to track the originator of content.

KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WEB 2.0 AND WEB 3.0

• Any information that users share on Web 2.0 is stored with a cloud service provider whereas in Web3, all
services are built on top of a blockchain.
• Cloud is controlled by internet giants and is centralised. In blockchain, data is distributed across networks and
no single entity owns the information.
METAVERSE AND WEB 3.0

Metaverse is about creating digital avatars and interacting with others in virtual spaces. It does not have to be on
a blockchain. The whole point of Web 3.0 is decentralisation.
7. DARK WEB
The total web content on the internet is broadly classified into three broad categories: Surface web, Deep web and
Dark web.
SURFACE WEB
• Usual search engines such as Google, Yahoo & Bing etc. can ‘look for’ and extract content and present it in the
form of a website/webpage. For this, web pages are ‘indexed’ by search engines.
• Only about 10-15% of web content is present on surface web accessible by common searches.
DEEP WEB
• Term used for all those content or web pages that are there on the internet but are not indexed by search
engines and therefore not discernible by conventional search engines.
• Thus, webpages on the deep web do not show up in conventional search engines like Google, Yahoo, and Bing
etc. About 75-80% of the web content/web pages are on the deep web.
• Common examples of web content on the deep web include financial data, bank account details, emails,
personal data etc. that are password protected.
DARK NET/DARK WEB

• Part of the deep web that is intentionally hidden to provide anonymity.
• Key features:
○ No webpage indexing by surface web search engines.
○ Virtual traffic tunnels via randomised network infrastructure.
○ Inaccessible by traditional browsers due to its unique registry operator.
○ Further hidden by various network security measures like firewalls and encryption.
• To do this, Dark Net uses a specialised network of computers called relays through which the information
passes. Commonly, information on DarkNet passes through at least 3 relay computers between the source and
destination.
• In addition, dark net uses network technology that hides the locations of these relay computers (IP address) to
ensure anonymity of the users.
• Dark net can be accessed through TOR Browser (Anonymity Network).
THREATS OF DARK WEB

• Is using the dark web legal? Using DarkNet is per say is not illegal. By virtue of its ability to provide anonymity,
dark net is used by human right activists, free internet activists, media personnel etc. in countries where there
are severe restrictions, censorship on internet usage like that in China, Iran, Saudi Arabia etc. Also used by
whistleblowers to maintain anonymity.
• Threats of Dark Web: Malicious software, Scam, Identity theft monitoring, Illegal sales of COVID-19 vaccines,
Drug trafficking, Bitcoin laundering, Drug trafficking

8. INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)

• IoT refers to a network of physical devices embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies that
connect and exchange data with other devices and systems over the internet or other communication networks.
• These devices can communicate and interact with other devices over the Internet, and they can be remotely
monitored and controlled by computers and smartphones.
APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET OF THINGS

• Agriculture: Sensing for soil moisture & nutrients, controlling water usage for plant growth & determining
custom fertiliser are uses of IoT.
• Energy utilisation: Smart Grids will be able to detect sources of power outages, can automatically take inputs
of solar panel, making possible distributed energy system.
• Smart cities: Cellular
communication enabled Smart
municipal bins, Parking sensors etc.
• Healthcare: Personalised analysis
of an individual’s health and tailor-
made strategies to combat illness
will be possible. Enhanced patient
monitoring and better health
outcomes.
• Manufacturing: IoT intelligent
systems enable rapid
manufacturing of new products,
dynamic response to product
demands, and real-time
optimisation of manufacturing production and supply chain networks, by networking machinery, sensors, and
control systems together.
• Environmental monitoring: Assist in environmental protection by monitoring air or water quality,
atmospheric or soil conditions. It can even include areas like monitoring the movements of wildlife and
their habitats.
• Supply chain: By placing RFID tags on individual products, the exact location of single items in a large
warehouse can be shared, thus saving search time, streamlining infrastructure, and lowering labour costs.
9. EVOLUTION OF MOBILE NETWORKS

• Mobile phones communicate through ground-based cellular networks. Cellular networks are divided into
‘communication cells’ with which our mobile phones and mobile devices communicate.
• Mobile communication involves transmitting voice or data using wireless radio transmission.
• The first mobile systems were based on analogue transmission called 1G.
• The second-generation mobile systems were based on digital transmission.
• Initially, only voice was carried over the network.The commonly used standards for voice communication were
GSM and CDMA.
• These days, most mobile communications use Long Term Evolution communication– or LTE which allows us to
communicate with voice and data simultaneously over the same network.
• The rules for carrying voice or data in a network are defined under the standards for mobile network
communications often seen as 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G.
1G
• Mobile phones began with 1G technology in the 1980s.

• 1G is analog technology that supports only voice communications.

• The maximum speed is 2.4 Kbps.
2G
• First launched in 1991.
• For the 1st time radio signals became digital rather than analog.
• 2G phones are used for data also along with voice.
• Thus, 2G telephone introduced call and text encryption, SMS, picture messages, and MMS.
• Maximum speed under 2G networks with General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) was 50 kilobits per second.
• With Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) the speed went up to 1mbps
GPRS
• Launched in 2000
• Bridge between 2G and 3G.
• It marks the coming of data transmission besides voice communication.
• General Packet Radio Service enabled mobile devices to send and receive emails and pictures.
• GPRS used EDGE and GSM standards for both voice and data transmission.
• GPRS had operating speeds of up to 115 kbit/s.
• It increased to a maximum of 384 kbit/s by using EDGE.
3G
• The introduction of 3G networks in 1998, ushered in faster data-transmission speeds.
• Maximum speed of 3G is estimated to be around 2 Mbps for non-moving devices and 384 Kbps in moving
vehicles.
• Further a 3G phone cannot communicate through a 4G network, but a 4G phone can communicate through
a 3G or even 2G networks.
• Under both 2G to 3G technologies, data and voice transmission over the different networks using GSM or
CDMA technology.
4G
• 4G uses LTE which allows us to communicate with voice and data simultaneously over the same network.
• Applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV,
video conferencing, 3D television, and cloud computing.
• Max speed of a 4G network when the device is moving is 100 Mbps or 1 Gbps for low mobility communication
like when stationary or walking.
1G 2G 3G 4G
Period 1980-1990 1990-2000 2000-2010 2010-(2020)
Bandwidth 150/900MH2 900MHz 100MHz 100MHz
Frequency Analog signal 1.8GHz (digital) 1.6-2.0 GHz 2-8 GHz

(30 Khz)
Data rate 2kbps 64kbps 144kbps-2Mbps 100Mbps-lGbps
Characteristic First wireless Digital Digital broadband, High speed, all IP

communication increased speed
Technology Analog cellular Digital cellular (GSM) CDMA, UMTS, EDGE LTE, WiFi

10. 5G TECHNOLOGY
• Fifth generation (5G) of long-term evolution (LTE) mobile broadband networks is the most recent update.
• The next generation cellular technology will provide faster and more reliable communication with ultra-low
latency (Latency is gap time or transmission time for a packet of data).
• The Steering Committee constituted for identifying the 5G deployment roadmap for India recently submitted a
report titled 'Making India 5G Ready'. As per a government panel report with 5G data speed would be 2-20 Gbps.
FEATURES OF 5G
• High data rates (1Gbps for hotspots, 100Mbps download and 50Mbps upload for wide-area coverage)
• Massive connectivity (1 million connections per square kilometre)
• Ultra-low latency (1 millisecond)
• High reliability (99.999% for mission critical ‘ultra-reliable’ communications).
• Mobility at high speeds (up to 500 km/hr i.e., high-speed trains).
APPLICATIONS IN INDIA
• Will enhance infrastructure efficiencies like ‘vehicle platooning’. Platooning can double vehicle density in roads
promoting efficient and safer use of the limited road infrastructure.
• In manufacturing, 5G will enable use of robotics for precision manufacturing.
• 5G can also enable better logistics to track goods from raw materials to product delivery.
• In agriculture, 5G can enable improvement in the entire value-chain, from precision farming, smart irrigation,
improved soil and crop monitoring to livestock management.
• In the energy sector, ‘smart grids’ and ‘smart metering’ can be efficiently supported enabling growth of alternate
energy technologies.
• In healthcare, 5G can enable more effective tele-medicine delivery, tele-control of surgical robotics and wireless
monitoring of vital statistics.
• 5G will be used in key government projects such as smart cities and Digital India.
Feature 4G (LTE) 5G (Current Status) 6G (Vision)
Limited rollout (October Under development (Bharat 6G

Deployment Status Widely deployed
2022 launch) project initiated)
Speed Up to 100 Mbps (typical) Up to 1 Gbps (limited areas) Up to 1Tbps (theoretical)
10-20 milliseconds (limited Under 1 millisecond

Latency 50-100 milliseconds
areas) (theoretical)
Spectrum Below 6 GHz bands (limited), Below 6 GHz bands, mmWave,

Below 6 GHz bands
Availability mmWave auctions awaited Terahertz (future)
Basic mobile broadband, Early adoption for enhanced Focus on R&D for ultra-high-
Applications social media, video mobile broadband, potential speed data, mission-critical
streaming for future VR/AR applications (long term)
5G SPECTRUM
5G primarily operates in three bands, namely the low, mid, and high-frequency spectrums, each of which has its
own set of benefits and drawbacks.
LOW BAND SPECTRUM

• It has a lot of potential in terms of coverage and internet and data transfer speed; however, the maximum
speed is just 100 Mbps (Megabits per second).

• The low band spectrum may not be ideal for specialised requirements of the business; thus, Telcos may utilise
and deploy it for commercial cell phone customers who may not have need for extremely high-speed internet.
MID-BAND SPECTRUM
• It has faster speeds than the low band, however it has restrictions in terms of coverage area and signal
penetration.
• This band might be utilised by companies and specialised production units to create captive networks that can
be tailored to their specific demands.
HIGH-BAND SPECTRUM
• It has the fastest speed of the three bands, but its coverage and signal penetration intensity are severely
restricted.
• Internet speeds in the 5G high-band spectrum have been tested to reach 20 Gbps (gigabits per second),
although the greatest internet data speed in 4G has been reported at 1 Gbps in most circumstances.
MILLIMETRE (MM) WAVE BAND

• The millimetre wave band, or mmWave, is a portion of the radio frequency spectrum that spans 24 to 100 GHz.
• As the name implies, this spectrum has a short wavelength and is more likely to give higher speeds and shorter
latencies.
• Data transport becomes more efficient and smoother, as existing networks are optimised for lower frequency
bandwidths.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS MM BAND

• Lower frequency bands may be used to deliver 5G services.
• They can reach longer distances and have been demonstrated to perform well even in congested metropolitan
areas.
• However, when it comes to data rates, these bands fall short of the maximum capacity required for a real 5G
experience.
So, mmWave is that key component in the 5G jigsaw puzzle for mobile service providers.
11. Wi-Fi and Li-Fi

Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) and Li-Fi (Light-Fidelity) are two different wireless communication technologies that enable
data transmission, i.e., offer a way to connect to the internet without physical cables.
S. No. Parameters Wi-Fi Li-Fi
1. Medium of Relies on radio waves to transmit Transmits data using visible light or ultraviolet
transmission data wirelessly between devices light. LEDs act as transmitters, and a
photodetector receives the data.
2. Range Typically up to 32 metres Typically around 10 metres
3. Frequency Radio frequency spectrum, Visible light spectrum or UV light spectrum

between 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
4. Advantages Wider range Faster speed (upto 100 Gbps theoretically),

high security
5. Disadvantages Susceptible to radio-frequency Shorter range, Requires a direct line of sight

interference causing latency communication between the transmitter and

receiver.
12. WIFI 6.0

• Next generation standard in WiFi technology. Also known as “AX WiFi."
• It was built in response to the growing number of devices in the world of IoT (Internet of Things) due to faster
data transmission rates.
WI-FI CERTIFIED 6 NETWORKS ENSURE

• Each connected device performs at an optimum level, in locations with hundreds or thousands of connected
devices.
• Highest standards for security and interoperability.
• Lower battery consumption.
• Increased bandwidth to deliver greater performance with lower latency.
13. NEAR FIELD COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

• A short-range wireless connectivity technology that allows NFC-enabled devices to communicate with each
other and transfer information quickly with a single touch.
• NFC transmits data through electromagnetic radio fields between two devices typically requiring a distance of
4 cm or less.
• Both devices must be equipped with NFC technology and be physically contacting or within a few centimetres
of one another for data transmission.
• Applications: Contactless banking cards, contactless public transportation tickets, wireless charging, Vending
machines, Parking metres, NFC-enabled wristbands (E.g., track patient data in the hospital setting), Inventory
and sales monitoring etc.
• Limitations of NFC: Can work only on limited distances. Offers exceptionally low information or data transfer
rate of a few Kbps.
14. RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID)

TECHNOLOGY
• RFID technology refers to a wireless
system comprising two components:
tags and readers.
• Reader is a device that has one or more
antennas that emit radio waves and
receive signals back from the RFID tag.
Readers can be mobile so that they can
be carried by hand, or they can be
mounted on a post or overhead.
• RFID Tag is embedded on the
windscreens of the vehicles for
transporters. It can store a range of
information from one serial number to
several pages of data. The tags use
radio waves to communicate their
identity and other information to nearby readers.

Satellite-based toll collection

• Central government has plans to implement satellite-based toll collection on highways in India in 2024.
• This will replace the radio frequency identification-based FASTag system that was rolled out in 2016 and
made mandatory from January 2021.
• Significance: Efficiency in toll collection and barrier-free movement of vehicles.
Working Mechanism:
• On-board unit: Every vehicle registering for the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) of toll collection
will be equipped with an on-board unit (OBU) that will be linked to a constellation of satellites via a GPS
receiver. The OBU transmits the vehicle's location and identification information to the toll collection system.
The OBU will also be linked with a wallet from which the toll amount will be automatically deducted.
• Satellite tracking: Satellites track the movement of the vehicle and determine the distance travelled on
tolled roads.
• Toll calculation: The toll collection system calculates the toll based on the actual length of the highway
traversed by the vehicle and the vehicle's class (E.g., car, truck).
• Automatic payment: Toll amount is automatically deducted from the driver's prepaid account or linked
credit card.
15. FREE SPACE OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

• Free Space Optical (FSO) communication refers to the transmission of optical signals through free space, such
as the atmosphere or vacuum, using line-of-sight (LOS) communication between transceivers.
• It is typically used for short-range communication links, such as within buildings or across relatively short
distances.
ADVANTAGES
• FSO communication offers a high data rate to meet the tremendous increasing demand of broadband traffic
mostly driven by Internet access and HDTV broadcasting services.
• Compared to fibre optics technology, FSO offers much more flexibility in designing optical network architectures
at very high speeds, at tens and hundreds of Gbit/s rates.
• Both point-to-point, point-to-multipoint, multipoint-to-point, and multipoint-to-multipoint FSO communications

are possible, depending on the different scenarios of establishing optical links.
LIMITATIONS
• However, FSO communication is affected by atmospheric effects (fog, rain, turbulence), which limits sensitivity
and achievable data rates with acceptable BER (Bit Error Rate).

16. DEEP SPACE OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

• DSOC is NASA's first demonstration of optical communication beyond the Earth-Moon system. DSOC uses near-
infrared signals to transmit data, instead of radio waves.
• It promises data rates at least 10 times faster than the current radio frequency communication.
• Primary objective is to enable high-data-rate communications offering the potential to transmit high-definition
images, video streaming and increased scientific data volume during space missions.
• A recent demonstration of DSOC technology was done from NASA's Psyche spacecraft. The DSOC system on
board Psyche successfully transmitted a 15-second ultra-high definition video from a distance of 31 million
kilometres at a rate of 267 Mbps.
• This paves the way for future missions that will require high-bandwidth communications from deep space.
17. CYBER SECURITY THREATS

India has been victim to the Cyber-attacks number of times in the recent past:
• 2017: WannaCry and Petya Ransomware
• 2018: Aadhaar Software hacked and Aadhaar details of the people leaked online.
TOOLS OF CYBER ATTACKS

1. Malware: Malicious software to disrupt computers. It can include Virus, Spyware, Trojans etc.
Types of Malwares:
• Virus: Most common type of malware. It can replicate itself and spread to other computers.
• Worm: Malware that can self- replicate without a host program. Worms typically spread without any human
interaction or directives from the malware authors.
• Trojan: Malicious program that is designed to appear as a legitimate program. Once activated following
installation, trojans can execute their malicious functions.
• Spyware: Malware designed to collect information and data on users and observe their activity without users’
knowledge. E.g., Pegasus.
• Ransomware: Malicious software injected into the computer to limit the access of the system to the user and
encrypt the data. Cyber criminals demand money/ cryptocurrency in lieu of an encryption key (that would
unlock all the data and restore the access to the system). E.g., WannaCry Ransomware, Locky Ransomware etc.

2. Denial of Service attacks: An attack meant to shut down a machine or network, making it inaccessible to its
intended users.
3. Crypto jacking: Cryptocurrencies are created through a process called mining. To mine digital coins, miners
need to use high-end processors that consume a lot of electricity. Crypto jacking is what some digital coin
miners do to illegally gain access to many computers. The miners stealthily drop malware in an unsuspecting
user’s computer. This malware runs surreptitiously and turns devices into cryptocurrency-mining botnets.
Unlike most other types of malwares, crypto-jacking scripts do not use the victim’s data. But they drain the
CPU’s resources, which slows down the system, increases electricity usage, and causes irreparable damage to
the hardware.
4. Hacktivism: Misusing a computer system or network for a socially or politically motivated reason. For example,
the hacktivists can block access to Government's website, deface the government's website or unblock the sites
which have been blocked by the Government.
5. Social Engineering: Manipulation and exploitation of human psychology to deceive individuals or gain
unauthorised access to confidential information (passwords, bank information etc.) or clicking on malicious
links. These attacks often exploit traits such as trust, helpfulness, curiosity, or fear. Common techniques used
in social engineering attacks:
• Impersonation: Impersonating friends, relatives in distress to seek money.
• Phishing: Pretending to be legitimate entities, such as banks or organisations, to deceive individuals into
revealing sensitive information like usernames, passwords, or credit card details. Typically done through
fraudulent emails, messages, or websites that appear authentic.
• Baiting: Installing malware on pretext of enticing offers like free software upgrade.
6. Advanced Persistent Threat: Type of cyber-attack in which an unauthorised user gains access to a system or
network and remains there for an extended period without being detected. They generally do not cause
damage to company networks or hardware. Instead, they are focussed on stealing data
MALWARE-AS-A-SERVICE (MAAS)
• Type of cybercrime model where malware is offered for sale or rent by cyber criminals as a service to other
hackers or malicious actors on the internet.
• MaaS operates in a similar way to legitimate Software as a Service (SaaS) models, where software (malware)
is provided on a subscription or pay-per-use basis.
• These services typically are available on the dark web. They are purchased to carry out various malicious
activities, such as stealing sensitive information, disrupting computer systems, or encrypting data and
demanding a ransom to unlock it.
18. DARK PATTERNS

• Dark patterns are any practices or deceptive design patterns using user interfaces on any platform (website,
mobile applications etc.) that are designed to mislead or trick users to do something they originally did not
intend or want to do.
• The Central Consumer Protection Authority established under Section 10 of Consumer Protection Act, 2019, has
classified them as ‘unfair trade practice’ and notified ‘Guidelines for Prevention and Regulation of Dark
Patterns, 2023’ to curb dark patterns across various platforms offering goods or services in India.
• The guidelines list 13 dark patterns, which include:
S. No. Dark patterns Definition
1. False Urgency Creates a sense of urgency or scarcity to pressure consumers into making a
purchase or taking an action.

2. Basket Sneaking Add additional products or services to the shopping cart without user consent.
3. Confirm Shaming Involves guilt as a way to make consumers adhere. It criticises or attacks
consumers for not conforming to a particular belief or viewpoint.
4. Forced Action Forcing consumers into taking an action they may not want to take, such as
signing up for a service in order to access content.
5. Subscription Makes it easy for consumers to sign up for a service but difficult for them to cancel
Trap it, often by hiding cancellation options or requiring multiple steps.
6. Interface Make it difficult for consumers to take certain actions, such as cancelling a
Interference subscription or deleting an account.
7 Bait & Switch Practice of advertising a particular outcome based on the user’s action but
deceptively serving an alternate outcome.
8. Drip Pricing Involves hiding additional costs from consumers until they are already committed
to making a purchase.
9. Disguised Advertisements that are designed to look like other types of content, such as news
Advertisement articles or user-generated content.
10. Nagging Refers to persistent, repetitive and annoyingly constant criticism, complaints,
requests for action.
11. Trick Question Deliberate use of confusing or vague language like confusing wording, double
negatives, or other similar tricks, to misguide or misdirect a user.
12. SaaS Billing Process of generating and collecting payments from consumers on a recurring
basis in a software as a service (SaaS) business model by exploiting positive
acquisition loops in recurring subscriptions to get money from users as
surreptitiously as possible.
13. Rogue Malwares Using ransomware or scareware to mislead or trick users into believing there is a
virus on their computer and aims to convince them to pay for a fake malware
removal tool that actually installed malware on their computer.
19. END-TO-END ENCRYPTION

Encryption:
• Encryption is a way of protecting data from unauthorised access or tampering. It works by transforming the
data into a secret code that only the intended recipient can decipher.
• There are two main types of encryption:
○ Symmetric encryption uses the same key to encrypt and decrypt the data.
○ Asymmetric encryption uses a pair of keys: one public and one private. The public key can be shared with
anyone, but the private key must be kept secret.

End-to-End Encryption (E2EE):

• E2EE is a security measure used in communication systems to protect the confidentiality and privacy of data
exchanged between users.
• It protects data as it is transferred between end locations, i.e., the sender and receiver can read any exchanged
messages, while preventing unauthorised third parties, including service providers and government entities,
from intercepting and reading the content.
• Working: E2EE generally utilises asymmetric cryptography/encryption, which in turn uses a pair of keys – public
and private – to secure communications. The public key is used to encrypt data, while the private key decrypts
it.
20. OPEN-SOURCE SOFTWARE

• Open-source software (OSS) is software that is distributed with its source code, making it available for use,
modification, and distribution with its original rights. Examples: Linux, Mozilla Firefox, VLC media player,
SugarCRM, etc.
• While the operating system of Apple’s iPhones (iOS) is closed source, meaning it cannot be legally modified or
reverse engineered, Google’s Android operating system is open source.
• Many other solutions launched by the government including Digilocker, Diksha, Aarogya Setu, the Covid-19
vaccination platform CoWIN have also been built on top of open-source digital platforms.
ADVANTAGES OF OPEN-SOURCE SOFTWARE

• More affordable than proprietary counterparts and give increased personal control to creators and users alike.
• By harnessing crowdsourcing, open-source software allows developers to benefit from accelerated innovation,
quicker development processes and having more success troubleshooting when problems arise.
• Spur growth of new technologies like 5G/6G, microprocessor technology, Artificial Intelligence, Internet of
Things, by building indigenous technology capabilities.
21. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

• Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer
systems.
• Machines can perform cognitive tasks like thinking, perceiving, learning, problem-solving and decision-making
through technologies like natural language processing and artificial neural networks.
• Natural Language Processing: NLP involves the interaction between computers and humans using natural
language. Through techniques like machine learning and deep learning, computers can understand, interpret,
and generate human language in a way that is meaningful. NLP enables tasks such as language translation,
sentiment analysis, text summarisation, question answering, and chatbot interactions.
• Artificial Neural Network: A computational model inspired by the structure and functioning of biological
neural networks. It consists of interconnected nodes called artificial neurons or units, which are organised in
layers. Each neuron takes input from the previous layer, performs a computation, and passes the output to the
next layer. ANNs are used for various tasks like pattern recognition, classification, regression, and decision-
making.
GENERATIVE AI
• Type of AI that involves creating new, original content or data (like text, images, music, code etc.) using machine-
learning algorithms.
• Generative AI works by training a model on a large dataset and then using that model to generate new,
previously unseen content. E.g., DALL-E for image generation, ChatGPT for text generation.
• One of the most popular approaches to generative AI is the use of generative models, particularly generative
adversarial networks (GANs).

• GAN is a class of AI algorithms that consist of two neural networks: generator and discriminator, that compete
against each other.
○ The generator learns to create new samples (synthetic data) that resemble the training data.
○ The discriminator tries to distinguish between the generated samples and the real data.
○ This adversarial training process leads to the improvement of both networks over time, resulting in
generation of increasingly realistic synthetic content. E.g., Deepfakes.
UNIMODAL AI AND MULTIMODAL AI

• Unimodal AI refers to AI models that work with a single type of data input and output. In simpler terms, they
specialise in one specific modality, either text, images, audio, or video.
• Multimodal AI refers to AI systems that can understand and process information from multiple sources, such
as text, images, audio, video, etc. This integration and analysis of data from diverse formats allow for richer
understanding and more accurate results. E.g., Gemini
APPLICATIONS OF AI
• Education: Transform education by providing personalised learning experiences, intelligent tutoring systems,
and adaptive educational content.
• Healthcare: Improve diagnostics (AI-enabled medical imaging), development of personalised treatments and
discover new antibiotics, robots for surgical procedures.
• Agriculture: Crop yield prediction and forecast prices, AI-based sensors for spraying pesticides/herbicides,
autonomous robots for harvesting crops, monitoring crop health for diagnosing pests/soil defects, nutrient
deficiencies in soil etc.
• Infrastructure: Aid in the development of smart cities, improve safety by enabling intelligent infrastructure
(self-driving cars) and optimising complex transportation hubs.
• Data Analysis and Research: Analyse vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and aid in scientific discoveries
and data-driven decision-making.
• Enhance National Security: Detecting and responding to cyber threats, identifying vulnerabilities, and
conducting cyber attacks.
• Space exploration: E.g., Development of autonomous spacecraft, smart habitats.
• Service delivery: AI-powered chatbots and virtual assistants can enhance customer experiences by providing
quick and accurate responses to inquiries, automating routine tasks, and personalising interactions.
• Environmental sustainability: Optimising energy consumption, facilitating smart grid management, enabling
better decision-making for resource management.

Can a copyright be given to a content generated by AI?

• The Indian Copyright Act, 1957, grants exclusive rights to creators (authors, artists, etc.) over their original
works for a specific duration.
• Using a copyrighted work (literary, artistic, musical, etc.) without the owner's permission, in a way that
infringes their exclusive rights over it, constitutes copyright infringement.
• India does not have any specific litigation in the context of text and data mining by AI.
• In the Copyright Act of India, there is no way a non-human can be granted copyright protection. The Act
currently recognises only human authors for copyright protection.
GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP ON AI (GPAI)

• A multi-stakeholder initiative which aims to bridge the gap between theory and practice on AI by supporting
cutting-edge research and fostering international collaboration for responsible AI development.
• Launched: June 2020. India is a founding member of GPAI.
• Members: Presently, GPAI has 29 members, including Australia, Canada, France, Germany, India, United
Kingdom, United States, European Union, among others.
New Delhi Declaration on AI:
• In December 2023, the New Delhi Declaration on AI was adopted to find a balance between innovation and
the risks associated with AI systems.
• It promoted equitable access to critical resources for AI innovation including computing, high-quality diverse
datasets, algorithms, software, testbeds, and other AI-relevant resources and human-centred use of AI.
22. DEEP FAKES

• Synthetic media (image, video, audio) that has been
digitally created/altered to replace a person's face or
body with that of another with a high potential to
deceive or manipulate.
• Deepfakes are generated using powerful techniques
from machine learning called generative adversarial
network (GAN) and artificial intelligence.
• The technology can be utilised for malicious activities
like scams, identity theft, financial fraud, pornography,
election meddling, social engineering and automated
disinformation attacks.
• The law currently being invoked to tackle deep fakes is
the Information Technology Act, 2000. Under section 66D of the IT Act, it is a punishable offence to use
computer resources to cheat by personation.
• Information Technology Rules, 2021 prohibit hosting any content that impersonates another person and
requires social media firms to take down artificially morphed images when alerted. All content reported to be
fake or produced using deep fake has to be taken down by social media intermediary platforms within 24 hours
of the receipt of such a complaint.
23. NEUROMORPHIC COMPUTING

• Neuromorphic Computing is an approach to computing that is inspired by the structure and function of the
human brain.

• The development of neuromorphic hardware aims at mimicking biological synapse that monitors and
remembers the signal generated by the stimuli. (simply, aims to design computer systems that mimic how
human brain processes information)
WORKING
• A neuromorphic computer/chip consists of Artificial Neural Networks composed of millions of artificial neurons
(made from Silicon).
• These neurons pass signals to each other in layers, converting input into output through electric spikes or
signals, based on the architecture of Spiking Neural Networks.
• This allows the machine (computer systems) to mimic the neuro-biological networks in the human brain and
perform tasks efficiently such as visual recognition and data interpretation.
24. NEURALINK BRAIN CHIP IMPLANT

• As per the computer-brain interface company Neuralink, the first human has received a brain chip implant and
is recovering well.
• Neuralink is working on linking the nervous system to computers, with efforts aimed at helping treat brain
disorders, overcoming brain injuries, and other applications.
• Aim: To give people the ability to control a computer cursor or keyboard using their thoughts alone or “just by
thinking”.
25. IMMERSIVE TECHNOLOGIES

Extended reality (XR) is an
umbrella term for the spectrum
of immersive technologies that
alter or add to our perception of
the real world. This includes
technologies like Augmented
Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR)
and Mixed Reality (MR).
• Augmented Reality (AR): It
overlays digital elements
onto the real world. AR does
not replace the real world,
but enhances it with
virtual/digital information.
Devices: Commonly
accessed through
smartphones, tablets, or
special AR glasses. E.g.,
Pokemon Go (Game)

• Virtual Reality (VR): Creates a completely immersive simulated environment and cuts off the user from the
physical environment/reality. VR replaces the user's entire field of view with a computer-generated virtual
world. Devices: Requires dedicated VR headsets and motion controllers.
• Mixed Reality (MR): MR combines elements of both VR and AR. MR places virtual objects in the real world and
enables users to interact with them as if they were physically present. This is typically achieved using specialised
headsets that incorporate sensors and cameras that scan the environment and track the user’s movements,
making digital objects appear to exist in the real world.
26. BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY

• Blockchain technology is a decentralised, distributed ledger that records transactions across a network (multiple
computers) in a way that makes them tamper-resistant and transparent.
• At its core, a blockchain is a chain of blocks, where each block stores data or digital information. (E.g., In the
case of Bitcoin, a block stores a record of cryptocurrency transfer).
○ Each block contains a cryptographic hash of the previous block, a timestamp, and transaction data.
○ Once a block is added to the chain, it is extremely difficult to alter, hence, ensuring the integrity of the data.
○ The transactions are
verified and added to the
block through a process
called consensus (proof
of stake), which involves
a network of participants
known as nodes, who
collectively validate the
transactions.
KEY FEATURES OF
BLOCKCHAIN
TECHNOLOGY
• Decentralisation & transparency: Blockchain operates on a peer-to-peer network, where each participant has
a copy of the entire blockchain, ensuring transparency. All transactions recorded on a blockchain are visible to
all participants in the network.
• Security: Blockchain technology utilises cryptography to secure transactions and control the transfer of assets.
Each transaction is encrypted and linked to the previous transaction, forming a chain of blocks that cannot be
easily altered.
• Immutability: Once a transaction is recorded on the blockchain, it is extremely difficult to change or delete.
This immutability ensures the integrity of the data stored on the blockchain.
• Smart Contracts: Blockchain platforms often support the execution of smart contracts (self-executing
contracts with predefined rules). Smart contracts automatically enforce the terms and conditions of an
agreement, eliminating the need for intermediaries.
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF BLOCKCHAIN

Originally introduced as the underlying technology behind the cryptocurrency Bitcoin, but its potential applications
extend far beyond digital currencies.
• Transfer of land records (Property record management).
• Digital certificates management (Education, Death, Birth, Agreements, Sale Deeds)
• Pharmaceutical supply chain
• e-Notary service (Blockchain enabled e-Sign solution)
• Farm insurance
• Identity management

• Power distribution
• Duty payments
• Agriculture and other supply chains
• e-Voting
• Electronic Health Record Management
• Digital Evidence Management System
• Public Service Delivery
• IoT Device Management and Security
• Vehicle lifecycle administration
• Microfinance for Self-Help Groups
27. NON-FUNGIBLE TOKENS

• NFTs or non-fungible tokens are digital assets (often in the form of digital art, music, videos, or other digital
content) based on blockchain technology.
• Each NFT is assigned a unique and unchangeable code stored on the blockchain, providing a clear record of
ownership and verifying the authenticity of the associated digital asset.
• Each NFT is distinct and scarce and cannot be duplicated or forged. This uniqueness adds value to the digital
asset.
• Many NFTs utilise smart contracts, self-executing contracts with the terms of the agreement directly written into
code. These contracts automate processes like royalties, ensuring creators receive a percentage of future sales.
28. DECENTRALISED FINANCE (DeFi)

• An emerging concept that leverages blockchain technology to offer financial products and services without
relying on traditional intermediaries like banks or brokerages.
• DeFi applications are built on blockchains and rely on smart contracts that automate financial transactions
according to predetermined rules. This eliminates the need for a trusted third party.
• DeFi offers a variety of financial services, including:
○ Users can borrow or lend cryptocurrencies directly to each other.
○ Interest-bearing accounts where users can deposit their crypto assets and earn interest.
○ Peer-to-peer insurance products where users can pool funds to cover losses.

5
FRONTIER
Chapter TECHNOLOGIES
 QUANTUM TECHNOLOGIES
1. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM
Quantum Mechanics is a field of physics that describes the behaviour of matter and energy at the smallest scales,
typically at the level of atoms and subatomic particles.
QUANTUM COMPUTERS AND QUBITS

• Quantum computers are machines that use the properties of quantum physics to store data and perform
computations.
• While classical computers use bits as the basic unit of information, that is a two-state system that can
represent either 0 or 1 at a time (they just act like a light bulb to represent ON/OFF), quantum computers use
qubits which represent 0, 1 and an intermediate state (superposition of 0,1) in between.
• A qubit can be:
○ a particle — like an electron, photon (E.g., Linear optical quantum computing uses photons as qubits).
○ a collection/group of particles
○ any quantum system engineered to behave like a particle.
• Any particle that can be
controlled and manipulated using
quantum-mechanical phenomena
can be used as a qubit. The
information can be ‘encoded’ in
some property of the particle (like
an electron’s spin) and then
processed.
• The power of a quantum
computer scales exponentially
(2^N) with the number of qubits,
unlike classical computers, which
scale linearly with the number of
bits.
• This enables quantum computers to perform complicated large-scale calculations out of the reach of the
classical and even the best supercomputers.
2. QUANTUM PHENOMENON
Quantum Superposition:
• Qubits can simultaneously exist in more than one location or quantum state at one time while remaining as a
single entity. Thus, superposition enables qubits to perform multiple operations simultaneously.
Quantum Entanglement:
• When two particles become entangled, the state of one particle becomes linked with the state of the other,
regardless of the distance between them. This means that changes to the state of one particle
instantaneously affects the state of the other.

FRONTIER TECHNOLOGIES
• Hence, measuring the state of one entangled particle instantly determines the state of its entangled partner,
even if they are vast distances apart.
• So, entangled qubits in a quantum
computer can be manipulated
collectively, allowing for the parallel
processing of information in a way
that classical bits cannot achieve.
Quantum Coherence:
• Quantum mechanics allows qubits to

exist in a superposition state, where
they can be 0 and 1 simultaneously.
• Quantum coherence refers to the

maintenance of the phase
relationships between these
superposed states, which is essential
for performing calculations in
quantum computers.
The Challenge:
• Qubits are very fragile and susceptible to decoherence (slight disturbances in the surroundings may result in a
change of the quantum state of the particle and can result in a change of the information). Thus, maintaining
quantum coherence is difficult.
• This fragility arises out of the interaction between qubit and their environment leading to decoherence.
• Decoherence can be caused by various factors, such as noise, heat, and measurement. It causes qubits to
collapse into one of the two states and lose quantum information.
• Previously, quantum coherence could only be achieved at extremely low temperatures, around -196°C (liquid
nitrogen temperature). This makes building practical quantum computers challenging.
Coherence at Room temperature:

• Recently, Researchers were able to achieve quantum coherence at room temperature by embedding a light-
absorbing molecule called a chromophore within a metal-organic framework (MOF), using Zirconium as the
metal component.
• The MOF's structure restricted the movement of the chromophore, minimising environmental disturbances.
This allowed the chromophore to maintain quantum coherence for a brief period in the nanosecond range
(billionths of a second) at room temperature.
Chromophore:
• A molecule in a given material that absorbs particular wavelengths of visible light, and emits colour as a
result, and in doing so confers colour on the material.
Metal Organic Framework (MOF):
• A type of porous material that consists of a network of repeated molecular arrangements where the
repeating structure has a metal atom or ion with organic molecules attached to its like tentacles. Each
tentacle attaches to another metal atom and the structure repeats itself to make up the MOF.
• MOFs have various applications in fields such as gas storage, catalysis, and sensing, due to their high surface
area, tunable structure, and functional properties.
• MOFs can also be used for quantum computing, as they can host qubits within their pores or on their
surfaces.

Majorana Zero Modes

• Exotic quasiparticles (not fundamental particles like electrons) that arise in certain types of topological
superconductors.
• They exhibit unique behaviour and possess topological degeneracy (inherent stability i.e, even if disturbed
slightly, their overall quantum state remains unchanged, making them robust qubits for quantum
computers).
• Traditional qubits (quantum bits) are prone to errors. However, Majorana zero modes offer a path to more
stable and error-resistant qubits.
Quantum Supremacy:
• It is the point at which a quantum computer can complete a mathematical calculation that is beyond the reach
of even the most powerful supercomputer.
• In 2019, Sycamore (Google’s quantum computer) claimed ‘supremacy’ because it reportedly took 200 seconds
to perform a calculation that the world’s fastest supercomputer, Summit, would have taken 10,000 years to
accomplish.
3. APPLICATIONS OF QUANTUM TECHNOLOGY

1. Quantum Computing:
• Quantum Computers: Building quantum computers to solve problems beyond the capabilities of classical and
super computers.
• Post-Quantum Cryptography: Breaking current encryption methods and developing alternative cryptographic
algorithms secure against attacks from quantum computers.
2. Quantum Simulation:
• Drug Discovery: Simulating complex molecules to design new drugs and materials with specific properties.
• Materials Science: New materials are being modelled for novel aeroplanes, automotive designs for better fuel
efficiency, and aerodynamic properties.
• Energy solutions: Materials science simulating complex molecules to find new materials to develop safe and
sustainable batteries and fuel cells.
• Climate modelling: Climate modelling enables meteorologists to better predict trajectories of hurricanes,
winter storms, and other weather events.
3. Quantum Sensing:
• Medical Imaging: Developing highly sensitive MRI scanners for earlier disease detection and improved
diagnostics.
• Navigation Systems: Creating next-generation navigation tools with exceptional precision and immunity to
GPS disruption.
• Weather forecasting: Developing more accurate and long-term weather prediction models.
• Materials Characterisation: Analysing materials at the atomic level for a deeper understanding of their
properties.
4. Quantum Communication
(i) Quantum Key Distribution
• QKD is a technology that uses the laws of quantum physics to distribute secure keys between two parties which
prevent the decryption of data, and thus, ensure secure communication.
• QKD involves sending encrypted data as classical bits over networks, while the keys to decrypt the information
are encoded and transmitted in a quantum state using qubits.

• A key feature of the technology is its ability to detect

and mitigate interception. This is based on the
fundamental law of quantum physics that
observation itself disturbs the quantum state of a
particle, i.e., if an eavesdropper tries to intercept
the QKD signal, it will immediately change the
signal’s state. This makes the interception
detectable and ensures any intercepted
information is immediately discarded.
• QKD technology still faces some challenges, such as
limited transmission distances (100-500 kms) due
to decoherence and the high cost of specialised
equipment.
(ii) Quantum Teleportation-based Communication
• Alternatively, a communication system can work by
representing entire information using qubits of
entangled photons instead of only the encryption key. The qubits may be instantaneously transferred owing to
their entanglement.
• This instant transfer of “qubits” to send information is called “quantum teleportation”.
• The entangled photons may also be used to send information through optical cables and received through a
single-photon detector at the receiver end.
QUANTUM TELEPORTATION IN NEWS
NASA's NASA’s jet propulsion laboratory has demonstrated 44 km teleportation of qubits of photons
quantum over a fibre-optic network and single-photon detectors.
teleportation
demonstration
Quantum • Future quantum internet is going to be built using communication links based on quantum
Internet teleportation.
• Quantum internet would be able to transmit large volumes of data across immense
distances at a rate that exceeds the speed of light.
• It is said to be energy efficient because it does not involve transmission through electricity
or light.
• Quantum internet will be safe/tamper proof due to the interception-free nature of qubits.
4. NANOTECHNOLOGY
• Nanotechnology involves the manipulation and control of matter at the nanoscale, typically in the range of 1 to
100 nanometers. (1 nm = 10-9 metres)
• At the nanoscale, materials exhibit novel properties and behaviours that are different from their bulk
counterparts.
• These properties arise due to increased surface area, quantum effects, and the interactions between atoms on
the surface and those at the interface (where two different materials meet).
• Nanotechnology aims to harness these properties to develop new materials, devices, and applications with
enhanced performance and functionality.
APPLICATIONS OF NANO TECHNOLOGY

• Medicine & Healthcare: Drug delivery, bioimaging, diagnostics, antimicrobial coatings, cancer treatment.

• Electronics: Nanoelectronics, sensors, data storage devices, quantum dot displays.

• Energy: Solar cells, lithium-ion batteries, fuel additives, hydrogen generation and storage.
• Automotive: Fuel cells, lighter and stronger materials, advanced lubricants.
• Aerospace: Lighter and stronger composites, structural health monitoring.
• Defence: Lightweight soldier armour, surveillance, sensors, nano-coatings for equipment.
• Environment: Pollutant degradation, water treatment, nano-filtration, catalytic converters.
• Agriculture: Pesticides, fertilisers, pathogen detection, encapsulated agrochemicals.
• Food & Packaging: Antimicrobial films, nano-coatings with improved barrier properties, moisture control, and
thermal stability.
• Textiles: Stain and wrinkle-resistant fabrics, lightweight protective clothing, moisture wicking.
• Cosmetics: UV protection in sunscreens, long-lasting colour pigments, anti-ageing creams.
• Paints & Coatings: Anti-corrosive coatings, thermal barrier coatings.
5. IMPORTANT NANOMATERIALAS
1. GRAPHENE
• An allotrope of carbon consisting of a single layer of Carbon atoms arranged in a two-dimensional hexagonal
lattice.
• Properties:
○ Thinnest compound (one atom thick)
○ Lightest material known
○ Strongest material discovered (between 100-300 times stronger than steel) yet more flexible than rubber.
○ Best conductor of heat at
room temperature and
best conductor of
electricity
○ Almost perfectly
transparent as it absorbs
only 2% of light.
○ Impermeable to gases,
even those as light as
hydrogen and helium.
Applications of Graphene:
• Flexible Electronics: Can be
used in wearable electronics,
flexible displays, electronic
textiles, and bendable
sensors.
• Energy Storage: Enhance performance and capacity of energy storage systems like supercapacitors and high-
performance batteries.
• Water purification: Suitable for water filtration and desalination systems.
• Bio-sensors: To sense chemical and biological agents, explosives, radiation, and other hazardous substances.
• Aerospace and Defence: Develop lightweight, high-strength armour and ballistic protection. Have potential to
absorb and dissipate electromagnetic waves, making it valuable for developing stealth coatings.

• Medical Applications: Biosensing, bioimaging, targeted drug delivery, tissue engineering, phototherapy and
cancer treatment. Has antibacterial properties.
2. CARBON NANOTUBES (CNTs)

• Graphene can be rolled up to form CNTs which are cylindrical in shape with diameter in nanoscale.
• Properties:
○ High tensile strength and light-weight
○ High electrical and thermal conductivity

○ Have large surface area and is chemically stable
Applications of CNT:
• Applications in aerospace and automotive engineering.

• Electronic devices, such as transistors, high sensitivity sensors, solar cells, flexible electronics and touchscreens,
organic light emitting diodes.
• Used in energy storage (electrodes for Lithium-Ion batteries, capacitors), drug storage and drug delivery.
Challenges:
• Impurities such as residual metal particles in CNTs.
• Processing & manufacturing of CNTs is challenging.
3. FULLERENE
• Fullerene is a family of carbon allotropes that consists of cage-like or tubular
structures.
• The most well-known fullerene is buckminsterfullerene (C60), which
resembles a soccer ball with 60 carbon atoms forming pentagons and
hexagons.
• Fullerenes, though not typically abundant, are found naturally in soot,
volcanic eruptions, interstellar dust clouds and lightning strikes.
Applications of Fullerene:
• Electronics and Energy storage: Can be used in organic photovoltaics (solar cells), organic light-emitting
diodes and organic field-effect transistors.
• Medicinal Chemistry: Can act as antioxidants, scavenging free radicals, targeted drug delivery and imaging
applications such as magnetic resonance imaging.
• Catalysts: Can act as catalyst supports in fuel cells and environmental remediation.
• Water Purification: Removal of pollutants and contaminants due to their adsorption and catalytic properties.
4. CARBON NANOFLORETS
• Unique nanostructure composed of carbon atoms arranged in a distinctive flower-like structure.
• They can absorb up to 87% of sunlight (infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light), and convert it into heat with
exceptional efficiency, unlike traditional solar-thermal conversion materials that only absorb visible and
ultraviolet light.
• Their cone-like shape minimises reflection allowing for maximum light absorption. Most of the light that falls
on the material is reflected internally.
• Applications: Solar thermal applications such as water heating and desalination, heating homes, and sterilising
surfaces in hospitals without relying on fossil fuels.

5. QUANTUM DOTS (NOBEL PRIZE IN CHEMISTRY 2023)

• The 2023 Nobel Prize in Chemistry has been
awarded to Alexei Ekimov, Louis Brus, and
Moungi Bawendi for their work on Quantum
dots.
• Quantum dots are tiny particles or nanocrystals
of semiconducting material made from a
semiconductor such as Silicon with a diameter
in the range of 2–10 nm (10–50 atoms).
• They behave like artificial atoms, as they can
have a fixed number of electrons in a confined
space, leading to unique properties that are
size-dependent. QDs exhibit special properties
when they interact with light.
○ In general, the colour of any material
depends on the wavelengths of the light
spectrum absorbed or reflected by the
material.
○ However, quantum dots made from the
same material will re-emit/give out different
colours of light depending on their size. (The
biggest quantum dots produce the longest wavelengths, while the smallest dots make shorter wavelengths).
Applications of QDs:
• Bioimaging: QDs are 20 times brighter and 100 times more stable than traditional fluorescent dyes, are
photostable and can be used in bioimaging.
• Bio-sensors: QD sensors can detect presence of pathogens in food or water, or monitor levels of pollutants in
the environment.
• Targeted Cancer treatment: QDs exhibit specific opto-electronic properties which can be utilised for targeted
cancer treatment. Because of their nano size; they possess large surface area ensuring higher drug loading
capacity and can tag nanocarriers in biological systems.
• Optical applications: QLEDs are capable of emitting all colours depending on their size, thus, they provide
high-definition, brighter and more colourful displays and efficient image sensors like CMOS sensors.
• Flexible electronics: Quantum-dot logic circuits layout building blocks for innovative devices, including
printable electronics and flexible display screens.

6. Liquid Nano Urea

• IFFCO has entered a MoU with public sector fertiliser manufacturers National Fertilisers Limited and Rashtriya
Chemicals and Fertilisers Ltd. for 'transfer of technology' aimed at increasing production of Liquid Nano Urea.
• Developed by IFFCO. India will be the first country to start commercial production of Liquid Nano Urea.
• Nanotechnology-based fertiliser contains Nano-scale nitrogen particles which have more surface area and
number of particles, which make it more impactful.
Benefits of Nano Urea:
• As compared to conventional urea, uptake of Nano Urea is more than 80%. It is thus required in lesser amounts
as compared to the conventional urea fertiliser to fulfil the plant's nitrogen requirement. Other benefits:
○ Cheaper than conventional urea
○ Easy to store
○ Reduced input costs to farmers
○ Easy to apply as Nano urea is directly sprayed on leaves (can be absorbed directly through the leaves' pores)
○ Reduced import of conventional urea saving precious foreign exchange.
7. NanoPtA
• A platinum-containing synthetic nanozyme that mimics the function of oxidases, natural enzymes that remove
hydrogen from substrates in the presence of oxygen to form water.
• It can degrade pollutants in industrial wastewater by oxidising them in the presence of sunlight, reducing
wastewater toxicity.
• It exhibits robustness and can withstand pH and temperature variations. It also exhibits impressive stability,
lasting for up to 75 days at room temperature.
• It can oxidise neurotransmitters like dopamine and adrenaline, leading to a colour change in the solution, which
can be used to measure their concentration. This holds potential for diagnosing neurodegenerative diseases
like Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease.
 MISCELLANEOUS
6. CRYOGENIC TECHNOLOGY
• Cryogenics is the study of the production and behaviour of materials at extremely low temperatures (below -
150 degrees Celsius).
• The most common gases turned into liquid for cryogenics are Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen and Helium.
Potential Applications of Cryogenics:
• Cryosurgery: Cryogenic temperatures are used to kill unwanted or malignant tissues, such as cancer cells or
moles.
• Cryopreservation: Preservation of organisms, tissue, and genetic material using cryopreservation. E.g.,
Freezing of eggs and embryos for fertility preservation and research purposes, storage of vaccines, blood
banking, food preservation.
• Cryonics: Cryopreservation of animals and humans with the goal of reviving them in the future.
• Cryoelectronics: Study of superconductivity, variable-range hopping, and other electronic phenomena at low
temperature.
• Cryoengines: Rocket engine using cryogenic fuels, including liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen.
• Research: Cryogenic technology is used in Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to determine the chemical
structure of a molecule.

7. ATTOSECOND PULSES OF LIGHT (NOBEL PRIZE IN

PHYSICS 2023)
• The 2023 Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to Pierre Agostini, Ferenc Krausz and Anne L’Huillier for
experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light.
OBSERVING DYNAMICS AT THE SUBATOMIC LEVEL

• At atomic and subatomic levels, processes (movement of electrons, or energy dynamics) happen at an incredibly
fast rate.
• To observe any process, the measurement must be made at a pace quicker than the rate of change.
○ Femtosecond pulses (10-15 seconds) enabled scientists to observe the processes happening at the atomic
or molecular level.
○ But at the sub-atomic level, dynamics of sub-atomic particles happen even faster, at the level of
attoseconds (10-18 seconds). E.g., Dynamics of electrons are 100 to 1000 times faster than that of an atom.
(Lower the inertia, faster the dynamics).
• The scientists devised experimental methods by mixing lights of different wavelengths to produce attosecond
pulses of light (extremely short pulses of light that last 10-18 seconds).
These attosecond pulses can be used to observe electron movement within atoms and molecules, providing
unprecedented insights into chemical reactions, energy transfer, and other fundamental processes.
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS
• Efficient electronics: Observing the movement of electrons, and manipulating it to design more efficient
electronic devices.
• Advanced imaging: New imaging methods with attosecond resolution, spectroscopy etc.

• Medical diagnostics: Attosecond pulses can be used to identify different molecules and study molecular-level
changes in blood to identify diseases.
8. PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT
• Piezoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which certain materials generate an electric charge in response to
applied mechanical stress or pressure.
• The phenomenon can be observed in materials like quartz, topaz, tourmaline, ceramics such as lead zirconate
titanate (PZT), and even in certain biological materials like bone and tendons.
• Some materials also display an inverse piezoelectric effect, where the application of an electric current induces
a mechanical strain or deformation.
• Applications: Used in pressure sensors, accelerometers, acoustic devices, high voltage generators, electronic
frequency generators, microbalances, inkjet printers, electronic stethoscopes.
9. RHODAMINE-B
• Rhodamine-B is a water soluble chemical compound or fluorescent xanthene dye which has various
applications.
• It can cause serious environmental and health problems, including skin and eye irritation, stomach issues,
breathing problems, organ damage, and an increased risk of cancer.’
• The chemical is considered substandard and unsafe under the Food Safety and Standards Act 2006.
• Various applications include:
○ Dyeing in textile, paper, paints, leathers etc., lends a vibrant pink hue.
○ Food dye (used in cotton candy to produce its iconic pink colour).
○ Used as a tracer dye, E.g., to determine the rate and direction of water flow in rivers, lakes etc. Used to trace
pollutants in water systems and indicate herbicide usage, or detect leaks in pipelines due to its high visibility
and water solubility.
○ Rhodamine dyes exhibit fluorescence, and thus can be used in fluorescence microscopy, fluorescence
correlation spectroscopy and ELISA (To detect the presence of specific molecules like proteins or antibodies).
○ Laser Dyes employed in scientific and medical lasers.
10. THALLIUM
• Thallium is a highly toxic metal that is an abundant element on the Earth’s crust.
• It does not exist in free elemental form in nature, and exists in the form of ores with other elements, mostly
potassium.
• Thallium compounds are tasteless, odourless, and colourless, which makes it particularly dangerous for human
consumption.
• Thallium poisoning can occur through various routes, including ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact with
thallium compounds.
• Applications:
○ Widely used in making various electronics, such as, photoresistor, rectifier, detectors in infrared devices and
in gamma radiation detection devices.
○ Used in the pharmaceutical industry to make various drugs and medicines. Radioactive isotope Thallium-201
is used for nuclear medicine scan.
11. SLAG
• Slag is a by-product generated during manufacturing of pig iron and steel. Primarily, slag consists of calcium,
magnesium, manganese and aluminium silicates and oxides in various combinations.

• Among all the solid/liquid wastes, slag is generated at such large quantities that management of slag has
become a critical component of steel production.
• Potential Applications:
○ Used mainly as road metal and bases, asphalt paving, track ballast, landfills and aggregate for concrete.
○ Used for soil conditioning as fertiliser and liming agent in agriculture due to presence of CaO content.
○ Used in making mineral wool for insulation purposes.
○ Barrier material remedy for waste sites where heavy metals tend to leach into the surrounding environment.
○ Used to filter and remove contaminants from water and treat acidic water discharges from abandoned
mines.

6
Chapter ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
1. INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY
There are many ways of looking energy. One way is to go back to the root word. Energy is derived from the words
‘En’ and ‘Ergon’: meaning 'in' and 'work'. Thus, energy is something that has work in it. Also ‘energos’ means 'activity.
DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS OF ENERGY
Energy characterizes life and non-life

• Energy is also one basis upon which life and non-life are characterised.
• The ability to make an 'effort' differentiates life and non-life.
• To make an effort, life requires energy. Thus, life is something that utilizes energy to do some work.
• In other words, energy is expended to do work. The rate at which the energy is expended is called 'power'.
Energy as the capacity to do work

• Another way of looking at energy is the state of orderliness and disorderliness in nature.
• Those things in nature, which have in them unused energy, are in a state of orderliness. Eg: Fuels which are
energy stores are in a state of orderliness.
• Those things in nature that do not have unused energy are in a state of disorderliness. Eg: Heat that is released
upon burning of fuel is in a state of disorderliness.
• Fancy names for orderliness and disorderliness are negentropy and entropy respectively.
• If left to itself orderliness in nature always decays into a state of disorderliness. (2nd law of thermodynamics)
• However, in the journey of moving from orderliness to disorderliness, we can extract some orderliness. This is
what energy is and can be used to do work. That is why energy is the capacity to do work.
• Illustration: burning a fuel(orderliness) gives heat (disorderliness). A part of this heat (disorderliness) can be
converted to mechanical motion of the turbine(orderliness). Note there is a limit to which you can reverse the
process of orderliness changing to disorderliness. This is called the efficiency of any system.
• Thus, Sun is a store of orderliness, plants through photosynthesis take a part of this orderliness and store in
the chemicals it makes (primarily carbon, hydrogen and oxygen). Animals use the energy store of plants to do
some work and store some for later use. In all these systems major part of orderliness is lost. (plants can take
only 0.5% of sunlight(orderliness) and store it in chemicals(starch) and animals can use only a part of this and
so on)
• In short, the amount of usable ‘energy’ goes on reducing from Sunlight Photosynthesis  Plants 
Animals.
• Further plants and animals when buried under earth's crust for millions of years become fossil fuels which are
simply stores of energy that was stored in them long ago.
• These stores of energy can be used to do some work which is what we do when we burn coal or petrol.
 FOSSILS AS ENERGY STORES

Fossils are simply store of orderliness that was saved by plants and animal millions of years ago and therefore
source of energy. This energy is converted to heat (high-entropy) which in turn is converted to mechanical and
electrical energy (low entropy) which will do work.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
2. COALIFICATION
• Coal is simply old plants buried inside earth for
millions of years to become a rock (sedimentary).
The elemental composition of the plants, which
includes carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, transforms
into coal over time. This transformation occurs in the
absence of oxygen.
• With time, plant loses its oxygen and water content.
The longer the coal is underground, the more
concentrated the hydrocarbons become, resulting in
a higher quality fuel.
• Accordingly, coal is classified peat, lignite,
bituminous, and anthracite, with anthracite being
the highest quality and most valuable type of coal.
See table below for details.
Sub-
Plant Peat Lignite Bituminous Anthracite
bituminous
Increasing
Carbon
25-35 35-45% 45-85 85-96 Heating
Content
Value
Decreasing
Moisture High Low Moisture
Content
Ash 10-40% <10% 3-12% 10-20%
Soft Coal Hard Coal
Formed in
Mountains
Most commonly
Used mainly for
found
manufacturing
Used for power Coke
generation
Low smoke content
Burns slowly
Sulphur 0.7-4% <1%
COMPOSITION
• Coal or any hydrocarbon is primarily made of carbon, hydrogen oxygen. In addition, since they are just old plant
matter, they should contain some nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorous. (remember all life is made of CNOS
majorly)
• In addition, there is some moisture, heavy elements as they are buried deep.
• Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are all combustible. Meaning when they mix with oxygen, they release some
heat. This is the heat we are all interested in to do work in the powerplant.
• Note that even oxygen is combustible, but the proportion is so low we don’t bother.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• Note its carbon and hydrogen that decides the amount of heat we can generate. If you look at chemical
composition, it is C137H97O9NS for bituminous coal and C240H90O4NS for anthracite. (You don’t need to
remember the numbers its only for you to know why anthracite is better)
BURNING AND COMBUSTION

• What do mean by burning and combustion?
• Burning of any fuel simply means you are adding heat to break the bonds between carbon and hydrogen.
• Once you do that you add oxygen(air) in order for carbon and hydrogen to combine with. This gives oxides of
carbon and hydrogen and in the process give out heat. (you always add heat to break the bonds and you always
get heat when bonds are made)
BURNING OF COAL: STEPS

• Coal when burnt, 1st thing that comes out is water. As dug from the ground coal has some amount of moisture.
• At slightly above 1000C (boiling point of water) causes water to evaporate leading to loss of weight.
• The left-over dry coal is further heated but now in the absence of air (we don’t want burning). The matter that
comes out is called volatile matter.
• Note that volatile matter is also hydrocarbon (aromatic rings) that evaporates when heated in the absence of
oxygen.
• The left-over coal is called fixed carbon which is what we “burn” in coal plants.
• The carbon content now ranges from 50% to about 95%.
• Now we burn this fixed carbon coal in presence of oxygen to derive useful heat.
• After all carbon and hydrogen is ‘burnt’, the left-over non-combustible solid matter is called ash.
• Ash is simply left-over incombustible solid made of inorganic contents. This is the main useless and hence
undesirable thing in solid fuels in general. (more on this later)
PROCESS OF BURNING
• In coal-fired plant fuel is coal and source of oxygen is air
• Complete combustion (allow all coal to burn in air)
• Coal + Oxygen -----> Carbon dioxide + other gases (mixture is called flue gas)
• 1 gram of Carbon -----> 3.6 gram of CO2 and 9 gm of N2
• Incomplete combustion (don’t allow all coal to burn by restricting the supply of air)
• Carbon + Oxygen -----> Carbon Monoxide (if you add more air it can ‘combust’)
• 1 gram of Carbon ----> 4.5 g of CO and 5.5 g of N2
CHALLENGES RELATED TO BURNING OF COAL

Thermal pollution
• The efficiency of coal-fired power plants is around 35%, meaning only 35% heat that is generated out of coal-
burning is usable. Rest will go out to the atmosphere. In other words, for every 1000 MW of power produced
1500 MW of heat is wasted.
Carbon Emissions
• 1 gm of carbon burnt produces 3.5 g of CO2. A coal plant that produces 1GW of electricity emits 1 ton of carbon
dioxide every 2 seconds.
• Solution: Carbon Capture and Storage
Air pollutants
Three potential pollutants are formed when coal is burnt; sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides and fly ash.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Nitrogen
• Normally nitrogen is very stable and burns only at high temperatures. At high temperatures when nitrogen
reacts with oxygen it forms oxides of nitrogen. This is very harmful as it acts as nuclei for fine dust causing PM
pollution.
• Solution: Remove nitrogen, reduce temperature of combustion
Sulphur
• Sulphur is of special interest again because it is a potential air pollutant. In addition, oxides of sulphur act as
condensation nuclei during cloud formation leading to acid rain.
• Solution: desulphurization
Ash, mainly fly ash
• Left-over solid inorganic matter after burning of coal. (highest is bituminous)
• It can be collected at the bottom from where it can be removed.
• However, the problem is when the turbulent stream of gases in the boiler sweeps some of the ash out of the
boiler along with flue gas. This is called fly ash.
• A 2016 report by IIT Kanpur says about 37% of PM 10 and 26% of PM 2.5 is caused by fly ash from coal plants.
Coke (Carbon + Ash)

• Solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal from which the volatile
constituents are driven off by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 °C so that the
fixed carbon & residual ash are fused together.
• Coke is used as a fuel & as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.
• Coke from coal is grey, hard, & porous & has a heating value of 29.6 MJ/kg
• Byproducts of this conversion of coal to coke include coal tar, ammonia, light oils, and "coal-gas“.
3. WAYS TO CLEAN COAL

FLY ASH
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
• Fly Ash at exhaust can be dealt with using electrostatic precipitators. Simply charge metal plates to high voltage.
The negatively charged plate will attract the particles and remove them from flue gas.
• Bottom ash
• The ash so collected are usually mixed with water and left to ponds nearby. But the problem with this is
o In wet season the soluble contents of ash seeps into the ground and pollutes ground water.
o In dry season, ash ponds dry up and ash flies off as fly ash.
• Solution:
o Use bottom ash to make bricks.
FLUE-GAS DESULPHURISATION
• Sulphur dioxide is acidic in nature, thus spray the exhaust gas(flue gas) with limestone/soap or anything that is
basic in nature (sodium hydroxide, lime, sodium sulfite, ammonia).
• In 2015, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change issued notification to regulate emissions from
coal-based power plants and set deadline of 2017 for flue-gas desulphurisation.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• However, the deadlines have been missed repeatedly leading to pushing of deadlines to 2024 for coal plants
near Delhi, 2026 for other coal plants.
4. COAL CONVERSIONS
NEED FOR COAL CONVERSION
• Coal is basically a complex molecule that is made of long chains of hydrocarbons arranged in the form of rings.
(see figure).
• As a result, it takes a lot of heat to burn coal and in-
turn lot of heat is released when carbon in coal
oxidizes with air.
• As a result, the temperature in a coal power plant is
extremely high which leads to two problems a)
thermal pollution and b) oxides of nitrogen are
formed. (remember otherwise stable nitrogen,
oxidizes at very high temperatures)
• In addition, burning of coal as in case of any solid fuel
leaves solid residue like ash.
• In order to tackle all these issues coal conversion is
resorted to.
• Coal conversion simply means converting
combustible solids (coal) to combustible liquids or
combustible gases.
• Accordingly, coal conversions include liquefaction
and gasification.
5. GASIFICATION OF COAL
• While the goal of combustion is to produce the maximum amount of heat possible by oxidizing all the
combustible material, the goal of gasification is to convert most of the combustible solids into combustible
gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane.
• See how this works.
COAL GAS/PRODUCER GAS

• Burn coal with air: complete combustion ---->
CO2
• Burn coal with controlled oxygen: incomplete
combustion ----> [CO + N2]. This is called coal gas
or producer gas.
Advantage
• Fly Ash is absent.
• Less NOx formation due to low temperature of incomplete burning
• Carbon sequestration is easy (easy to remove nitrogen from flue gas as compared to oxides of nitrogen)
SYN GAS
• Alternately burn Coal with Steam -----> CO + H2 (Synthesis Gas/Syngas)
• Aptly this is called steam reforming.
• You can make variety of things using Syngas like Methanol, Hydrogen, Methane (methanation).
• Syngas can be used to make ammonia-based fertilizer.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• N2(g) + 3 H2(g) -----> 2 NH3(g)

Advantage
• Reduced CO2 emissions.
• Syngas is combustible.
• NOx is not formed.
Syngas can be used to make methane in a process called Methanation/ Hydrogasification

• CO+3H2----->CH4 + H2O
Advantage:
• CH4 is combustible.
• CO2 is not produced.
6. LIQUEFACTION OF COAL
• In liquefaction the trick is to break the long chains of hydrocarbon rings and add hydrogen at high pressure.
• Depending on the type of coal used we get various coal liquids like gas oil, gasoline, kerosene.
• Note that the main difference between coal and petroleum products is the size of hydrocarbon molecule. (coal
is long chain with 140-250 carbon atoms, petrol has 4-10, diesel has 8-14)
• The main advantage is low-quality coal is easy to liquify.
Advantage
• Heating value is doubled (because C-H ratio is increased)
• CO2 emissions are reduced.
• Since Indian coal is low in sulphur, methanol when used in vehicles can reduce SOX and NOX emissions and
hence low PM pollution,
METHANOL
• Another approach to make liquid fuel is compress the syn gas obtained from gasification process. The mixture
of CO and H2 is adjusted in its pressure and temperature to form methanol. (CH3OH)
• CO(g) + 2 H2(g) ----> CH3OH(l)
• Methanol is also called wood alcohol. (More on methanol in Gas-to-liquid alternative under transportation fuels)
7. COAL BURNING AND CCUS: COMBINATION TO COMBAT

CLIMATE CHANGE
• By burning fossil fuels, we are essentially taking out
carbon buried under the earth surface and putting
it in the atmosphere. This has increased CO2
content in the atmosphere by more than 415 ppm
(parts per million) as of 2020.
• And this is ever-increasing at the rate of 2 ppm.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• Coal, being carbon-heavy (150-240 carbon atoms), should always accompany CCUS technologies to achieve net-
zero emissions. (see news headlines in the recent times)
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
• Anything that has a temperature vibrates. In fact at the molecular level
temperature is simply how fast the molecules are shaking (kinetic
energy).
• When temperature is zero the molecules are simply not shaking. This is
absolute zero or 0 Kelvin.
• Further atoms of molecules shake differently. Molecules made of 2
atoms like O2 or N2 shake due to stretching to-and-fro. (see figure)
• On the other hand molecules with 3 or more atoms (like CO2, CH4)
shake due to stretching and bending.
• Further the shaking due to bending matches the frequency of infrared radiation. (which is also vibration really)
• Because frequencies of visible light from the sun don’t match the shaking of atmospheric gases (O2 and N2), or
the GHGs, light passes through our atmosphere without being
absorbed.
• However, since the frequency of infrared radiation from earth
surface matches the bending-vibration of the GHGs, they
interact with GHGs.
• This interaction shakes the GHG molecules thereby warming
these molecules.
• The vigorously shaking GHG molecules then shakes the
surrounding air molecules thereby increasing its temperature.
GHGs capable of trapping the heat include
• CO2: Most significant
• CH4: Methane: More potent as it traps more heat.
• Other GHGs include nitrous oxide(N2O), ozone (O), chlorofluorocarbons, water vapour.
8. CCUS TECHNOLOGIES: CARBON CAPTURE UTILIZATION

AND STORAGE
• In January 2018 IPCC said the world should emit not more than 420 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide to have a 67%
chance of avoiding a rise of 1.5 degrees.
• Today that figure is down to less than 350 gigatonnes and global emissions are running at around 40 gigatonnes
each year.
• This means we need to achieve zero global emissions(net-zero) by 2030–35 to keep total heating below 1.5
degrees, and 2040–50 for a 2-degree target.
• Thus, low-carbon future essentially includes, as its important component, CCUS technologies which essentially
reverses the process of taking the underground carbon (fossils) and putting it into atmosphere (in the form of
CO2).
• In simple terms CCUS involves capturing the CO2 that is released in burning of fossils, compressing, liquefying,
and storing underground.
• Alternately CCUS includes converting CO2-forming fuels and converting them into chemicals that form less CO2.
Examples include coal-to-products like syngas, producer gas, methanol, di-methyl ether etc.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• CCUS is going to be an important component in hard-to-abate (CO2) sectors like power plants, petroleum
refineries, fertilizers, cement, steel industries, etc
9. CARBON CAPTURE
• The flue gas that comes out of coal-fired power plants is mixture of gases.
• It typically constitutes carbon dioxide (~10%), nitrogen (70-80%), oxygen (1-10%), water vapor, Sulphur dioxide,
NOx including nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen monoxide.
• Essentially flue gas is very dilute CO2.
• While we treat SOX and NOX using the processes described above, to arrest, capturing and storing carbon
dioxide is a big challenge.
• Now this is because the principal component of flue gas is nitrogen. The ‘effort’/’cost’(basically energy) used in
capturing and storing flue gas goes higher if we dint purify it.
• Thus, carbon capture is all about purifying flue gas to separate CO2 and Nitrogen.
• Note the nitrogen so separated can be allowed to mix in atmosphere as it is stable and thus safe. It is the oxides
of nitrogen that is a problem which we have already dealt with. (anyway air is majorly composed of Nitrogen)
• Thus, carbon capture is really a misnomer, it should have been called carbon purification/ flue gas purification.
• There are different strategies for carbon purification. These include,
1. Post-combustion
2. Pre-combustion
3. Oxy-fuel combustion
10. POST-COMBUSTION CARBON CAPTURE

• As the name suggests the separation of CO2 and nitrogen is done after
the combustion of fuel.
• In other words, under post-combustion carbon capture, we simply
treating the flue gas to get purified CO2.
• The simplest way of doing this is to stream the flue gas, at the exhaust,
into a solution containing ammonia salts.
• While the CO2 in flue gas reacts with the ammonia, the nitrogen floats
upwards. You have separated CO2 and nitrogen.
• Now CO2 dissolved in ammonia solution should be extracted.
• This can be done by passing very hot steam through the solution which heats the solution and drives off pure
CO2. The CO2 is then compressed, liquefied, and sent to underground storage.
Advantage
• Retrofitting is possible.
Disadvantage
• The very hot steam needed to separate CO2 from dissolved ammonia solution requires energy.
• The energy required to do this is about 25% of the energy produced in a coal plant.
• Thus, post-combustion method reduces the efficiency of coal plants from 34% to 25%.
• Expensive
11. PRE-COMBUSTION CARBON CAPTURE

• Here the trick is to convert combustible solids to combustible gases (same as gasification we discussed above).
• Thus, these plants are also called integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plants.
• This can be done either through steam reforming or through controlled oxygen combustion.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• In both these processes coal is converted to carbon monoxide.

• The carbon monoxide so obtained is treated again with hot steam before combustion.
• The water molecules in the steam splits into hydrogen and oxygen.
• The hydrogen from steam and from coal are mixed and the gas is burnt.
• The oxygen reacts with the CO to form CO2, which is then easily separated, compressed, liquefied, and pumped
underground.
Advantage
• Reduces efficiency of coal plant by 15% compared to 25% in post-combustion technique.
Disadvantage
• Expensive
12. OXY-FUEL COMBUSTION

• Now we know the input in powerplants are fuel and oxygen and output is energy and flue gas. The concern,
from carbon emissions point of view, is the nitrogen in the flue gas. And the source of this nitrogen is the air in
the input.
• So, one way is to purify the air before combustion to
remove nitrogen.
• We are now left with oxygen which is what we need for
combustion.
• Since we are purifying air at source before combustion
the technique is called oxy-fuel combustion.
• In order to purify air, it has to be chilled to -200°c at which point it becomes a liquid.
• This liquid air is then gradually warmed until the nitrogen boils off, leaving nearly pure liquid oxygen.
13. CARBON STORAGE

• Now that we have dealt with the purification part or carbon capture part, we need to find a place to store the
captured CO2.
• Normally the CO2 so captured is compressed, liquified and pumped to the place where it is stored.
• Various strategies to store CO2 include
14. GEOSEQUESTRATION
• Pressurize the CO2 and put it beneath the earth surface. There are different strategies depending on where
below the earth surface you pump and store the CO2.
15. ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (EOR)

• Under this technique carbon dioxide is reinjected into depleted gas and oil fields. These oil and gas wells have
some un-extracted oil and gas left deep below which was not commercially viable to extract.
• The injected-CO2 provides extra pressure, helping to push more of the oil and gas from below.
Advantage:
• Getting oil and gas out of the process is an economic incentive.
Disadvantage:
• Extracting hydrocarbon through carbon capture and storage is paradoxical.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
16. SALINE AQUIFERS

• Brine or salty water sits in some rocks which are porous in nature. Since the water has too much salt here it not
useful for drinking or irrigation, you don’t lose anything by storing the unwanted gas.
• CO2, so injected will dissolve in the water, forming carbonic acid which then combines with minerals in the rock
to form stable carbonates, locking up the carbon dioxide forever.
17. DIRECT CAPTURE BY ALGAE

Additionally, CO2 can be directly captured just like what happens in nature. There are 3 strategies to directly
capture CO2.
ALGAE
• While most plants are very
inefficient in photosynthesis
(only 0.5% of sunlight is
captured), algae have very
high photosynthetic efficiency
capable of growing very fast
capturing the CO2 from
atmosphere.
• The flue gases from power
plant can be bubbled through
water and algae.
• Algae extracts large amounts
of the carbon dioxide to feed
their growth and very little is
left to emit to the open air.
• The so grown algae can be used as input for producing biodiesel (like vegetable oils).
Advantage
• Biodiesel has no sulphur thus produce no SOX emissions.
• Algae-based biodiesel represents net-zero fuel as the CO2 at the exhaust out of biodiesel-run vehicle is nothing
but CO2 captured by algae from the atmosphere.
18. CARBON CAPTURE IN SOILS AND VEGETATION

CHARCOAL OR BIOCHAR
• Charcoal or Biochar is made by partially burning wood or plant matter like coconut husk. It consists of extremely
stable and pure carbon.
• Essentially burning wood partially involves restricting the air flow thereby depriving oxygen supply and thus
keeping the temperature low.
• The unburnt charcoal can store carbon for centuries.
• Thus, if we make charcoal from wood and then dig it into the soil, we are sequestering carbon from the
atmosphere.
• When mixed with soil biochar can significantly improve fertility of the soil as biochar is highly porous which
enables it to retain nutrients and encourages growth of beneficial microfungi.
19. CARBON SINKS

Soil and forests act as the most efficient sinks of carbon from atmosphere.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
SOIL
• Soils are the storehouse of carbon. It holds twice as much carbon as does atmosphere and about 1 trillion tons
more than the world's plants do.
• Carbon cycle broadly involves movement of carbon in various forms from soil to air to plant and vice-versa.
• The amount of carbon flowing in and out of soils in the natural cycle is about 10-20 times the volume put in the
atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels.
• The effect of global warming is that it speeds up rate of chemical reaction leading to carbon emissions from soil
at a faster rate. (above 250 C soil carbon losses are rapid)
• In addition, land-use change has led to degradation of soil.
• Industrial meat requires heavily fed cattle which consume 35% of world’s cereal.
• Growing crops for fuels (biofuel) are yet another source of soil degradation.
Following are the farming practices that help soil restore and retain carbon
ZERO-TILL FARMING
• Basic principle is that ploughing is counterproductive because it reduces the carbon content in soil. So, disturb
the soil as little as possible.
• Under this technique we plant the seeds along with fertilizer in a row.
• As soon as the main crop is harvested, a second crop is planted as a cover for the soil preventing erosion.
• This cover crop acts as manure when they are dead
• This acts as a rich source of organic material that earthworms can use to improve the quality of the lower soil.
• The following year, no fertilizers are used. Instead the seeds are planted through this green manure.
• Besides varying the 2nd crop regularly prevents the accumulation of pests and diseases.
Disadvantage
• The only problem is in the absence of ploughing, weed growth cannot be arrested. (basic purpose of ploughing)
• Thus, either we have to use large amounts of herbicide to control weed growth or grow GM crops.
FOREST
• Wood is approximately 50% carbon.
• When forest is lost for wood and this wood is burnt carbon is put in the atmosphere
• Deforestation accounts for more than 15% carbon emissions.
• Wood is largely used as cooking fuel. The solution therefore is alternative cooking fuel.
• Alternative cooking techniques include solar cookers and biogas collectors. This is the reason India has stepped
up efforts to produce compressed biogas.
COMPRESSED BIOGAS
• Input (feedstock) can be any organic waste including agri-waste, rotten human and animal waste that essentially
gives off methane (Bio-CNG)
• The recent budget has earmarked Rs 10,000 crore under the GOBAR-Dhan scheme (Galvanizing Organic Bio-
Agro Resources- Dhan) for setting up 500 new ‘waste to wealth’ plants.
• Around 200 compressed bio-gas plants and 300 community and cluster-based plants are planned to be set up.
• Bio-CNG, in purified form (98% methane) can be used as both cooking and transportation fuel.
• Only thing is it pressurised to around 250-300 bar.
• SATAT (Sustainable Alternatives Towards Affordable Transportation) also envisages setting up if CBG plants to
produce and supply CBG to oil and gas marketing companies.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
20. ENERGY IN TRANSPORTATION

PETROLEUM AS THE ENERGY SOURCE
What is Petroleum?
• Petroleum is derived from
the words 'petra' and
'oleum' meaning rock oil.
• Animal biomass buried
under earth crust for
millions of years under high
pressure in the absence of
oxygen led to the formation
of sedimentary rock with
complex hydrocarbons.
This we call petroleum.
Majorly it constitutes crude
oil and natural gas.
CRUDE OIL
• Crude oil is a complex
mixture of hydrocarbons.
• The different constituents
of the crude oil mixture is
simply different
hydrocarbons with varying
number of carbon atoms.
• This gives them varying
densities and thus have
different boiling points.
• Note: The basic factor that
determines boiling
temperatures of different
components is the amount of carbon they have.
• Higher the carbon content higher the density higher the boiling temperature.
SEPARATING THE CRUDE: FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

• The different components of crude oil mixture with different densities boil at different temperatures.
• Thus, in order to separate crude, we heat the mixture to about 6000 Celsius which boils the entire mixture.
• This vapour mixture is then made to pass through a fractional distillation column which is maintained at
different temperatures at different levels. (lower to higher from top to bottom)
• Depending on their respective densities the constituents condense upon cooling down at different levels
thereby separating itself from the mixture.
• Thus, those hydrocarbons with high boiling point condenses low in the column and those with lower boiling
point condense at the top.
• Further higher the carbon atoms the fuel is found in solid form.
• Hydrocarbons with 1 to 4 carbon atoms are gases at room temp. Eg: Methane, Ethane, Propane and Butane.
• These components do not condense and thus are pressurised at 5 bar to make LPG.
• Hydrocarbons with 5 carbon atoms to 14 carbon atoms are found in liquid form. Eg: Petrol, kerosene, diesel.
• Hydrocarbons with more than 16 carbon atoms are normally found in solid form.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• Note that since all the components are essentially

hydrocarbons, they all are combustible. Only
difference is they combust at varying temperature.
• More the amount of carbon atoms more difficult it
is to break the bonds and thus at higher
temperatures they burn. For instance, petrol can
burn very easily as compared to lubricant oil.
COMPONENTS OF CRUDE OIL

Table and figures above and below provide a snapshot
of components of crude oil, their properties and their
application.
Typical Products
Boiling Point in
Products Proportion Application Carbon Atoms
degree Celsius
LPG 4% Below 30 Cooking Fuel/ Propane and

Transportation Butane (C3-C4)
Naptha 70 Used in gasoline and

Chemicals
Petrol 47% 100-150 Used in gasoline C7 to C9
Kerosene (Paraffin Oil) 10% 170 Used as Jet Fuel and C10 to C16
Heating and Lighting oil
Diesel 23% 270-350 Transportation C14 to C 20
Lubricating Oil >350 Engine Oil, Polish, Wax C20 to C50
Fuel Oil 600 Industrial Heating
Asphalt/Bitumen(liquid 3% Residue Tar for roads, sound >C70

asphalt) absorbers
BASICS ON HYDROCARBONS
Straight chain and closed rings
• The classification of hydrocarbons in
general depend on how the carbon
atoms have arranged themselves.
• This decides their chemical and physical
properties.
Aliphatic compounds
• Carbon atoms in aliphatic are arranged in
straight chain manner (open). Further
aliphatic are classified based on how the
carbon atoms are bonded with one
another. (single or double bonds). This is
important in all organic matter because single bonds are very hard to break and thus make stable compounds
(saturated). Double bonds on the other hand are easy to break and thus make unstable compounds
(unsaturated).

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Aromatics and Naphthalene

• These are hydrocarbons where carbon atoms are arranged in closed rings. Again, depending on single or double
bonds they are classified into naphthalene and aromatics respectively. Eg: Benzene (details are not important
for future civil servants).
• Note that aromatics from any source react with sunlight and moisture in atmosphere to form ozone at the
ground level which is a pollutant.
COMPOSITION OF CRUDE OIL

• Crude oil has primarily hydrocarbons, but also some non-hydrocarbon component.
• Hydrocarbons
• Crude oil majorly contains saturated straight chain hydrocarbons called paraffins. Examples include C1 to C4 in
the form of gases (methane, ethane, propane and butane) and C5 to C10 in the form of liquids, common
examples including kerosene, petrol, diesel etc.
• In minor amounts it contains closed ringed double bonded hydrocarbons which are volatiles like benzene.
(which is unstable and therefore a pollutant)
• The major difference between coal and oil & gas is the C-H ratio (no of hydrogen for every carbon). It is the C-
H ratio that decides the amount of energy you can get out of a fuel (very important for you to appreciate
the nature of fuels). So, methane (4 hydrogen for every carbon) will have higher energy compared to propane
(C3H6: 2 hydrogen for every carbon).
Carbon 83-87%
Hydrogen 10-14% (up to 5.5% in coal)
Nitrogen 0.1-2%
Oxygen 0.1-1.5%
Sulfur 0.5-6%
Metals <1000 ppm
Non-Hydrocarbons
• Sulphur, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Metals. Table above gives you rough composition of crude oil components.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FUEL FOR TRANSPORTATION

Amount of energy
• The major difference between coal and oil & gas is the C-H ratio (no of hydrogen for every carbon). It is the C-
H ratio that decides the amount of energy you can get out of a fuel (very important for you to appreciate
the nature of fuels). So, methane (4 hydrogen for every carbon) will have higher energy compared to propane
(C3H6: 2 hydrogen for every carbon).
Energy density
• Most important characteristic that decides the suitability and favorability of a fuel in transportation is energy
density. Energy density is simply how much energy is there in every gram of fuel.
• Table below gives you an idea. (not important to remember but important to compare)
Coal 6 Cal/gm
Gasoline 10 Cal/gm
Natural gas 13
Hydrogen 26
U-235 20 million

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Energy in volume
• In addition, for automobiles, how much fuel can a box of 1cm x 1cm x 1cm hold become very important. (this is
the factor that determines the size of the tank).
• This is simply an indicator of how much fuel is there in 1 litre at atmospheric pressure. Table gives you an idea.
Petrol 740 g
Diesel 840 g
Hydrogen 71 g
• This means you can only fill 71 grams of hydrogen in 1 litre bottle.
• If you want to fill more, you need to compress it as a compressed gas or even liquify it which will require high
pressure.
Knocking and Octane Number
• Knocking is an important property of any internal combustion engine.
• Petrol or diesel are not a homogenous mixture of fuel. It is a mixture of hydrocarbons (C7-C9 for petrol, C14 to
C 20 for diesel) which have different boiling points.
• As a result, some components of the fuel burn faster than others resulting in a lag in complete combustion of
fuel.
• This lag leads to shock waves in the engine cylinder causing a damage to the piston. This is called knocking.
• Simple solution is we need to homogenize the fuel. This is done by using fuel with higher octane number (simply
more C8 hydrocarbon).
• Usually this is expressed as the percentage of Octane (91-94 etc.)
COMBUSTION IN IC ENGINES
• Combustion includes breaking of bonds between carbon and hydrogen and allowing them combine with oxygen
in air resulting in liberation of energy in the form of heat in the combustion chamber of the engine. This heat
pushes the piston which runs the crank shaft and thence to rotating of the wheels.
• Air-fuel ratio
• Hydrocarbons burn when air:fuel ratio is between 7:1 to 30:1
• In IC engines air-fuel ratio is maintained at 15:1
• If air-fuel mixture is more: Lean (In this case fuel is not completely burnt giving rise to more CO but it gives more
mileage)
• If air-fuel mixture is low: Rich (In this case fuel is completely burnt thereby give more power output)
21. CHALLENGES IN BURNING TRANSPORTATION FUELS

EMISSIONS FROM IC ENGINES
Source of Emission
• When combustion takes place inside the combustion chamber the fuel and air is mixing to form oxides. As they
combine pollutants are emitted.
• Air consists of 79% of nitrogen - Nitrogen does not participate in combustion and thus whatever comes in will
go out of the exhaust.
• CO2 and H2O will be produced because you are burning hydrocarbons.
• Rest is pollutants. This concentration is about 1%.
Regulated and Unregulated Emissions
Emissions are classified into 2 types
• Regulated Emissions

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• These are in large concentration.

• Emissions are very perceptible, and you immediately feel the discomfort.
• These include NOx, PM, CO, hydrocarbons.
• Carbon Monoxide more in petrol emission.
• Long-term exposure to CO prevents oxygen transfer in the blood because hemoglobin attracts CO more readily.
When hemoglobin reacts with CO it produces carboxy hemoglobin which is very stable.
• Hydrocarbon emissions are main problem in petrol engines.
• NOX emissions are more prevalent in diesel engines. Can cause lung tissue damage, eye irritation because NOX
reacts with water to cause nitric acid.
• PM is more prevalent in diesel engine. They harm the respiratory tracts.
• Unregulated Emissions
• These are emission in low concentrations and are not perceptible. But long-term is very fatal.
• These include formaldehyde, BTX (Benzene, Toluene, Xylene), Aldehydes, SO2, CO2, Methane, Poly-Cyclic
Aromatic HC and Nitro PAHC.
How do you deal with Emissions?
Engine Design
• Engine is designed to produce certain concentrations of emissions by calibrating the combustion at various
speeds and load which varies with urban/rural road for example. This is called engine tuning.
• Further optimize the combustion in order to get more heat output and thereby increasing efficiency.
• This is done by the way fuel-air mixture is delivered to the engine.
• Increase the number of valves: Earlier it used to be 1 intel 1 outlet not we have 2 inlet 2 outlet under 4-valve.
This makes gas exchange more efficient.
• Increase the pressure at which fuel is injected: Higher the injection pressure smaller will be the droplet size of
the fuel. Smaller will be the droplet size better will be the mixing of fuel and air. This will lead to increased
efficiency of combustion thereby reducing the pollutant emissions.
EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY FOR NOX AND PM

EGR + Soot Trap
• Exhaust Gas Recirculation is basically done in order to reduce NOx emissions.
• Problem: Once EGR is done this produces lot of particulates. This is tackled by deploying soot traps.
• This will meet Euro 4 or Euro 5
Exhaust After-treatment
• NOx reduction is the goal using some strategy to treat the exhaust gases. 2 main technologies include
• SCR (Selective Catalytic Reduction)
• Here we use urea which is broken into ammonia and H2O. Ammonia reacts with NOx to produce nitrogen and
water.
• Lean NOx trap system
• As a result of NOx treatment strategies, you can burn the fuel at high temperatures which reduces the PM
formation.
• Using combination of EGR + Trap + Exhaust after-Treatment we can meet BS 6 criteria.
Note: For after-treatment technologies to work we need to low-sulphur fuel (10-15ppm) because sulphur
kills the catalysts like plutonium, rhodium etc. which are used in SCR technology.
Sulphur
• In addition to killing the catalysts, sulphur is responsible for PM formation.
• Crude oil has in it sulphur is 2 forms hydrogen sulphide and sulphur in free form.
• This sulphur upon being heated reacts with oxygen to forms oxides of sulphur, SO2 and SO3.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• The oxides of sulphur react with moisture in the engine to form H2SO4 vapours which leads to formation of
sulphates which act as the nuclie for PM formation.
• Thus, we need to reduce the sulphur in the fuel to arrest PM pollution.
• But sulphur provides lubricity to the fuel. So, if we reduce sulphur, we need to add lubricants to the fuel.
22. INDIA'S STRATEGY OF EMISSION CONTROL: BHARAT

STAGE NORMS
• Set up by CPCB in 2000.
• It primarily regulates IC engine emissions particularly from vehicles.
• They are based on Euro regulations.
• Though we started some regulations in 1992, we implemented for 2 and 3-wheelers only around 2000.
• Requirement was lean-fuel ratio and electronic ignition.
• Changeover to 4 stroke
• Use of catalytic converter to reduce NOx.
• Fuel Injection system.
• From 20th April 2020 Bharat Stage 6 is being implemented which makes it mandatory to use PM traps and NOX
catalytic convertors.
• Currently in India we have emission norms for vehicles (2, 3, 4 wheelers, heavy duty engines, diesel construction
machinery, diesel agricultural tractors(TREM norms), generator sets)
• However, we do not have emission norms for locomotives as of now.
• With pressure from various quarters including NGT, locomotive emission norms are on the anvil and will soon
be implemented.
BHARAT STAGE 6
BS-VI vehicles
• Vehicular emission (NOx, SO2, CO2 and particulate matter) is a major contributor to the worsening air quality
of Indian cities.
• Bharat Stage VI (BS VI) is an emission standard that will induce technology in the vehicles to reduce pollutant
emissions.
• The vehicles will mandatorily include OBD (On-board diagnostics) which will and monitor the pollution caused
by the vehicle in real time.
• The BS-VI vehicles use selective catalytic reduction technology which substantially reduces particulate matter
emission.(remember in order for this to work we need to use low-sulphur fuel)
BS-6 emission norms
• Petrol vehicles will have to effect a 25% reduction in their NOx, or nitrogen oxide emissions.
• Diesel engines will have to reduce their
• HC+NOx (hydrocarbon + nitrogen oxides) by 43%,
• NOx levels by 68%
• Particulate matter levels by 82%.
Advantages of using BS-6 fuel and vehicles
• NOx emission will come down by approximately 25% for the petrol engine and 68% for the diesel engines.
• BS-6 grade fuel contains 10 parts per million (ppm) of sulphur as against 50 ppm in BS-4 fuels.
• The BS-6 fuel would result in 10-20 per cent reduction in particulate emission when used in BS-4 or lesser grade
engines.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• The Octane number for petrol engines has improved from 88 in BS-2 to 91 as required under BS-6 emission
norms.
• However full benefits will be realized when the automakers start manufacturing BS 6 grade engines in their
vehicles.
• The PM emission will see a substantial decrease of 80% in diesel engines.
ALTERNATIVE FUELS IN TRANSPORTATION

• Looking for alternative fuels in transportation has multiple incentives for India as below.
• Reducing import dependence for crude
• Reducing carbon emissions
• Reducing air pollution
• In this section we will be looking at alternative fuels from fossil sources. In the next section we will talk about
biofuels.
23. GASEOUS ALTERNATIVES

• From solid to liquid to gaseous fuels, the fuels become cleaner in the increasing order.
• However, energy density decreases in that order.
• Characteristics
• Combustion efficiency is increase. (Proportion of usable heat is more)
• Cleaner combustion in the absence of residues and pollutants
• Easy to transport. The challenge is to compress it in fuel pumps and tanks.
• However, the problem with gaseous fuels is higher NOx emission due to high temperature of combustion.
24. NATURAL GAS

• Natural gas is primarily a mixture of lightweight alkanes (aliphatic: straight-chain hydrocarbons). see table
• Typically, C3, C4, and C5 hydrocarbons are removed before the gas is transported.
• In addition, natural gas coming out of the reservoir contains about 9% which is reduced to 2% before being
shipped onshore.
• Here again carbon capture technology mentioned above is employed to remove CO2.
• Thus, natural gas that is commercially available is a mixture of methane and ethane.
• The propane and butanes removed from natural gas are usually liquefied under pressure and packed as
liquefied petroleum gases (LPG).
Hydrocarbon Proportion
Methane 80-95
Ethane 5-10
Propane, Butane, Pentane etc. <5
SOURCE OF NATURAL GAS

• Natural Gas occurs in nature in the following forms
Gas Wells
• Bombay high, Assam's Digboi, KG basin, Rajasthan (Jaiselmer), Tripura.
• Largest gas fields are located in Iran, Central Asia and Russia. This is why the interest in TAPI (Turkmenistan,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, India)

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Diluted in Oil: Petroleum

• Petroleum wells are those in which liquid petroleum comes out and the top part is gas.
Diluted in Water: Gas hydrates
• Gas hydrates are natural gas is diluted in water.
• Hydrates are water and gas molecules present in crystalline form.
• Normally they are in the form of ice in permafrost or sea floor which when heated releases methane.
• Gas hydrates are present all over the coast.
Diluted in rocks: Coal-bed methane
• Found in coal seams where hard coal deposits have methane absorbed in it under high pressure.
• Mining involves reducing the pressure of coal bed and releasing the trapped gases.
Natural Gas: Storage, Transport and Use
• Since natural gas contains some amount of propane and butane, we remove them.
• This is because, being heavier and denser, propane and butane liquifies at low pressure of 5 bar and can be
used as cooking fuel.
• The pressure in your LPG cylinders is around 12 bar to keep it liquid inside the cylinder. This is done to get high
energy per volume.
• On the other hand, its major component methane is lighter and hence needs to be compressed or liquified in
order to be used in vehicles.
• Accordingly, we make Compressed Natural Gas or Liquified Natural Gas. (more on this in a bit)
India’s push for gas-run economy
• India has been taking a number of steps to leapfrog into gas-run economy in the near future.
• Currently the share of natural gas in India’s energy basket is 6.7% compared to 23% worldwide.
• This India wants to increase to 15% by 2030.
• Accordingly, India has taken the following steps:

1. Expansion of National Gas Grid to about 35,000 Km from current 17,000 Km.
2. Expansion of city gas distribution network to cover 96% of India’s population and 86% of its geographic
area.
3. Setting up of LNG Terminals.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
25. CNG
• Methane, being lighter, is compressed at high pressure (around 225 bar) in the vehicle tanks to get a workable
energy-density. This limits the size of the tank making it suitable for light-commercial vehicles like cars, auto-
rickshaw etc.
• Thus, CNG vehicles have low range and are suitable only for intra-city travel.
NATURAL GAS ALTERNATIVE IN TRANSPORTATION

• While CNG continues to grow rapidly in India, the next logical step is to step up LNG production to replace diesel
in heavy-load trucks.
CNG IN TRANSPORT FLEET
• In 2022, annual sales of CNG vehicles in the passenger segment more than doubled.
• 49% of the light commercial vehicles sold in 2022 were CNG-powered.
• India plans to increase the number of CNG stations to 10000 by 2030 from current 4,500.
WORLD’S 1ST CNG TERMINAL

• India is setting up the world’s 1st CNG in Bhavnagar, Gujarat.
Advantage of CNG as alternative

• No sulphur emissions.
• No unregulated emissions like benzene.
• Low carbon emissions. (1 unit of natural gas produces half the emission as compared to 1 unit of coal)
• No PM pollution.
Challenge
• NOX emissions will be higher due to higher temperature of combustion.
26. LIQUID ALTERNATIVES

• Liquid fuels can be alcohols or hydrocarbons. While hydrocarbon liquids are diesel and petrol, alcohol-based
fuels are methanol and ethanol.
• Besides alternative liquid hydrocarbons include LNG, LPG, Dimethyl ether, liquid hydrogen (suitable only in
rockets).
GAS-TO-LIQUIDS: HYDROCARBON-BASED ALTERNATIVES

• As you have already seen, hydrocarbons in the gaseous form are small chain molecules like C1, C2, C3 and C4
(methane, ethane, propane and butane)
• While gas is voluminous, its density is too small.
• Therefore, to transport and use gas either we need to pump it at high pressure, or we need to liquify it.
• Gas-to-liquid alternatives involve this conversion of gas to liquid fuels. (like LNG)
• When we are liquifying gas what we are really doing is only fusing small chain gas molecules into long-chain
ones. This is fancily called polymerizing.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• This will increase the boiling point and eventually become liquid.
• Basically, by polymerizing hydrocarbon gas molecules to liquid, we are only making diesel.
Advantage
• Higher energy density
• Ease of transport and storage
• Zero sulphur emissions
• Zero aromatics (no closed-rings remember?!)
• Low NOx as compared to gaseous fuels.
27. LNG (GAS-TO-LIQUID ALTERNATIVE)

• Alternately, we can liquify methane in order to achieve higher energy density.
• However, at normal atmospheric pressure methane liquifies at very low temperature of about -1700C because
it has a low Boiling Point about -1600C.
• Thus, in order to transport we need cryogenics which is not feasible for 2-wheelers and 4-wheelers.
• However, LNG, with its higher energy density, occupies three times less space than CNG.
• Thus. it is suitable for long-haul transport like trucks provided they are fitted with cryogenic tanks.
LNG in transport fleet
• LNG is the best bet to replace heavy-duty diesel-based trucks.

• India has more than 10 million trucks, of which the government expects at least a million to run on LNG by 2035.
• India has planned to build 1,000 LNG stations in next 3 years along major highways, industrial corridors and
mining areas.
28. LPG
• As we have seen gaseous components of petroleum separation include methane, ethane, propane and butane.
While methane and ethane are used in the form of gas (natural gas), the heavier gaseous hydrocarbons are
liquified to form what is called liquified petroleum gas.
• This is because heavier gases like propane and butane liquify when compressed become liquid at lower
pressures of around 5 bar.
• This is why your LPG cooking cylinders are maintained at low pressure of 12 bar to hold enough fuels.
• LPG is a better alternative than LNG in transportation as it can be liquified at lower pressure and thus suitable
even for 2, 3 and 4 wheeler segments.
• Only constraint has been lack of supply and thus LPG use is restricted as cooking fuel.
29. METHANOL
• Another approach to make liquid fuel is compress the syn gas obtained from gasification process. (remember
syn gas is produced by burning any hydrocarbon, be it fossil or biofuel, with steam)
• The mixture of CO and H2 is adjusted in its pressure and temperature to form methanol. (CH3OH)
• CO(g) + 2 H2(g) ----> CH3OH(l)
• Methanol is also called wood alcohol.
Advantage
• Methanol can directly be used in IC engines or even converted to petrol using a zeolite catalyst.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• Note that methanol can be produced from any hydrocarbon not just coal including natural gas, biomass, and
even captured carbon dioxide. Only thing you need to adjust the amount of hydrogen.
Significance of Methanol
• Methanol cars are becoming common especially in China where coal is in abundance.
• Methanol can also be used in fuel-cells and thus could drive the EV revolution.
• India by adopting Methanol can reduce its import dependence on oil and at the same time have a cheaper fuel
(at least 30% cheaper than any available fuel)
• Niti-Aayog is set to come out with a roadmap for transition to Methanol Economy.
30. DME: DI-METHYL ETHER

• The most significant thing about DME is that it is liquid at room temperature.
• To make DME all you need to do is to take 2 molecules of methanol and remove water from it.
• CH3OH + CH3OH  CH3-O-CH3 + H2O
Advantage
• Liquid at room temperature
• Liquifies at 5 bar and thus easily stored.
• Better for NOx reduction
• Low CO2 emissions owning to high H-C ratio.
31. HYDROGEN
WHY HYDROGEN?
• A general trend towards development of better fuels is hydrogen-rich fuels.
• This means more of hydrogen in the fuel and less of carbon or more hydrogen to every carbon atom. Eg: Natural
gas 4 hydrogen to every carbon as opposed to very little hydrogen in coal.
• This is because just like carbon, hydrogen is also combustible, i.e. it mixes with oxygen in the air and gives heat.
• In addition, moving from a solid to a liquid and then finally to a gaseous state energy carrier.
NATURE OF HYDROGEN
Hydrogen as an energy carrier
• It is important to understand that all fuels we have seen so far are energy carriers.
• Hydrogen is the best energy carrier as there are no harmful impact (read carbon emissions)
• This is because hydrogen is not freely available on earth, but it is in abundance in the form of in water and
hydrocarbons.
• However, to extract hydrogen from water or hydrocarbons you need to expend energy and the energy spent in
extracting hydrogen is much more than the amount of energy the so-extracted hydrogen gives out. This is why
hydrogen is energy carrier and not an energy source. (in fact all fuels we have seen are energy carriers)
Combustible nature
• Hydrogen is highly combustible i.e. it mixes readily with oxygen to produce heat.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
High energy density per gram

• Further the amount of energy out of this process is about 3 times higher than that you get when you burn
petrol. (26 Kcal/gm for hydrogen compared to 10 Kcal/gm for gasoline).
Extremely low density per volume
• However, the problem with hydrogen is that it has low density, meaning the amount of hydrogen mass you can
hold in 1 liter is about 71 grams.
• That means the tank size at normal temperature and pressure to hold hydrogen is very big.
• In other words, though the fuel itself is lightweight the tank size and therefore the weight of the tank goes
higher.
• This puts a limitation on hydrogen being used as a fuel in private transport.
• Thus, hydrogen is suitable for large vehicles like buses which requires a limited range but can hold a large tank.
• This requires hydrogen to compressed at high pressure. Alternately you can liquify hydrogen by compressing
and taking away heat.
HOW TO MAKE?
• You can't mine hydrogen. There is virtually no hydrogen gas (or liquid) in the environment.
• But there's lots of hydrogen in water and in fossil fuels (hydrocarbons)-but not "free" hydrogen, the molecule
H2.
• That’s what we want for the hydrogen economy.
• Two major sources of hydrogen on earth are water and hydrocarbons
• From hydrocarbons
• Take any hydrocarbon and treat it with steam we get syn gas which is a source of hydrogen.
• Any hydrocarbon+H2O CO+H2
• Hydrocarbon could be either fossil or biofuel or even organic waste.
• However, hydrocarbon source of hydrogen is again a problem because the left over carbon has to go to
atmosphere.
• This makes it dirty. That’s why hydrogen from these sources is colour coded with ‘dirty’ colours like grey, blue,
black etc.
NATIONAL GREEN HYDROGEN MISSION

• Budget 2021-22 proposed the National Hydrogen Mission to make India the hub of green hydrogen production.
• In Feb 2022 the National Green Hydrogen Policy was formulated.
• In 2023, the cabinet approved Rs.19,744 crore towards other Mission components.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER
• Pass electricity through water, it will split it into its constituent Hydrogen and oxygen.
• Process where electricity is used to make a chemical change that wouldn’t happen otherwise.
• In a normal situation oxygen pulls electrons and hydrogen pushes its electron.
• In case of electrolysis, water is split into hydrogen and oxygen and for this to happen hydrogen has to gain
electron and oxygen has to lose electron which is the opposite to what happen normally.
• This requires energy which is what electricity gives.
• So, take a battery use the energy to pull the electrons out of oxygen and push it towards hydrogen.
• If the electricity you use to split water comes from renewable source, it gives you green hydrogen, the cleanest
source of hydrogen.
HOW TO USE HYDROGEN?

• Burn it in directly IC engine, blend it with another gaseous fuel or use it in fuel cell.
• Hydrogen being combustible can be used directly in IC engine. However, the efficiency is very low, hardly 25-
30%.
• Alternately we blend hydrogen with natural gas. This is what is called H-CNG.
Advantages of HCNG
• The energy density increases.
• Carbon emissions are reduced.
• Low NOx emissions
• No sulphur emissions
32. FUEL CELLS: BEST WAY TO USE ENERGY FROM

HYDROGEN
• The best way to use the energy from hydrogen is fuel cells.
• The main advantage of using hydrogen in a fuel cell over using as a fuel is the increase in efficiency which is
around 60% for solid-oxide fuel cell and around 50% for PEM fuel cell. (heat energy is a poor form of energy
compared to electric energy)
• Before you read about fuel cells do read the section on batteries below.
PRINCIPLE BEHIND FUEL CELLS

• Fuel cell is just electrolysis in reverse. Meaning in a fuel cell you pump hydrogen and oxygen which combines
to form water, in the process you can derive electricity.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
HOW DOES IT WORK?

• You pump hydrogen on one side and separate it into its constituent ion and electron.
• Make the electrons to pass through a wire and you have electricity.
• In addition, we use an electrolyte which is simply a membrane that allows ions to pass through and not electrons
to pass through.
• The separation of hydrogen into its constituent electron and hydrogen ion is brought about by a platinum
catalyst. The challenge is its high cost.
• Finally, when ions and electrons recombine the
resultant hydrogen is mixed with oxygen to produce
water. This produces heat which is a deciding factor
in choosing the fuel cell. (operating temperature of
fuel cell)
TYPES OF FUEL CELLS

• Please note that the only fuel cells that are feasible
for use in automobile are the ones which have
manageable operating temperatures.
• Following are the fuels cells that are relevant for use
in electric vehicles.
PROTON-EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL

CELL
• The example we have taken to illustrate the working
of fuel cell above are called proton-exchange fuel cell.
SOLID OXIDE OR METHANE FUEL CELLS

• Alternately we can use methane or even ethanol out of which you can derive hydrogen inside the fuel cell itself.
• However operating temperatures are high upon formation of water (around 200 degree celsius).
• Due to high operating temperature, we can use solid electrolyte, typically a meta oxide. Thus, the name.
• Having solid electrolyte is important for use in consumer electronics.
• However, one disadvantage of such fuel cell is that the solid electrolyte used are typically rare earth elements.
(eg: cerium, gadolinium, yttrium called YSZ)
• These are expensive and also environmentally harmful)

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
33. BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS

PRINCIPLE
• Batteries or fuel cells are devices that derive electricity out of a chemical reaction that happens.
• The chemical reaction is simply pulling out electrons from something and making it travel along a metallic wire
producing electricity. The thing about electron is once you pull it out of something it needs a place to go.
• The terminals from where electrons are pulled out and sent to are called electrodes.
• The terminal from where electrons are pulled out are called anode and those where electrons are sent to are
called cathode.
• The chemical reaction that leads to pulling out of electrons is called oxidation and that that leads to dumping
of electrons is called reduction.
• So typically, oxidation happens at anode and reduction happens at cathode. In the process of electron going
from anode to cathode, the energy is flow of electrons (electricity) is captured.
HOW DOES BATTERY STORE ENERGY?

• Battery is a device where energy is stored for use later.
• So, in order to store energy, you need an energy source.
• The process of storing energy in a battery is what you know as charging the battery.
Similarly, the process of using the energy is discharging of battery.
• Charging and Discharging the battery
• Here you pump energy from an outside source to take electrons of out some chemical from
where it does not want to come and send it to another chemical where it does not want to
go. Once you do this the electrons want to run back to its original place.
• This is like sending electrons uphill(charging) and allowing the electrons roll back downhill
by itself (discharging).
What chemicals to use?
• Everything depends on element’s affinity (likeability) for electrons. Simply elements which like electrons and
those that do not like electrons.
• The likeability for electrons decides the electrochemical potential of that element.
• Electrochemical potential is simply how readily an element wants to lose or gain electrons.
• Higher the electrochemical potential the element wants to readily lose electron, lower the electrochemical
potential it wants to gain electrons.
WORKING OF A BATTERY
• The trick is to take 2 different metals with different electro-potential so that one wants to gain, and one wants
to lose electron.
• Eg: Zinc and Copper.
• As it is evident from the table, Zinc wants to give electron and Copper wants take it. (that’s why Zinc is anode
and Copper is cathode)
• So, if you somehow give a path for these electrons moving from Zn to Cu, you will have derived electricity.
• When all the electrons have come to Cu, you can no longer derive electricity.
• So, you have to forcefully pull electrons out of Cu (cathode) and put it back at Zn (anode). This is charging.
• Once you have forcefully pulled out all electrons from Cu and have put it back at Zn, you can again rely on the
natural flow of electrons from Zn to Cu to derive electricity. This is discharging.
• One last thing is about the electrolyte. An electrolyte is like a semi-permeable membrane for electrons and ions.
It allows the ions to pass through them but not electrons.
• Putting all the pieces together

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• In a battery a chemical reaction takes place where you are separating electrons and ions from the anode
material.
• Once separated you make 2 different paths for these electrons and ions to move. For electrons you connect the
anode to a metallic wire and for ions you dip the anode in electrolyte.
• Electrons will move towards cathode along the wire and ions move towards cathode along the semi-permeable
electrolyte.
• Electrons movement through the wire gives you electricity.
34. LITHIUM-ION BATTERY

PRINCIPLE
• Lithium, as you can see in the table above, has the highest electrochemical potential.
• It wants to lose electrons readily which makes it very reactive. That’s why you don’t get lithium in free form.
• However, when mixed with metal oxide lithium sits very stably.
• Thus, if we use this ability of lithium to be very unstable by itself to becoming very stable in metal oxide, we can
derive electricity. This is what happens in a Li-ion battery.
WORKING OF A LI-ION BATTERY
• Lithium is mixed in metal oxide (typically cobalt, nickel, or manganese)) is used as cathode.
• Graphite is use as a place to hold Li-ions which becomes an anode.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• As we have seen Lithium in metal oxide is very stable.
• In Li-ion battery we separate Lithium from metal oxide by pulling out its constituent electrons and ion forcefully
by applying energy.
• The electrons and ions of Lithium are then given separate paths namely a metallic wire and an electrolyte.
• This is called charging as it required external energy to separate electrons and Li-ions from Lithium metal oxide.
• The li-ions moving through electrolyte and electrons moving through the wire then recombine at anode which
is graphite.
• Once all the electrons and ions are pulled out the battery is completely charged.
• The lithium ions and electrons that is sitting between graphite sheets are unstable and wants to go back to
metal oxide. If we again give separate paths to electrons and ions we can derive electricity.
• Thus Li-ion battery is used to store energy by shuttling lithium ions back and forth between the anode(Li-ion in
graphite) and cathode(Lithium in metal oxide).
ADVANTAGE OF LI-ION BATTERIES

• Light weight
o Lithium being lightest metal.
• High Energy Density

o Lithium having highest electrochemical potential has very high energy density.
o A typical automobile lead-acid battery weighs 6 kilograms more to store the same amount of energy than a
lithium-ion battery.
o In consumer electronics like mobile, laptops, camera etc I kilogram of Nickle cadmium batteries stores
typically 60 to 70 watt-hours.
o A typical lithium-ion battery can store 150 watt-hours of electricity in 1 kilogram of battery.
• Minimum losses
o A lithium-ion battery pack loses only about 5 percent of its charge per month, compared to a 20 percent loss
per month for Ni-Cd batteries.
• Low Maintenance
o Lithium-ion batteries can handle hundreds of charge/discharge cycles.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
DISADVANTAGES
• Faster discharge
o While quick discharge is an advantage in electric vehicle and consumer electronics applications, it is not
suitable to store energy for longer than 4 hours.
o Thus, it is not suitable for grid-level storage which is necessary for renewable energy like solar which suffer
from intermittency problem.
• Ageing
o Li-ion batteries suffer from ageing at room temperature. Therefore, in a consumer electronic, batteries need
to be partially charged for longer life.
• Transportation
o Another disadvantage of li-ion batteries is that there can be certain restrictions placed on their
transportation, especially by air to protect against short circuits.
• Cost
o Lithium-ion batteries are around 40% more costly to manufacture than Nickel cadmium cells owing to high
cost of lithium refining, cobalt and nickel.
35. ALTERNATIVES
SODIUM-SULPHUR
Advantage
• Sodium-Sulphur can be recharged 4500 times compared to 500 times of Lead-acid and Li-ion batteries.
• Further Lithium is way more costly than sodium. 10 times more per kilo.
Limitation
• Problem is Sodium used in these batteries need to be in liquid state and that happens at high temperatures of
350 degree Celsius. So, Sodium-Sulphur cannot be used in laptops and mobile phones.
• Price per charge-discharge cycles is high.
FUEL CELL V/S BATTERY
FUEL CELL BATTERY
Not an energy storage device in the strict sense. It produces Energy storage device
electricity as long as the fuel is supplied
Longer life Shorter life as chemical is degraded during

charge-discharge cycle t.
Lower efficiency as compared to battery: around 50-60% Efficiency is high: around 80-90%
Requires less time to refuel fuel cell based electric vehicles Requires more time for recharging
as you directly pump hydrogen in the tanks.
MICROBIAL FUEL CELL

• It uses an organic electrolyte instead of inorganic ones in the above case.
• In other words, anaerobic oxidation of organic substances such as acetate, glucose, lactate, ethanol by
microbes.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
36. BIOFUELS
NATURE OF BIOFUELS
Biofuel: a net-negative pathway
• Biofuels are way to take out CO2 from the landmass above the surface of the earth and putting it back in
atmosphere.
• This is unlike fossils where you are taking carbon stock from below the surface and putting it in atmosphere
increasing its concentration.
• Besides the amount of CO2 you are putting by burning 1 kg of biomass is much lesser than the amount of CO2
the plants used to make 1 kg of plant biomass. (plants convert only 0.5% of photosynthesis to biomass)
• Thus, biofuels are net-negative in terms of carbon emissions.
As hydrocarbon: Biofuel v/s fossil

• Biofuel is small ring hydrocarbons with lots of oxygen and benzene rings. (not suitable remember)
• Fossil as we have seen is just biomass buried for millions of years under low oxygen conditions.
• Besides biomass is long polymers of sugar molecules.
• So, if we somehow remove oxygen and break the polymer, we can get biofuels.
Biomass as energy store
• Further biomass is basically solar energy trapped in the form of chemicals that make up the living beings.
BIOMASS COMPOSITION
• C 50%
• O 40%
• H5%
• N 1%(From protein)
• P 0.5% (From protein)

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
BIOMASS CONSTITUENTS
• Primarily made of sugar polymers with lots O2 and closed ring hydrocarbons. (half the plant biomass is
fundamentally sugar)
• Plant cells are made up of cell walls that gives a protective layer to help plants
stand tall.
• The cell wall is made of microfibrils of cellulose which is basically sugar polymer.
(1/2 of cell wall)
• At later stages there is an additional protective layer in the form of hard cover in
trees which is called lignin.
• Lignin is plastic-like. It is not degradable, has lots of aromatics.
CLASSIFICATION OF BIOFUELS
• For the sake of simplicity think of plant biomass in terms of edible and non-
edible part.
• The edible part of plant like fruits, vegetables, grains etc are usually made simple
sugar, starch.
• The other edible part is seeds that have edible oils.
• The non-edible part of biomass on the other hand is made of cellulose, hemi-
cellulose and lignin.
ENERGY FROM BIOFUELS

• There are 3 pathways to derive energy out of biofuels:
1. Burn them
2. Make alcohols like ethanol and methanol
3. Make biodiesel
4. Make biogas
Burning of biofuels
• Burning solid biofuel will leave solid ash residue which is not desirable. Eg: Cow dung, wood etc
• So, we need to gasify or liquify biomass.
Liquifying biofuels
• Liquifying biofuels again include 2 pathways
1. Make alcohols: ethanol and methanol: fermentation
2. Make biodiesel: From vegetable oils: transesterification
Gasifying biofuels
• Biogas: Bio-methanation
• Biohydrogen: from syngas
ALCOHOLS: ETHANOL AND METHANOL

• Alcohols are best alternatives to petrol.
• You can directly replace petrol with ethanol or methanol in IC engines or alternately you may blend it with
petrol. (Ethanol blending upto 20% by 2030 is the target)
How are they made?
Fermentation
• Alcohols are made by fermentation of sugars by microorganisms.
• Depending on the microorganism used and sugar source you get different alcohols.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
37. ETHANOL
• Most commonly formed alcohol through fermentation is ethanol.
• Fermentation is simply breaking down of sugar molecules in the absence of oxygen at the cellular level or in
other words anerobic cellular respiration to produce ethanol. (For detailed discission on fermentation see the
optional section below)
Which microorganisms produce

ethanol?
• Microorganisms capable of
producing ethanol include
yeast, some species of bacteria,
fungi and some species of micro
algae.
Feedstock
Edible part
• Ethanol can be made from both

edible parts and non-edible
cellulosic biomass.
• Edible sources include

sugarcane, corn, and other
starch-based crops (sugar
beets, rice, wheat, potatoes)
Non-edible part
• The cellulosic matter from plant biomass are basically complex sugar molecules.
• Thus, they have to be broken down into simple sugar in order to be fermented into alcohols.
• In order to break them down hydrolysis is done in other words treatment with water. These simple sugars can
then be used for fermentation by microbes to produce ethanol.
• However, lignin is made of phenols and not sugars. Thus, they cannot be converted into alcohols.
Advantage
• No SOX emissions
• Can be used as a substitute for petrol in SI engines
• Low carbon emissions (biofuels are net negative)
• Low NOx emissions
38. METHANOL
• Although methanol can also be made through fermentation, it is rare.
• This is because it is produced in small amounts as by-products during fermentation of certain bacteria and fungi
species.
• Thus, the commonly used pathway to make methanol is producing syngas. (discussed in alternate fuels: Gas-
to-liquid section)
OPTIONAL SECTION
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND CELLULAR RESPIRATION: THE UNIVERSAL ENERGY PATHWAY

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Photosynthesis: building the energy stores

• Plants have simply collected energy from sunlight and stored it in sugar molecules through the process of
photosynthesis.
• Under photosynthesis, photoreceptors in plants called chlorophyll absorb sunlight. When light falls on
chlorophyll it excites electrons in the chlorophyll. This is how energy from sunlight is captured.
• The excited electron then carries this energy and transports it to different parts of the plant body and stores.
(follow the path of electron in the figure)
• The energy carried by the electrons is stored in a kind of rechargeable batteries in plants called ATP molecules.
(future civil servants need not know the details of this molecule)
• These rechargeable batteries called ATP are stored in the sugar molecules of plant biomass built by plants.
• To do this, plants use CO2 and H2O in the atmosphere.
Cellular respiration: using the energy stores
• Ultimately all living organisms access energy through the process of cellular respiration.
• The process of utilizing the energy contained in food is called cellular respiration.
• Cellular respiration is just a way of taking in energy stored in the sugar molecules to run life activities.
• The food we eat is first digested or broken into simple sugars and carried in the bloodstream which carries the
energy-rich sugar to all the cells of the body.
• The cells in turn use the energy in the sugar to form the rechargeable batteries ATP in the cells which then acts
as drivers of life activity. Once done CO2 is released.
• Again, it is the electrons that carry energy.
• Once all the energy is delivered to ATP the electron needs a place to go. For this all living beings have electron
acceptors.
• Oxygen is the most common electron acceptor. That’s why we breathe oxygen.
• Finally, after oxygen receives electrons, it combines with hydrogen to form water completing the process of
cellular respiration.
• Thus, for cellular respiration we need glucose and oxygen.
• C6H12O6 + O2  CO2 + H2O + energy (needed for life activities)
Cellular respiration in low oxygen condition
• When we are doing strenuous job like running or swimming, we need more energy. This energy is got from
breaking down of glycogen (storehouse of glucose in our body) that is stored in the liver.
• However, there is not enough oxygen to accept electrons. Thus, cellular respiration comes to a halt.
• Alternately humans use pyruvate molecules (broken sugar) as electron acceptor instead of oxygen.
• When pyruvate accepts electron, it forms lactic acid instead of H2O.
Fermentation: cellular respiration in the absence of oxygen
• Yeasts like humans also breakdown their food using oxygen.
• In the absence of oxygen, they produce alcohols that we drink.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• In yeasts after breaking down of glucose into pyruvate. After this the pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde
which acts as electron acceptor in the absence of oxygen.
• When acetaldehyde accepts electron, it forms ethanol.
• This anerobic respiration is called fermentation.
39. BIODIESEL: FROM TRANSESTERIFICATION

WHAT IS BIODIESEL?
• Oils from oilseeds are basically straight chain hydrocarbons but long ones.
• This is the only difference between biodiesel and diesel.
• If we take vegetable oil and break its long hydrocarbon straight chain into 1/3rd, 1/3rd, 1/3rd you get biodiesel.
• Biodiesel can directly replace diesel in diesel-IC engines.
• The resultant product, i.e, biodiesel is called ester.
• That’s why the process of breaking long straight chain hydrocarbons into short chains is called
transesterification.
• Breaking can be done by following ways:
o Heat it: Pyrolysis
o Apply pressure: Cracking
o Replace double bonds with hydrogen:
Hydrogenation
Feedstock
• Any oil seed can be used to extract oil. However, better option is to use non-edible oil seeds.
• There are more than 200 variety of oil seeds that can be used to produce biodiesel.
• Some common examples include rice bran, sal, neem, mahua, karanja, castor, linseed, jatropha, honge, rubber
seed etc.
Advantages
Fuel Energy density] (in MJ/ kg)
Ethanol 24-25
Peirol 43-44
Biodiesel 40-41
Diesel 45.5
• High energy density

• Low energy input
• Nitrogen-fixation
• No Sulphur
• No aromatics
A CASE FOR BIODIESEL

• India uses 5 times more diesel than petrol, so an alternative for diesel is more important than that for petrol.
• De-sulphurisation of diesel is cost intensive.
• Rural development: growing oilseed-based crops for biodiesel will augment farmer’s income.
• Converting degraded land
• Improves soil fertility as most oilseed-crops are leguminous crops which helps in nitrogen fixation.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
40. BIOFUELS: GENERATIONS

• Biofuels are classified into different generations based on the strategy adopted to derive energy from biomass.
• Accordingly, there are 4 generations of biofuels.
1ST GENERATION (MOSTLY EDIBLE SOURCE)

• Biofuels derived from edible source.
• Includes both starch-based ethanol and biodiesel (made from edible vegetable oil)
• Sugarcane, corn, and other starch-based crops (sugar beets, rice, wheat, potatoes)
• Oilseeds include rape-seed, sunflower seed, soybeans, palm seeds, rice bran etc.
• Non-edible source Jatropha in India
2ND GENERATION (CELLULOSIC BIOFUEL)

• Non-edible feedstocks like grasses, leaves etc
• Ligno-cellulosic: Mostly wood
• Agricultural waste including rice husk, corn stalks etc
3RD GENERATION (MOSTLY ALGAL BIOMASS-BASED)
Biofuels from high-photosynthetic efficiency organisms like algae.

• Feed-stock include:
o Macro-algae
o Micro-algae
o Aquatic plants (water hyacinth)
• While most plants are very inefficient in photosynthesis (only 0.5% of sunlight is captured), algae have very high
photosynthetic efficiency capable of growing very fast capturing the CO2 from atmosphere.
• Algae extracts large amounts of the carbon dioxide to feed their growth and very little is left to emit to the open
air.
• The so grown algae can be used as input for producing both ethanol and biodiesel.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Advantages
• Fastest photosynthesis
• Do not need arable land
• CO2 sequestration (CO2 source can be coal-based power plants too, see section on Direct capture under CCUS
technologies)
• Lipids (can be used for biodiesel) and protein source (single-cell protein source)
LIQUID TREE: LIQUID 3.0

• Recently in Serbia scientists have created such a photo-bioreactor using algae to capture CO2 from the
atmosphere.
• It contains 600 litres of water and works by using microalgae to bind carbon dioxide and produce pure oxygen
through photosynthesis, in addition to producing biofuels.
NOTE ON METHANOGENS
• Additionally, there are organisms called Methanogens which capture sunlight to produce methane.
4TH GENERATION BIOFUELS: SOLAR FUELS: ARTIFICIAL LEAF AND PHOTOSHEETS

• This is application of synthetic biology to make biofuels.
• The approach includes mimic the biological process of
photosynthesis to make energy-rich fuels. (Artificial
photosynthesis)
• Currently there are two types of technologies performing
artificial photosynthesis namely artificial leaf which produces
syngas and photosheet technology which produces formic
acid.
• Artificial leaf is a silicon-device powered by sunlight which
produces synthesis gas (SynGas) by capturing CO2 form
atmosphere or flue gas from power plants.
• While artificial leaf is a cleaner way to produce syngas their
main limitation is its produces gas and takes an extra effort
to store it in the form of liquid.
• Photosheet technology on the other hand produces formic
acid which is stored as a liquid fuel.
41. GASIFYING BIOFUELS: BIOMETHANATION AND CBG

• Always remember the best way to biomass for energy production is to somehow extract only methane out of it
and leave the rest for plant use.
• To gasify biomass is to copy what happens in a cow’s stomach.
• Unlike humans, cow breaks down cellulosic biomass in its digestive process called anaerobic digestion.
• Cows have in its digestive system a large fermentation chamber filled with billions of microbes like bacteria and
protozoa.
• The food that enters the fermentation chamber is broken down by these microbes, in the absence of oxygen,
producing methane in its burps and fart. Mimic this process using bio-digesters you get biogas.
• Biogas is a mixture of methane, CO2 and hydrogen sulphide. So you need to separate CH4 before using it.
• Once separated compress methane to store it and transport it. This process is called bio-methanation.
• Feedstock can be agriculture waste which is mostly cellulosic biomass, cattle dung, sugarcane press mud,
municipal wet waste etc.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
42. SATAT
• In 2018 Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) initiative was introduced to promote
CBG as an alternative to CNG.
• Target is to produce 15 million tonnes of gas aiming to reduce CNG use by 40%. (CNG is imported)
• Particularly useful in states like Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh which are infamous for stubble-burning.
 RENEWABLES
43. SOLAR ENERGY

NATURE OF SOLAR ENERGY
Ultimate source
• Solar energy represents the ultimate source of all energy on earth.
• All energy sources we have seen so far is simply energy from sun that was captured, be it in the form of ATP in
plant biomass or energy in hydrocarbons in fossils.
• However, the amount of energy plant biomass or fossils have captured is a small proportion of energy from the
sun.
• Thus, if we can find ways to access energy from the sun directly, we can increase the energy captured.
Intermittent nature
• Besides since energy from the sun is accessible only during the day, solar energy, like other renewable sources,
suffer from what is called as intermittency problem.
• As a result, an essential component of renewable energy including solar energy is energy storage.
• This is why India is mooting an Energy Storage Policy towards large-scale integration of renewable energy to
the grid.
Decentralised source
• Solar energy represents decentralized energy source as sunlight represents distributed energy resource.
• This said, India’s share of decentralized renewable energy is meagre 6% of the total renewable energy capacity.
• The low share of decentralized solar energy, about 6.5 GW as against the target of 40GW, is the main reason for
missing the target of 175GW of RE by 2022.
India established a lofty goal to install 175 GW of renewable energy capacity by the year 2022, with 100 GW
coming from solar, 60 GW from wind, 10 GW from biopower, and 5 GW coming from small hydropower
Status in India
44. PATHWAYS OF CAPTURING ENERGY FROM THE SUN

There are different ways to capture energy from the sun including:
• Solar thermal
• Solar concentrators
• Solar PV cells

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
45. SOLAR THERMAL

• The basic principle behind solar thermal is the green house effect. It is way to capture sun’s energy in the form
of heat.
• Since heat is low quality energy it has limited
applications and thus suitable only for domestic
applications like solar water heaters, solar pumps
etc.
PRINCIPLE: GREENHOUSE EFFECT

• Solar energy is an admixture of various
electromagnetic radiation with visible light
constituting the maximum proportion. See figure
for sun’s emission spectrum.
• Thus, in order to gain maximum from sunlight we
need to capture visible light from the sun.
• In order to do this, we use the principle of greenhouse effect demonstrated by glass.
• Glass is transparent to visible light and opaque to infrared light.
• So, glass cover is used in the top layer to allow visible light and block the infrared from the sun.
• This visible light is made to fall on a metal plate coated black which absorbs most of the visible light. (absorber
in the figure)
• As a result of absorption of energy, the black metal emits infrared
radiation which cannot pass through the glass cover.
• Thus, energy from visible light is trapped between glass cover and
metal plate.
• This energy is in the form of heat (convection current) which can be
carried by water or air.
• Besides the direction of the set up should be such that it should be
able maximize the sun’s rays incident on it.
• In northern hemisphere, it should be inclined at an angle equal to the latitude and south-facing.
Advantage
• The efficiency of solar thermal can reach upto 60%.
Disadvantage
• It is suitable for domestic applications as it cannot be scalable. (water is heated upto 60-70 degree celsius)
46. SOLAR CONCENTRATORS

• In applications where you need temperatures above the boiling point of water you use solar concentrators.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• Solar concentrators use a bunch of mirrors in such a way to focus all the incoming solar energy at one point
from where it can be collected and carried.
• Solar towers are an example of solar concentrators.
• At the top of the tower is a sodium salt which can hold heat for longer time thereby increasing the amount of
heat that can be captured.
Advantage
• You can heat the salt and keep it for later use when
there is no sunlight.
• Efficiency is as high as 50%.
Disadvantage
• Capital cost is high as mirrors are expensive.
• High land requirement: 1.5 hectare per mega watt.
SOLAR TOWERS IN INDIA

• Bhadla solar park in Jodhpur Rajasthan. (biggest
plant in the world)
47. SOLAR PV CELLS

• Solar PV is the mainstay of solar energy particularly with decreasing cost of PV cells in the recent times.
• Photo voltaic cell is an example of photodetector devices which work on the basis of photoelectric effect.
• It is a way of directly using sunlight to produce electricity.
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
• Photoelectric effect, 1st demonstrated by Einstein, relies on the interaction of photons and electrons and their
behaviour during interaction.
• Flash a beam of light on to some material like metal it will knock-off electrons, collect these electrons at an
electrode. Connect the electrode to a wire and there you have electricity.
WORKING OF PV CELLS
• A photovoltaic panel creates electricity when a
photon hits the silicon surface and pushes an
electron out of the top layer of the silicon and across
an electrical junction inside the panel.
• The movement of this electron creates a useful
voltage. When wires are connected to produce a
circuit, this voltage means that current will flow,
eventually taking the displaced electron back to the
top layer.
• Solar cells work best in strong sunlight but will also
generate some power on an overcast day from the
diffused light that gets through the clouds.
• Nature of electrical energy from PV cells
• DC current
TYPES OF PV CELLS
1. 1st gen: Single crystal PV cells
2. 2nd Gen: Thin-film PV cells
3. 3rd Gen: Perovskites

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
1st generation PV cells

• These are basically silicon-based.
• Single crystal silicon: have the highest efficiency, around 20-25%, high-cost manufacturing
• Amorphous silicon (powdered): efficiency is 5%, used in calculators
2nd generation PV cells: Polycrystalline PV cells
Cadmium Telluride
• CdTe can be deposited on thin sheets. So you can make flexible PV panels.
• CdTe absorbs sunlight readily to release electrons. So thin sheets can be made.
• Efficiency ~ 15%
• Disadvantage is cadmium is highly toxic.
• Tellurium is not available as it is a rare earth metal. It is found in under-water ridges.
CIGS: Copper Indium Gallium Selenide

Advantage:
• Similar to CdTe, it can absorb sunlight readily.
Besides it is not toxic like CdTe.
• Disadvantage: Indium is in short supply
Multi-Junction PVs: Gallium-Arsenic,

Indium, germanium
• Layers of semiconductor and metal
• Main advantage is high efficiency because different
materials absorb different wavelengths from the sun.
3rd generation PV cells
Perovskites
• The main advantage of perovskites is they can used to make PV paints which can be painted on conformal
surfaces like cars.
• Very recently organic-perovskite solar cells have reached efficiency of a record-breaking 24%
48. ENERGY STORAGE

• Notwithstanding the advantages, Renewables have a peculiar problem called intermittency problem which
means it is not available round the clock.
• Thus, energy storage becomes an important component of renewable shift.
• The most important energy storage strategy is batteries.
49. GRID-LEVEL BATTERY STORAGE: FLOW BATTERIES

(For basic principle on batteries and types of see section on batteries)
• The batteries we have discussed in the battery section including Li-ion batteries are not suitable to store energy
for longer time.
• The energy storage at the grid level requires us to store energy atleast for 8 hours (night).
• The alternative suitable for grid-level storage is flow batteries.

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
50. FLOW BATTERIES
• The basic difference between conventional batteries and flow batteries is that while in convectional batteries
we derived chemical energy of the electrodes, in flow batteries the energy is derived out of the flow of
electrolytes.
• A flow battery uses two electrolyte solutions separated by a membrane to store electrical energy.
• A flow battery consists of two tanks - one for the positively charged electrolyte solution (called the catholyte)
and one for the negatively charged electrolyte solution (called the anolyte).
• During charging the catholyte and anolyte flow on opposite sides of the membrane which is like going uphill.
• During discharge, the process is reversed. The catholyte and anolyte flow back into their respective tanks, and
the electrical energy that was stored in the battery is released to power a device or a system.
Advantage
• Flow batteries are unique in their scalability which makes them suitable for grid-level storage.
51. SUPER CAPACITORS

Principle
• A capacitor is a device that stores electric charges thereby electric energy
• It is a set of two metal surfaces separated by an electric insulator.
• Put positive electric charge on one plate, negative on the other, and the combination can store energy for a long
time, much longer than batteries can.
• Add more electric charge on the plate and you store more energy, but you also raise the voltage.
• The trick for storing energy in capacitors is making the insulator very thin, so that you can have lots of energy
per unit volume while keeping the voltage low.
• These high energy-density capacitors are called supercapacitors or ultracapacitors.
Advantages
• Since capacitors don’t depend on chemical reactions, they can release their energy extremely quickly thus
suitable for EVs
• Not subject to degradation with use and time.
• Because they can be charged so quickly, supercapacitors can be used to improve the efficiency of regenerative
braking; they absorb the energy in charges and release it when needed.
Disadvantage
• Supercapacitors can store about 1/3rd the energy of a same-weight lithium-ion batteries.
• Costs 3 times more than Li-ion batteries.

7
Chapter DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
1. MISSILES OF INDIA
CRUISE MISSILE AND BALLISTIC MISSILE
CRUISE MISSILE BALLISTIC MISSILE
A cruise missile is guided towards a preset land- A ballistic missile is generally a projectile shot up in the
based target using a navigation system. atmosphere.
Cruise missiles are known for low altitude flight Ballistic missiles are launched outside the atmosphere
and high mobility and hence the name. where its warheads detach and hit the target. (uses
gravity of earth and thus traces a parabolic path and
hence the name)
Cruise missiles have short ranges of 300 to 1000 Ballistic missile have long ranges up to 1000 km
km. (ICBMs)
Brahmos – 290 to 450 km Agni V – 5000 km
Nirbhay – 700 to 1000
Easy to intercept because of high terminal speeds. Difficult to intercept due to high terminal speeds of
5000 m/s
High precision due to navigation system Low precision
Cheaper and thus suitable for firing conventional Expensive and thus suitable for firing nuclear warheads.
warheads
2. SHORT-RANGE BALLISTIC MISSILE

WEAPON
NAME RANGE CHARACTERISTICS
PAYLOAD
Short range surface-to-surface tactical ballistic

PRITHVI-I 150 KM 1000kg
missile
PRITHVI-II 350 KM 500Kg Air Force Version
PRITHVI-III 350 KM 1000kg
Naval Version of Prithvi I and Prithvi II class

DHANUSH 350 KM 1000Kg
missiles
• Hypersonic Canister-launched
SHAURYA 600-700 KM 1000 Kg
• Both conventional and nuclear warheads
• To replace Prithvi I
PRAHAAR 150 KM 250 Kg • Weapons: High explosives, cluster munition,
strategic nuclear weapon
AGNI-I 700–900 KM 1000 Kg • Single stage solid fuelled

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
• Nuclear capable missile
3. INTERMEDIATE-RANGE BALLISTIC MISSILE

WEAPON
PAYLOAD
AGNI-II 2000-3000 Km 1000Kg Two and a half stage, solid fuelled missile with
AGNI-III 3200 Km 2000-2500 Kg 2-stage solid propulsion system
2-stage
AGNI-IV 3500 Km 1000 Kg
missile powered by solid propellant
4. INTER-CONTINENTAL BALLISTIC MISSILE

WEAPON
PAYLOAD
3-10 Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle

(MIRV) warheads
AGNI-V >5000 Km 1500 Kg
8,000–10,000
AGNI-VI km (Under 1000 Kg MIRV warheads
development)
10000 Km
SURYA (Under 3000 Kg MIRV warheads
development)
5. SUBMARINE-LAUNCHED BALLISTIC MISSILE

WEAPON
PAYLOAD
K-15 Sagarika 750 km 500 Kg • Replica of land based Shaurya Missile.

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
• K-15 Missile gets help from Indian Regional Navigation Satellite

System.
• The K-series missiles are much faster than Agni Missiles
• Nuclear-capable underwater missile

• Meant for Arihant class submarines.
K-4 3500 Km 1000 Kg • It is a solid-fuelled missile launched underwater capable of
withstanding 50N of water pressure.
• Submarine version of Agni 3. (Agni 3 – 17 m K-4 – 10 m)
K5 (Under
5000 Km
development)
K6 (Under
6000 Km
development)
6. CRUISE MISSILES
WEAPON
NAME RANGE PAYLOA CHARACTERISTICS
D
• Long range subsonic cruise missile.

• 1st indigenously developed long range cruise missile flying at low altitudes.
• It will arm the army, the navy and the air force.
Nirbhay:
• Speed: Subsonic speeds of 0.7 mach. (speed of sound)
Subsonic
750- • Range: Long range of 700 to 1000 km.
Cruise 500 Kg
1000 Km • Can fly at tree-top altitudes as low as 10 m. (now tested for 5 m)
Missile
• Capable of delivering nuclear warheads of 200-300 kg.
• 2-stage solid fuelled cruise missile.
• As a result it has terrain-hugging capability and sea-skimming capability
and thus go undetected by enemy radars.
• Joint venture missile between India and Russia.

• Speed: Top speed of 2.8 Mach (speed of sound).
• Range: After India became a full member of the MTCR export control
Brahmos: regime, the range of BrahMos has increased from 300 km to 450 km.
Supersonic • Fire and forget principle of operation
290 Km 300 kg
Cruise
• Capable of being launched from land, water and air.
Missile
BRAHMOS NG
Low weight Air-launched version capable of being carried by Light Combat
Aircraft, Tejas LCA
Brahmos II:
290 Km 300 Kg 6 Mach
Hypersonic

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
7. SHORT-RANGE SURFACE-TO-AIR MISSILES

WEAPON
PAYLOAD
TRISHUL 9 – 12 Km 5 Kg • Short range low-level surface-to-air missile
• Supersonic speed: Mach 2.5.

• Medium range surface-to-air missile
• Part of Air-defence system
AKASH 30 Km 50 Kg • It can simultaneously engage multiple targets in Group Mode or
Autonomous Mode.
• It has built in Electronic Counter Counter Measures (ECCM) features.
• Indigenous seeker technology.
• Developed by DRDO in collaboration with BEL and Bharat Dynamics Ltd.

• Most effective in combating low flying Aerial targets faced by forward
tactical battlefield area formations like
o Attack helicopters
o UAVs
o Armed drones
o Subsonic Cruise missiles
• QRSAM is part of India’s air defence system.
• Capable of striking targets on-the-move.
MAITRI
25–30 km 10 Kg • It can strike targets at various altitudes from 30m to 6km.
(QRSAM)
• It has a speed of 700-800 metres per second
• RF seeker (Radio Frequency) as a part of terminal guidance to hit the
target.
• It has a truck-mounted canister.
• It is capable of multiple-target engagement.
• It is light-weight, has high-mobility and shorter-reaction time compared
to Akash Air Defence Surface-to-Air Missiles.
• It is equipped with electronic counter measures against the aircraft
jammers to deceive enemy radar.
REVATI 25–30 km 10 Kg (Naval-Version of Maitri)
ROHINI 25–30 km 10 Kg (Air Force-Version of Maitri)
• Indian-Israeli Medium Range Surface-to-Air-Missile

70-100 • Part of naval air defence system To be used aboard INS Vikrant (under
BARAK-8 60 Kg
Km construction)
• maximum speed of Mach 2
• Russia’s Very Short Range Air Defence Systems (VSHORAD)

Maximu • Man-Portable Shoulder launched Air Defence System
m range
• It can aim at enemy targets using
IGLA-S of 6km,
• Infrared signature
altitude
of 3km • Laser targeting
• Remote-controlled targeting

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
8. AIR-TO-AIR MISSILE
NAME CHARACTERISTICS
• It is a BvRAAM (Beyond Visual Range Air to Air Missile).

• 1st air to air missile developed by India.
ASTRA • Capable of engaging targets at varying range and altitudes.
• Both short range targets at a distance of 20 km and long range targets up to a distance of 80-110
km.
9. ANTI-TANK GUIDED MISSILE

WEAPON
PAYLOAD
• 3rd generation anti-tank missile, best in its class for Indian conditions.
• Fire and forget capability.
• Imaging Infrared(IIR) guidance with day and night capability
• Weight - 48 Kg and therefore fired from a BMP-2 vehicle called Namica(Nag
NAG 3-7 Km 8 kg Missile Carrier)
DIFFERENT VARIANTS
1. Mounted on an infantry combat vehicle: NAMICA (Nag Missile Carrier)
2. Man Portable shoulder carried
3. HeliNa: (Helicopter-launched Nag) Rudra Helicopter, Dhruv and LCH.
HELINA 7 Km 8 Kg Helicopter-launched Nag
• Israeli 4th generation anti-tank guided missile.

• Fire-and-forget capability
• Available in man-portable, vehicle-launched, and helicopter-launched variants.
SPIKE • Change the target mid-flight as a result of dual-seeker.
• Kill-probability of 95%
• Better than Nag because Nag is facing seeker issues especially if the temperature
of the target is high.
MILAN • It is an anti tank guided missile for the Army. To be acquired from France.
SPICE
• Israeli guided bombs for the Indian Air Force.
2000
 INDIA’S MISSILE DEFENCE SYSTEMS
10. BALLISTIC MISSILE DEFENCE SYSTEM

• 2-tier missile defence system
• Aimed at intercepting aerial threat from ballistic missiles that have ranges up to 5000 km at altitudes both
outside (exo) and inside (endo) the atmosphere
• 1st layer: Endo
o The single stage solid rocket-propelled Advanced Air Defence (AAD) low-altitude interceptor missile.
(Ashwin)

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
o The AAD interceptor missile is primarily designed to intercept enemy missiles in the endo-atmosphere at
altitudes of 20-40 kilometres.
• 2nd layer: Exo
o Prithvi Air Defense Vehicle known as Pradyumna Ballistic Missile Interceptor is designed to destroy missiles
with ranges 300-2000 km at exo-atmosphere (about 80 km altitude).
o For higher altitudes up to 150 km, Agni-V-based ballistic interceptors would be used. (because of 5000 km
range)
11. MULTI-LAYERED AIR DEFENCE SYSTEM: S-400

• India has signed a deal with Russia to acquire the S-400 Triumf multi-layered air defence system.
• S-400 is known as Russia’s most advanced long-range surface-to-air missile defence system.
• The S-400 layered defence system can intercept all types of aerial targets including aircraft, unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAV), and ballistic and cruise missiles up to the range of 400 km, at an altitude of up to 30 km.
• Capable of firing three types of missiles to create a layered defence.
• Note: USA had offered THAAD and Patriot as alternatives to S-400 to India.
• Iron Dome: Israeli SHORT-RANGE AIR DEFENCE System.
12. BARAK-8 LONG AND MEDIUM RANGE SAM

• Medium-range surface-to-air missile system being developed jointly by India and Israel.
• It will have an interception range of 70-100 km.
• Part of naval air defence system To be used aboard INS Vikrant (under construction)
• Maximum speed of Mach 2.
13. AKASH MEDIUM-RANGE SURFACE TO AIR MISSILE

SYSTEM
• India has 2 regiments of the indigenous Akash systems which are capable of multi-target engagement.
• It can strike targets up to a range of 25 km and altitude of 18,000m.
14. MULTI-LAYERED AIR DEFENCE SYSTEM FOR DELHI

• India is developing a multi-layered air defence system for its cities besides air defence systems for tactical battle
areas.
• 1st layer: 2-tier Ballistic Missile Defence System
• 2nd Layer: S-400 layered defence system
• 3rd Layer: Barak-8 long and medium range SAM
• 4th Layer: Akash medium-range surface to air missile system
15. HYPERSONIC MISSILES

• Travels at Mach 5 or higher (more than one mile per second)
• They typically consist of a Supersonic Combustion Ramjet or Scramjet propulsion system to enable such high
speeds.
• Scramjet engine collects oxygen from the atmosphere as it is travelling and mixes the oxygen with its hydrogen
fuel, creating the combustion needed for hypersonic travel.
• India is developing a Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV).

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
• It is an unmanned scramjet (allowing supersonic combustion) demonstration vehicle that can cruise to a speed
of mach 6 (or six times the speed of sound) and rise up to an altitude of 32 km in 20 seconds. It has been
developed by DRDO.
• There are 2 types of Hypersonic Weapon Delivery Systems
1. Hypersonic Cruise Missiles (HCM)
2. Hypersonic Glide Vehicle (HGV)
SIGNIFICANCE
• They are a mix of the speed of a ballistic missile and manoeuvring capabilities of a cruise missile.
• While cruise missiles achieve speeds of 550 miles per hour, the hypersonic missiles aircrafts can reach speeds
more than 3500 miles per hour.
• Capable of penetrating any anti missile defence system currently available that are designed to intercept cruise
and ballistic missiles.
• Specifically designed for increased survivability against modern ballistic missile defence systems.
16. IMPORTANT HYPERSONIC MISSILES

Only the USA, Russia and China have hypersonic missiles.
USA: Possesses hypersonic missiles, but specific details are classified.
Russia:
• Avangard: Nuclear-capable hypersonic boost-glide vehicle (Mach 20, 6000+ km range).
• Kinzhal: Nuclear-capable air-launched ballistic missile (Mach 10, 2000+ km range).
• China:
o Starry Sky 2: Hypersonic glide vehicle utilising waverider technology. It is known as waverider for its ability
to ride on the shock waves it generates.
o Dongfeng Missiles: Hypersonic missile systems.
 AIRCRAFT CARRIERS OF INDIAN NAVY
17. INS VIKRANT

• 1st aircraft carrier of India
• Decommissioned in 1997 after serving for 37 years.
18. INS VIRAAT

• 2nd and the longest serving aircraft carrier of India.
• Decommissioned in 2017 after serving for 56 years. (26 years as HMS Hermes and 30 as INS Vikrant)
19. INS VIKRAMADITYA

• India and Russia signed $1.5 billion for the acquisition of the warship INS Vikramaditya inducted to the Indian
Navy in 2013.
20. INS VIKRANT

• India’s 1stIndigenous Aircraft Carrier, inducted into the Indian Navy in 2022.

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
21. INS VISHAL

A 65000 tonne Naval supercarrier on the lines of HMS Elizabeth is planned to be built by India.
 SUBMARINE ARM OF INDIA

CONVENTIONAL SUBMARINES OF INDIA
22. PROJECT 75-I

• 6 Scorpene class submarines are being constructed with Transfer of Technology from France.
• The 6 Scorpene class submarines will be the core of India’s conventional attack submarine arm.
Project 75-I Submarines (Scorpène-class)
● INS Kalvari: Inducted in 2017
● INS Kandheri: Inducted in 2019
● INS Karanj: Inducted in 2021
● INS Vela: Inducted 2021
● INS Vagir: Inducted 2023
● INS Vagsheer: Launched for trails in April 2023
• The submarines built under the project will be capable of
o Anti submarine warfare
o Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance missions
o Underwater mining operations
o Equipped with the Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) system in order to stay underwater for longer duration
and thus increase their operational range and stealth capabilities.
NUCLEAR-POWERED SUBMARINES
Nuclear submarines can be classified into two categories namely SSN and SSBN:
23. SSN: (SUBMERSIBLE SHIP NUCLEAR)

• SSNs are attack submarines
• They are propelled by nuclear power.
• They are capable of launching conventional weapons like torpedoes and cruise missiles
24. SSBN: (SUBMERSIBLE SHIP BALLISTIC NUCLEAR)

• SSBNs are also propelled by nuclear power.
• They are usually equipped with nuclear weapons like ballistic missiles.
• Therefore they are usually used as deterrents and not as attack submarines.
25. NUCLEAR-POWERED SUBMARINE FLEET OF INDIA

SSN FLEET
CHAKRA-I
• 1st nuclear-powered submarine to be inducted into the Indian Navy.
CHAKRA-II
• 2nd nuclear submarine to be inducted into Indian Navy. It was inducted in 2012

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
• It is an advanced version of Chakra I with following features:

o It can displace twice the amount of water compared to Chakra I, thereby higher operating depths.
o Higher speed of 30 knots.
o The onboard nuclear reactor produces double the power.
o It has a more advanced weapon system including tube-launched missiles.
o Chakra II is deployed with the Eastern Naval Command.
CHAKRA-III
• In 2019, India and Russia signed an agreement for leasing of the Akula class nuclear powered submarine Chakra
III for $3 billion for at least 10 years.
• Powered by 190 MW nuclear power. Expected to be delivered in 2026 or later.
SSBN FLEET
Arihant
• Under the Advanced Technology Vehicle programme, India has indigenously-built Arihant, SSBN.
• India’s 1st nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine.
• Displacement capacity of 6,000 tonnes.
• Powered by an 83 MW pressurised light-water reactor with enriched uranium.
• Formally inducted in November 2019 marking the Nuclear Triad capability of India.
• Capable of launching K-15 Missile with a range of 750 km and K-4 ICBM with a range of 3,500 km.
Arighat
• 2nd Arihant-class submarine built under Advanced Technology Vessel Program.
• Powered by a pressurised water reactor.
• Maximum speed of 12–15 knots (22–28 km/h) when on surface and 24 knots (44 km/h) when submerged.
• 4 launch tubes can carry up to 12 K-15 Sagarika missiles or 4 four of the under-development K-4 missiles.
POSEIDON
• Anti Submarine Warfare aircraft, which India has acquired from the USA.
• It is a boost to maritime ISR capabilities (intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance)
• Long-range maritime patrol aircraft capable of undersea surveillance from a height of up to 40000 ft.
• It has an operational speed of 450 mph, range of 4,500 nautical miles and operational time of up to 10 hours.
• It is equipped with Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radars capable of engaging multiple targets
simultaneously. Magnetic Anomaly Detection radar will help locate submarines in deep seas.
26. IMPORTANT FIGHTER JETS OF INDIA

• 4th generation supersonic, single-seat, single-engine multirole light fighter aircraft.
• Conceived in the early 1980s to replace the Russian-made MIG 21 of the Indian Air Force.
• Designed and developed by Aeronautical Development Agency.
• The combat-ready version of the fighter comprises battle-time requirements such as mid-air
TEJAS LCA refuelling, AESA radar, electronic warfare suites, bombs and weapons etc.
• India does not have even a single squadron of the indigenously produced fighters.
• In contrast, both China has fifth generation fighters already in the test flying stage.
• Pakistan also has an operational indigenously built fighter jet, JF 17 developed with Chinese
assistance.
MIG 29 • India’s premier Air Defense Fighter aircraft.

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
• Light-weight air-superiority fighter aircraft developed by Russia.

• Twin-engine jet fighter inducted into Indian Air Force in 1985.
• With about 110 Mig-29s operated by the Indian Air Force and Indian Navy combined, India is
the second biggest operator of Mig-29s in the world after Russia.
• The MiG-29 aircraft played an important role during the Kargil War of 1999.
• Three squadrons of 16-18 MiG-29s aircrafts each are deployed in the strategically important
Adampur Air Force Station, which is around 100 km from Pakistan and 250 km away from China
borders.
• The MiG 29s are far more superior to F-16s of the Pakistan Air Force with the capacity to launch
Beyond Visual Range BVR missiles.
• Multirole combat fighter aircraft

• Jointly developed by Russia and India.
• India’s answer to Pakistan's F-16.
• Top speed of 2120 kph (Mach 1.7).
SUKHOI-30
MKI • Capable of launching up to 6 air-air, 6 air-to-surface missiles, 6 laser guided bombs and 8500kg
of cluster bombs.
• This has provided a significant strategic deterrence against China and Pakistan in multi-mission
roles, including precision strikes on terror camps across the LoC, against high-value naval
targets, including aircraft carriers and nuclear bunkers.
• Twin-engine medium multi-role combat aircraft, manufactured by French company Dassault

Aviation.
• Can carry weapons more than 9 tonnes including air-air, air-ground and air-ship missiles.
• Main roles include missions including Air-defence/air-superiority, Reconnaissance, close air
support dynamic targeting, Air-to-ground precision strike/interdiction, anti-ship attacks, and
nuclear deterrence, buddy-buddy refuelling.
• Can carry out both air-to-ground, as well as air-to-air attacks and interceptions during the same
RAFALE sortie.
• Maximum speed of 1.9 mach.
• Range of more than 3700 km vs 400-550 of Su 30.
• Weapon system include SCALP and METEOR missiles
• SCALP: Precision long range ground attack missile that can take out targets with extreme
accuracy. Has a range of 300 km, capped by the missile technology control regime.
• METEOR: Beyond visual range air to air missile that is possibly the best in its class. Can take
out enemy aircraft at a range of over 100 km.
27. IMPORTANT HELICOPTERS

• Developed as a replacement for Cheetah and Chetak helicopters.
LIGHT UTILITY
• New generation 3-Ton class helicopter.
HELICOPTER
• Being indigenously developed by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
• Utility helicopter developed and manufactured by HAL.

DHRUV Important Roles
• Commuter Role, Evacuation, Rapid Deployment of Forces, Logistic Air Support, Search and Rescue
Characteristics
CHINOOK
• Acquired from USA under Foreign Military Assistance

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
• Heavy-lift Capability
• Modern heavy-lift helicopter with payload lifting capacity of 10-12.5 tonne
• Vertical-lift platform
• Will replace the Mi-26 heavy-lift helicopters of IAF.
Importance
• Airlift artillery, light armoured vehicles, troops and supplies to difficult Himalayan mountainous
terrains.
• Assist Border Road Organisation to carry road construction and engineering equipment to
difficult high-altitude terrains of North East.
• Deployed in disaster relief operations.

• Multi-role combat helicopter.
• All-weather helicopter that can engage both air and ground targets.
• It is equipped with Hellfire missiles (air to surface anti-tank missiles).
APACHE SIGNIFICANCE
• Can approach enemy troops covertly with relative stealth and launch as close range attack.
Capability to operate in hostile airspace.
• Capability to destroy enemy tanks, armoured personnel carriers and fortified positions in
mountainous terrain.
MH-60R • Naval multi-role helicopter.

(ROMEO) • Capable of being operated from various types of warships including frigates, destroyers, cruisers
SEAHAWK and aircraft carriers
HELICOPTERS • Equipped with state-of-art SONAR suite which provides navigation, situational awareness, target
data and weapon guidance capabilities.
28. AIRBORNE EARLY WARNING & CONTROL SYSTEM

(AWACS)
• Indian Air Force has undergone a doctrinal shift from conventional warfare to sub-conventional warfare due to
threats from proxy wars by Pakistan post 1990s.
• AWACS are one the short-term operational requirements identified by IAF in line with the counter-proxy war
strategy.
WHAT ARE AWACS?

• Known as ‘eyes in the sky’. Air-borne radar systems mounted on aircrafts for scanning and surveillance.
• With a 360-degree span, they are deployed to carry out surveillance on enemy Air Defence systems and to
prepare an Air Situation Picture useful in aerial combats.
• PHALCON: AWACS procured by India from Israel.
29. NETRA
• The Netra Airborne Early Warning & Control System (AEW&CS) aircraft is a multi-sensor platform indigenously
developed by DRDO.
• Netra has an indigenously developed Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar system mounted on the
Embraer ERJ 145 twin-engine aircraft.

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
• The AESA radar is an airborne surveillance system with detection and tracking capabilities. It can track and find
aircraft, missiles, ships and vehicles.
 MISCELLANEOUS
30. ANTI SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY

BACKGROUND
• Satellites form an integral part of a country’s critical infrastructure.
• Intercepting satellites can halt various critical applications including navigation systems, communication
networks, broadcasting, banking systems, surveillance etc.
WHAT IS A-SAT?
Anti-satellite technology is a counter-space capability of a country to neutralise space-based assets of an enemy
country.
TYPES OF A-SAT
• Missile-based A-SAT: A missile is used to hit and destroy satellite using:
o Direct-ascent kinetic kill vehicle (Chinese A-SAT in 2007, India now, USA and Russia)
o Co-orbiting missile (Russia has this type)
• Co-orbital drones: Approach the target satellite and deviate it from its orbit. (China, UK, Russia are working on
this technology)
• High-energy lasers: Blind the sensors of the satellites.
• Interception and jamming of signals from the satellites by sending more powerful radio signals.
HISTORY OF A-SAT MISSILE TESTS

• ASAT missile tests have been conducted by the USA and Russia in the cold-war era.
• The USA has had the anti-satellite weapon since 1959 followed by Russia in 1960.
• The cold-war witnessed the anti-satellite weaponry tests till early 1980s.
• China conducted the A-SAT weaponry test in 2007. (800 km orbit)
OUTER SPACE TREATY 1967

• According to this treaty, outer space shall be used only for peaceful purposes.
• It prohibits countries from placing into orbit around the Earth any objects carrying nuclear weapons or any
other kinds of weapons of mass destruction.
• It requires that celestial bodies shall be used by all parties exclusively for peaceful purposes and no weapon
can be stationed on them.
• However, the Outer Space Treaty by itself does not prevent an arms race in space.
• India is a party to the Outer Space Treaty.
31. MISSION SHAKTI

• Under Mission Shakti, India demonstrated the capability to destroy a satellite in low earth orbit using an anti-
satellite missile in 2019.
• India became only the 4th country to conduct an Anti-Satellite missile test after the USA, Russia and China.

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
TARGET
• Microsat R was a military imaging satellite placed in an orbit 274 km above the Earth surface with an orbital
velocity of 7.8km/s.
TECHNOLOGY: ‘HIT TO KILL’

• The anti- satellite test involved the ‘hit to kill’ missile technology.
• Under the ‘hit to kill’ technology, a missile is shot at the satellite in order to hit and kill the satellite.
KILL VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY

• The A-SAT missile was based on the exo-atmospheric kill vehicle technology.
• It includes
o an 18-tonne, 3-stage interceptor missile
o with 2-stage solid propellants
o with a long range tracking radar and
o Infra-red and radar frequency seekers to reach the target satellite and hit it.
• Accordingly, the anti-satellite missile used was an advanced version of ‘Prithvi Defence Vehicle’ of India’s Ballistic
Missile Defence system. This is because the target satellite was in a 300 km orbit.
32. NAGASTRA-1 SUICIDE DRONE

• Nagastra-1 is the first indigenous Loiter Munition or suicide drone which can strike targets within a 15-30 km
range using GPS-enabled precision.
• It can loiter over a target for a maximum of 60 minutes and has an accuracy of less than 2 metres.
• It can undertake shallow strikes with precision, without endangering the lives of soldiers and is capable of
destroying various soft-skinned targets using its pre-fragmented high explosive warhead. The munition carries
a day-and-night camera for surveillance as well.
• Nagastra-1 in its 'Kamikaze' mode can search and destroy any target by crashing into it. In case, a target is not
detected or if the mission is aborted, it can be called back and made a soft landing with a parachute recovery
mechanism, thus, enabling it to be reused multiple times.
33. INDRAJAAL
• Hyderabad-based Grene Robotics has launched Indrajaal, India's first Al-powered anti-drone system.
• It provides a 360-degree coverage/defence against all types and intensities of unmanned autonomous threats
across regions up to 4000 square kilometres.
• It can quickly and accurately identify, categorise, track, and eliminate threats in real time.
• It offers protection from all kinds of autonomous drones, including low Radar Cross Section (RCS) threats,
medium-altitude long-endurance (MALE) and high-altitude long-endurance (HALE) UAVs.
• ⁠It can also be used for loitering munitions, smart bombs, rocket showers, nano and micro drones, and even
swarm drones.
34. HIGH ALTITUDE PSEUDO SATELLITES (HAPS)

• HAPS are unmanned air vehicles that can fly at an altitude of 18-20 km from the ground (stratosphere), almost
double the heights attained by commercial aeroplanes.
• They have the ability to generate solar power, so they can remain in the air for months and even years, giving
the advantage of a satellite.
• They move at just about 80-100 km per hour at a height of 20 km above the Earth’s surface. These features help
it to gauge an area for a long time. They can easily keep an eye over 200 km and can observe everything even
over a 400 sq km area with 5 cm resolution.

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
• HAPS can work like a geostationary satellite and can be easily redeployed over another location, or can be
reequipped with a different payload.
• Primary utility of HAPS vehicles is in the field of surveillance and monitoring, but it can be also useful in disaster
management, emergency/public safety communications, maritime surveillance, land border control
applications, etc.
35. BHAR OS SOFTWARE

• IIT Madras has recently developed ‘BharOS’ - an indigenous mobile operating system.
• It is a government funded AOSP (Android Open-Source Project) based operating system with no Google Apps
or services.
• It comes with No Default Apps (NDA) which means that users are not forced to use apps that they may not be
familiar with, giving more permission controls to users.
• It offers ‘Native Over The Air’ (NOTA) updates which means that security updates and bug fixes will be
automatically installed on the device.
• Private App Store Services (PASS) provides access to a curated list of apps that have been thoroughly vetted and
have met certain security and privacy standards of organisations.
• It will be used in government and public systems and will reduce the reliance on foreign OS in smartphones.
36. MAYA OS
• Maya OS is an operating system developed by experts from the Indian Defence Research and Development
Organisation, the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), and the National Informatics Centre
(NIC).
• The Indian Defence Ministry has decided to replace Microsoft’s Windows with Maya OS on all its computers.
• It is an open-source Ubuntu-based operating system launched to prevent malware attacks by cybercriminals
increasingly targeting critical infrastructure and government agencies.
• It is powered by an endpoint detection and protection system called "Chakravyuh". Chakravyuh is an end-
point anti-malware and antivirus software that creates a virtual layer between the user and the internet,
preventing hackers from accessing sensitive data.


Raus PRE COMPASS 2024 SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Raus PRE COMPASS 2024 SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Raus PRE COMPASS 2024 SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.

INTERNET AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY 76

2. LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED) 76

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY 107

4. COAL CONVERSIONS 111

47. SOLAR PV CELLS 145

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY 148

2. DNA AS CODE OF LIFE

BUILDING BLOCKS OF DNA

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 6

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 7

• Major types of RNA:

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 8

CENTRAL DOGMA (COOKBOOK ANALOGY)

EPIGENETICS: IT’S ALL ABOUT GENE EXPRESSION

INTRONS, EXONS AND RNA SPLICING

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 9

7. GENOME SEQUENCING: READING THE CODE OF LIFE

To create a comprehensive reference database of genetic variations and

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 10

Wheat Genome Sequencing Programme

International effort to sequence and digitise the genomes of every eukaryotic

DeepVariant: AI in Google’s AI system that converts sequencing data from high-throughput

Google’s AI system that is capable of predicting protein modelling.

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 11

9. VARIATIONS IN THE GENOME: IDENTITY MARKERS

• Single letter changes in DNA is called Single Nucleotide Polymorphism.

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 12

10. INDUCED-PLURIPOTENT STEM CELLS: IPSCs

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 13

11. STEM CELL THERAPY

12. SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER (SCNT) OR

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 14

13. TISSUE ENGINEERING/ REGENERATIVE MEDICINE/

14. AUTOLOGOUS, ALLOGENIC AND XENOGENIC

• Organ transplantation from one species to another is called xenotransplantation.

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 15

16. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA TREATMENT

 RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY: BIRTH OF GENETIC

17. R-DNA TECHNOLOGY: MANIPULATING THE CODE OF LIFE

KEY STEPS IN R-DNA TECHNOLOGY

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 16

• Fragmenting this DNA using ‘molecular scissors’ (Restriction endonuclease Enzymes).

18. APPLICATIONS OF R-DNA TECHNOLOGY

19. CONCERNS OF R-DNA TECHNOLOGY

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 17

○ Increased nutritional content of a crop

REGULATION OF GM CROPS IN INDIA

21. GM CROPS: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

• Resistance to bollworm pest

• Short for Herbicide Resistant Bt Cotton

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 18

Golden Rice Vitamin A (2 genes from daffodil and 1 from bacteria)

A new approach for delivering vaccine is transgenic food crops

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 19

 GENE EDITING: CRISPR-CAS9: REVOLUTION IN GENETIC

22. CRISPR-BASED GENE EDITING

○ Inserting a new sequence (gene insertion)

○ Deleting the sequence (gene removal)