PDF&Rendition 1 1

Authors
Anchal Singh
Research Scholar, Banda University of Agriculture & Technology, Banda,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Shweta Gupta
Research Scholar, Banda University of Agriculture & Technology, Banda,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Ashutosh Kumar
Senior Technical Assistant, Department of Agriculture (Govt. of U.P.), Uttar
Pradesh, India
Ankur Tripathi
Research Scholar, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and
Technology, Kumarganj, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India
AkiNik Publications ®
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Authors: Anchal Singh, Shweta Gupta, Ashutosh Kumar and Ankur Tripathi
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Publication Year: 2023
Edition: 1st
Pages: 101
ISBN: 978-93-6135-723-7
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Contents
S. No. Chapters Page Nos.
1. Precision Agriculture: A Modern Approach to Efficient 01-11

Resource Management
2. Sustainable Agriculture 13-22
3. Role of Diffusion Double Layer Theory 23-32
4. Smart Agriculture: A New Era in Farming 33-42
5. Natural Farming: A New Direction of Agriculture 43-51
6. Conservation Agriculture: Problems, Prospects, and its 53-63

Issue
7. The Impact of Modern Technology on Agriculture 65-73
8. A Study on Women Empowerment in India 75-84
9. Conservation Tillage, Its Advantage and Disadvantage in 85-92

India
10. Soil health Card Scheme and Importance 93-101

Chapter - 1
Precision Agriculture: A Modern Approach to
Efficient Resource Management
Authors
Rinku Kumar
Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, College of
Agriculture, Banda University of Agriculture and Technology,
Banda, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sagar Chaudhary
M.Sc. Student, Department of Agronomy, A.S. College
Lakhaoti, Bulandshahar, Uttar Pradesh, India
Milind Sagar
M.Sc. Student, Department of Agronomy, College of
Krishankant Sharma
Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, S.V.P. University
of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
Rahul Verma
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Chapter - 1
Precision Agriculture: A Modern Approach to Efficient
Resource Management
Rinku Kumar, Sagar Chaudhary, Milind Sagar, Krishankant Sharma and Rahul Verma
Abstract
Precision agriculture is also known as precision farming, Precision
agriculture can be defined as the application of principles and technologies
to manage spatial and temporal variability associated with all aspects of
agricultural production for the purpose of improving crop performance and
environmental quality. It implies that adopting contemporary technologies to
increase agricultural output productivity in a way that conventional farming
cannot is a viable option. Using tools like GPS, GIS, drones, sensors, and
data analytics to optimize farming with such precision that there is no room
for error. Geolocating, variables, strategies, and applying procedures are the
four guiding principles. Sustainability, resource efficiency, data-driven
decision-making, increased crop yield, tailored treatment plans, less
chemical use, improved soil fertility, increase in crop quality products, and
yield maps are just a few of the advantages of precision farming. Farmers
who practice precision agriculture are able to use agricultural inputs like
fertilizers, herbicides, tillage, and irrigation water more efficiently. Increased
agricultural yield and/or quality without damaging the environment is a
result of more efficient input usage. The costs and advantages of precision
agriculture management have proven to be challenging to quantify. Many of
the technologies currently in use are still in their infancy, making it
challenging to determine how much equipment and services will cost. Our
existing economic analyses of a certain technology may become obsolete as
a result.
Keywords: Drones, GIS, GPS, precision agriculture, sustainability.
1. Introduction
Precision farming, commonly referred to as precision agriculture,
heralds a fundamental change in the way we raise crops and administer
agricultural resources. Precision agriculture, which emerged from a
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combination of cutting-edge technology and centuries-old farming methods,
has completely changed the way that farming is practiced. Imagine a world
where every square inch of a field is treated as a distinct canvas, where every
plant is carefully tended to, and where every drop of water and grain of
fertilizer is used to the greatest possible advantage. This is the fundamental
idea behind precision agriculture, a revolutionary strategy that makes use of
cutting-edge equipment like GPS, drones, sensors and data analytics to
optimize farming with previously unheard-of accuracy. Precision agriculture
is a holistic ideology that prioritizes sustainability, resource conservation,
and environmental stewardship in addition to yield maximization. Precision
agriculture reduces waste, lessens environmental impact, and improves crop
quality by tailoring planting, irrigation, fertilization, and pest management to
the specific demands of various locations within a field. Farmers now have
the ability to make data-driven decisions thanks to these paradigm shifts.
They can make adjustments to their strategy based on specific insights,
monitor crop health in real-time and forecast weather trends. Precision
agriculture appears as a ray of light, promising a road towards a more
resilient, fruitful, and sustainable agricultural future as the globe grapples
with issues including a growing population, climate change, and depleting
resources.
2. Definitions
• Precision agriculture can be defined as the application of principles
and technologies to manage spatial and temporal variability
associated with all aspects of agricultural production for the purpose
of improving crop performance and environmental quality (Pierce
and Nowak, 1999).
• Precision farming is also referred as site specific farming; smart
farming and GPS (Global Positioning System) based farming
(Palaniappan, 2002).
• Precision farming is the only solution to identify the causes of
variability within the field and to carefully tailor soil and crop
management to fit in each cultivated field (Gautam and Sharma,
2002).
3. Why precision farming?
1) To increase agricultural productivity while considering profitability.
2) Prevents soil deterioration on land that can be farmed.
3) Minimizing the use of chemicals in crop production.
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4) Effective water resource management.
5) The spread of modern farming techniques to increase the quantity,
quality, and lower the cost of production of agricultural crops.
4. Concept of precision farming
Precision farming, also referred to as precision agriculture, is a
revolutionary farming technique that makes use of technology like GPS,
sensors, and data analysis to maximize various agricultural techniques.
Making exact judgments about planting, fertilizing, irrigating, and harvesting
crops entails gathering data about soil characteristics, weather patterns, crop
health, and other variables. By using inputs just where and when necessary,
the objective is to increase crop output, eliminate resource waste, and limit
environmental effects.
Site-specific crop management (SSCM), or precision farming, is another
name for this method of farming within a field. As stated by Second
International conference on Site-Specific Management for Agricultural
System, held in Minneapolis, Minnesota, in March 1994, precision farming
or SSCM refers to a developing agricultural management system that
promotes variable management practices within a field according to a site or
soil conditions (National Research Council 1997). However, Batte and Van
Buren (1999) stated that the SSCM is not a single technology, but an
integration of technologies permitting:
1) The timely and appropriate collection of data on an acceptable
scale.
2) Data analysis and interpretation to assist a variety of management
choices.
3) Execution of the management response at the proper size and
moment.
Utilizing modern technology and data gathered from the field is the
concept of precision farming. With the help of precision farming, farmers
may now apply fertilizer based on the needs of a specific sub-field rather
than the field's average. With this varied application, significant savings may
be realized. Using precision agricultural technologies could increase
productivity and profitability (Fig. 4.1).
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Fig 4.1: Precision agriculture: tools driven approach
5. Principles of precision farming
In these farming methods, various farming tools are used like combines,
planters, tractors, diggers, sprayers, etc. That equipment are auto-guidance
systems. The geographic information system makes this farming the best
method. Below are some principles of precision:
5.1 Geolocating
Geolocating plays a vital role in gathers and analyst overall information
of the field like residual nitrogen, soils, and previous production of crops.
This method is done in two ways that mentioned below:
▪ The use of in-vehicles GPS receiver when the farmers are on the
ground with tractors.
▪ Drive the base-map from the satellite imagery is the second option
to locating the field.
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5.2 Variables
The number of factors very much depends on the intra-field variability
that includes the condition of climates, crops production practice, soil
management, tidy, and disease. Variables provide the farmers’ packs of
information about the environment constant and track the status of the crop,
disease reducing system, developing the crops producing with gathering the
nitrogen stress, water stress, etc.
5.3 Strategies
With the use of soil maps, the farmers can ensure effective strategies.
Those strategies can help to make decisions in the production of the crop.
Those based on the big data analyst and the farmers can decide the business
value and the environmental impacts. The modern technology that is used in
this modern farming greatly impacts the economic condition of the farmers.
5.4 Implementing practices
The implementing practices that provide the latest communication
technologies on the crops management process easiest and operational for
the farmers. The agricultural equipment technologies are varying the density
of the seed with implementing practices application.
6. Advantages of precision farming
Precision farming has a number of benefits, such as increased crop yield
from targeted resource application, lower input costs, reduced environmental
impact from resource optimization, better crop monitoring and management,
and improved decision-making based on data-driven insights. Here some
benefits of precision farming are described as follows:
a) Resource efficiency: Precision agriculture eliminates waste and
lowers production costs by precisely directing resources like water,
fertilizer, and insecticides.
b) Environmental sustainability: Optimal resource utilization
minimizes runoff and soil degradation, promoting sustainable
farming practices and reducing environmental impact.
c) Data-driven decision-making: Modern technology offer real-time
information on crop health, soil moisture, and meteorological
conditions, allowing for educated productivity decisions.
d) Higher crop yield: The precise use of fertilizers, herbicides, and
irrigation made possible through precision agriculture results in
optimum crop development and increased yields.
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e) Customized treatment plans: Precision agriculture addresses
variability and ensures that each component of a field receives the
right care by customizing treatments to specific sections of the field.
f) Minimize the use of chemicals: Precise application of pesticides
and fertilizers minimizes overuse, decreasing chemical runoff and
potential harm to ecosystems.
g) Enhanced soil health: Long-term soil health can be improved by
using precision agriculture techniques to reduce soil compaction,
erosion, and nutrient depletion.
h) Crop quality enhancement: enhanced crop quality, consistency,
and marketability are results of enhanced management practices.
7. Technologies involved in precision agriculture
A wide range of tools and technologies are used in precision farming to
gather data, analyze information, and implement site-specific management
strategies. These tools allow farmers to optimize their agricultural practices
for increased effectiveness, productivity, and sustainability. Here are some of
the main tools used in precision farming:
a) Global Positioning System (GPS): GPS is a system of satellites in
orbit that relays precise location information to the ground. Getting
a birds-eye perspective but from space. GPS receivers collect the
signals in order to determine the precise position and time. Its
precision ranges from 100 to 0.01 meters. It allows farmers to locate
specific field information such as soil type, pest activity, weed
invasion, water holes, etc. and identify it. This is especially useful
when farmers must decide which seeds to plant, which insecticides
to use, which fertilizers to use, and which irrigation needs to be met.
b) Geographic Information Systems (GIS): GIS was first used in
1960, and it is a computerized mapping system that collects, stores,
analyzes, and displays information that is specifically referenced to
the earth. It is software that imports, exports, and processes spatially
and temporally geographically distributed data, and it gives users
the ability to overlay various layers of data for purposes like land
use, irrigation management, crop, soil, and environment research.
Computerized GIS maps differ from traditional maps in that they
contain multiple layers of data. Any information that contains a
location can be used by GIS. There are numerous ways to specify
the location, including using latitude and longitude, an address, or a
ZIP code. Using GIS, a variety of information types can be
compared and contrasted.
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c) Remote sensing: High-resolution photographs and data on crops
and fields are captured by remote sensing technology, such as
drones and satellites. These pictures support crop health monitoring,
disease and pest detection, and general field assessment.
d) Variable-Rate Technology (VRT): The concept behind variable-
rate technology (VRT) is that different parts of a field may have
different soil types, topography, crop characteristics, and other
factors that may affect their requirements for inputs. By using VRT,
farmers can precisely control the rate of application of crop inputs
such as tillage, insect control, fertilizer, plant population, and
irrigation.
The following are the three main applications of variable-rate
technology in precision agriculture:
1) Sowing: Depending on the soil properties and crop requirements of
each region, VRT is utilized to plant seeds. The quality and yield of
their crops are improved as a result.
2) Fertilizers: Based on the soil nutrient levels and crop requirements
of each location, VRT is used to apply fertilizers at various rates
throughout a field. This can increase crop yields and quality while
saving farmers money on fertilizer.
3) Pesticides: Depending on the frequency and distribution of pests
and diseases throughout the field, VRT is used to apply insecticides.
This aids farmers in regulating pesticide usage and lowering the
possibility of environmental damage.
e) Yield monitors for precision agriculture: A yield monitor is a
tool used in precision agriculture to measure and record crop yields
as they are harvested. Yield monitors typically consist of sensors
that measure the flow of grain or other crops as they pass through
the combine harvester and a computer or other data recording
device that captures the yield data. Crop yield maps can be created
using yield monitors to demonstrate the spatial variability of yields
and pinpoint problematic or productive areas. The quality of
harvested crops, including their moisture content and test weight,
can be measured and recorded using yield monitors. The crop's
overall quality can be raised by using this information to improve
handling and storage procedures.
f) Yield maps: Yield maps are produced using data collected from a
modified combine harvester that has a GPS integrated with a yield
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tracking device. A yield map shows the spatial variability of crop
yields and identifies areas that are performing well or poorly. It is a
visual representation of crop yields across a field. Yield maps can
also be made utilizing other data gathering techniques, such as GPS
or remote sensing technology, in addition to yield monitors. By
highlighting fields with varying resource requirements, yield maps
can assist farmers in maximizing their resource management
techniques. They can also be used to assist in planning and
decision-making by giving data analysis a visual and spatial
context.
g) Precision irrigation systems: By regulating the movement of the
irrigation devices with GPS-based regulators, recent advancements
in sprinkler irrigation are being offered for commercial usage. In
order to achieve higher water use efficiency, remote communication
and sensor technologies are being developed to keep an eye on the
soil and environment as well as the activity limits of the irrigation
machinery (such as flow and strain).
h) Proximate sensors: As the tractor with the sensors goes across the
field, these sensors can be used to measure yield qualities and soil
parameters (such as N status and soil pH).
8. Barriers to adoption precision farming
While precision farming offers numerous benefits, there are several
barriers that can hinder its widespread adoption in the agricultural industry.
These barriers vary depending on factors such as technology, economics,
education, and regulatory environments. Precision farming adoption is
hampered by the high upfront expenses of adopting sophisticated
technologies like GPS devices and sensors, which can put a strain on
farmers' financial resources. Effectively utilizing and maintaining these
complicated systems is difficult due to a lack of technical knowledge and
training. Sharing sensitive farm data and managing interoperability are
fraught with anxiety due to worries about data privacy and security and the
intricate integration of numerous technologies. A smooth integration of
precision farming techniques is further hampered by the agriculture
industry's unpredictable and variable field circumstances, the lack of high-
speed internet connectivity in rural areas, and resistance to changing
established practices. These obstacles collectively prevent the widespread
adoption of precision farming across agricultural landscapes, along with
legislative uncertainty, market dynamics, and cultural considerations.
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9. Summary
Farmers who practice precision agriculture are able to use agricultural
inputs like fertilizers, herbicides, tillage, and irrigation water more
efficiently. Increased agricultural yield and/or quality without damaging the
environment is a result of more efficient input usage. The costs and
advantages of precision agriculture management have proven to be
challenging to quantify. Many of the technologies currently in use are still in
their infancy, making it challenging to determine how much equipment and
services will cost. Our existing economic analyses of a certain technology
may become obsolete as a result.
References
1. Pierce, J. F. and Nowak, P. (1999). Aspects of precision agriculture.
Advances in Agronomy. 67: 1-85.
2. Gautam, R. C. and Sharma, S. N. (2002). Precision farming in rice
(Oryza sativa) – wheat (Triticum aestivum) cropping system. Extended
summaries vol. 2: 2nd International Agronomy Congress, November 26-
30, New Delhi, India.
3. Sahoo, R. N., Tomar, R. K. and Arora, R.P. (2002). Precision farming:
A prospective alternative in 21 century. Extended summaries Vol. 2: 2nd
International Agronomy Congress, November, 26- 30, New Delhi, India.
4. Reddy, S. R. (2019). Principles of Agronomy. Kalyani Publishers,
Ludhiana, New Delhi.
5. Mehta, A. and Masdekar, M. (2018). Precision Agriculture – A Modern
Approach to Smart Farming. International Journal of Scientific &
Engineering Research. Volume 9, Issue 2.
6. Mandal, M. R. (2022). How Precision Farming is better than Traditional
Farming? Acta Scientific Agriculture (ISSN: 2581-365X) Volume 6
Issue 11.
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Chapter - 2
Sustainable Agriculture
Authors
Anchal Singh
Shweta Gupta
Ashutosh Kumar
Senior Technical Assistant, Department of Agriculture (Govt.
of U.P.), Uttar Pradesh, India
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Chapter - 2
Sustainable Agriculture
Anchal Singh, Shweta Gupta and Ashutosh Kumar
Abstract
Sustainable agriculture is an agricultural approach designed to fulfil
present and future food, fibre, and agricultural needs while safeguarding the
environment, ensuring economic viability, and promoting social fairness. It
constitutes a comprehensive and forward-looking set of agricultural methods
that acknowledges the interdependence of ecological, economic, and social
aspects in farming. Sustainable agriculture places a high priority on
safeguarding and conserving natural resources like soil, water, and
biodiversity. It strives to minimize adverse environmental effects and reduce
practices that harm ecosystems. The health of soils is a cornerstone of
sustainable agriculture. Techniques such as crop rotation, cover cropping,
and reduced tillage are employed to enhance soil fertility, structure, and
vitality. Sustainable farming practices seek to use resources such as water,
energy, and nutrients efficiently. Precision farming technologies are
frequently employed to optimize resource utilization. Sustainable agriculture
promotes the preservation of diverse plant and animal species on agricultural
lands. This can entail creating habitats for wildlife, cultivating various crop
varieties, and avoiding monoculture. Sustainable agriculture endeavours to
be economically feasible for farmers, ensuring that farming is profitable and
supports the livelihoods of those involved in agriculture. The well-being of
farm laborers, local communities, and consumers is considered in sustainable
agriculture.
Keywords: Sustainability, economic and ecological sustainability,
agriculture.
Introduction
Sustainable agriculture advocates for equitable access to resources, fair
labour practices, and safe working conditions. Encouraging diversity in
crops and livestock breeds bolsters resilience against pests, diseases, and
climate fluctuations, while also contributing to a more diverse and nutritious
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diet. The adoption of renewable energy sources such as solar and wind
power can decrease the environmental impact of agriculture. Implementing
conservation practices like agroforestry, wetland restoration, and buffer
zones helps mitigate environmental consequences. Sustainable agriculture
initiatives often include education and outreach efforts to inform farmers and
consumers about sustainable practices, their advantages, and how to
implement them. Sustainable agriculture acknowledges that agriculture is
intricately linked to wider ecological and societal systems. It aims to strike a
balance between current food production necessities and the long-term
health of the planet and future generations. In the face of mounting global
concerns about climate change, resource depletion, and food security,
sustainable agriculture plays a pivotal role in shaping the future of
agriculture on a global scale.
Concept of sustainable agriculture
Sustainable agriculture represents a concept and method of farming
geared toward ensuring the enduring viability of environmental, economic,
and social aspects. Its primary goal is to meet current and future demands for
agricultural products like food and fibre while mitigating adverse
environmental effects, conserving natural resources, and advancing the
welfare of farming communities. This concept is underpinned by several
fundamental principles:
1. Environmental care: Sustainable agriculture is committed to
safeguarding and enhancing the environment by reducing soil
erosion, preserving water resources, minimizing pollution, and
protecting biodiversity. It promotes farming practices that coexist
harmoniously with the natural world.
2. Soil health: Healthy soils are a cornerstone of sustainable
agriculture. Techniques such as crop rotation, cover cropping,
reduced tillage, and the incorporation of organic matter are used to
bolster soil fertility, structure, and overall well-being.
3. Resource efficiency: Sustainable farming strives for the efficient
utilization of resources such as water, energy, and nutrients.
Technologies like precision agriculture and sustainable irrigation
systems are employed to optimize resource allocation.
4. Preservation of biodiversity: Encouraging biodiversity on
agricultural lands enhances resilience to pests and diseases, fosters
ecosystem services, and contributes to overall ecological health.
This can encompass practices like planting diverse crops,
establishing wildlife habitats, or conserving native plant species.
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5. Economic sustainability: Sustainable agriculture must be
economically viable for farmers and rural communities. It
emphasizes equitable resource access, fair trade, and profitable
farming practices.
6. Social equity: The well-being of farm laborers, local communities,
and consumers is a central concern in sustainable agriculture. It
advocates for just labor practices, safe working conditions, and
access to locally produced, nutritious food.
7. Crop diversity: Promoting a wide array of crop varieties and
livestock breeds reduces the vulnerability to crop failures and
enhances food security. Many sustainable agriculture initiatives
prioritize the conservation of heritage and heirloom varieties.
8. Utilization of renewable energy: The adoption of renewable
energy sources like solar and wind power reduces agriculture's
carbon footprint and contributes to sustainability.
Components of sustainable agriculture
Sustainable agriculture consists of several integral components that
work together to promote farming practices that are environmentally
conscious, economically viable, and socially equitable. These components
are essential for achieving the overarching objective of long-term
sustainability in agriculture. Here are some of the primary elements that
constitute sustainable agriculture:
1. Soil health: Maintaining healthy soil is a cornerstone of sustainable
agriculture. Methods like crop rotation, cover cropping, minimal
tillage, and the addition of organic matter are used to preserve and
enhance soil fertility, structure, and overall well-being.
2. Water management: Sustainable agriculture emphasizes efficient
water management to conserve this valuable resource. Techniques
include drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and reducing water
wastage.
3. Biodiversity preservation: Encouraging biodiversity on agricultural
lands enhances ecological resilience and offers various benefits,
such as natural pest control and improved pollination. Strategies
include maintaining hedgerows, planting indigenous species, and
creating habitats for wildlife.
4. Crop variety: The cultivation of diverse crop varieties and livestock
breeds minimizes the risk of crop failure and contributes to food
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security. Conserving heirloom and traditional crop varieties is a
common practice.
5. Integrated Pest Management (IPM): IPM strategies prioritize non-
chemical approaches to pest control, such as using beneficial
insects, crop rotation, and biological controls, while minimizing the
reliance on synthetic pesticides.
6. Nutrient management: Effective nutrient utilization is vital in
sustainable agriculture. Precision farming methods help optimize
nutrient application, reducing excess fertilizer use and nutrient
runoff.
7. Energy efficiency: Sustainable farming aims to lower energy
consumption by adopting renewable energy sources like solar and
wind power and employing energy-efficient equipment and
practices.
8. Conservation tillage: Reduced or zero-tillage practices prevent soil
erosion, enhance water retention, and reduce the carbon footprint of
farming.
9. Agroforestry: Integrating trees and shrubs with crops and livestock
enhances biodiversity, enriches soil fertility, and generates
additional income through timber and fruit production.
10. Livestock management: Sustainable livestock practices prioritize
animal welfare, reduced antibiotic use, and efficient feed
management to minimize environmental impacts.
Benefits of sustainable agriculture
Sustainable agriculture offers a multitude of advantages, spanning
ecological, economic, and societal realms. Here are the primary benefits of
embracing sustainable agriculture practices:
1. Environmental benefits
a) Conservation of soil: Sustainable farming techniques help mitigate
soil erosion, enhance soil quality, and prevent its degradation,
ensuring the long-term preservation of soil.
b) Effective water management: Sustainable agriculture practices
optimize water usage, reduce runoff-induced water pollution, and
contribute to the preservation of freshwater resources.
c) Biodiversity protection: Sustainable agriculture promotes crop
diversity and the creation of habitats for wildlife, fostering
biodiversity and supporting beneficial insects and pollinators.
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d) Decreased chemical dependency: Sustainable farming methods
minimize the reliance on synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, curbing
chemical pollution and its detrimental impact on ecosystems.
2. Economic benefits
a) Enhanced yields: Over time, sustainable agriculture can lead to
increased crop yields owing to improved soil health and effective
nutrient management.
b) Cost efficiency: Reduced dependence on costly inputs such as
synthetic fertilizers and pesticides can result in cost savings for
farmers.
c) Market opportunities: Many consumers and markets place value on
sustainably produced food, creating new avenues for marketing and
potentially higher prices for sustainably grown agricultural
products.
3. Social benefits
a) Enhanced food security: Sustainable agriculture practices contribute
to stable and dependable food production, addressing challenges
related to food security.
b) Improved working conditions: Sustainable farming often prioritizes
fair labor practices and safe working conditions for farm laborers.
c) Community empowerment: Sustainable agriculture can empower
local communities by advocating for local food systems and
involving the community in decision-making processes.
4. Long-term sustainability
a) Resource preservation: Sustainable agriculture ensures responsible
use of natural resources, preserving them for future generations.
b) Climate change adaptation: Sustainable practices aid farming
systems in adapting to evolving climate conditions, reducing
susceptibility to climate-related challenges.
c) Economic stability: Sustainable agriculture promotes enduring
economic stability for farming communities by diminishing reliance
on external inputs and markets.
Challenges in sustainable agriculture
Sustainable agriculture, despite its numerous advantages, confronts
several hurdles and impediments that impede its widespread implementation
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and success. Some of the primary challenges associated with sustainable
agriculture include:
1. Resistance to alteration: Many agricultural communities are deeply
rooted in traditional farming methods. Embracing new sustainable
practices often necessitates farmers to change not only their
techniques but also their ingrained beliefs, which can encounter
resistance.
2. Financial obstacles: The transition to sustainable agriculture
typically demands an initial investment in infrastructure,
technology, and training. Some farmers may lack the financial
means to make these necessary investments.
3. Insufficient knowledge and training: Numerous farmers may be
unaware of sustainable farming practices or may lack access to
training and education regarding these methods. The dissemination
of knowledge and extension services is vital but may be limited in
certain regions.
4. Market entry: Accessing markets that value sustainable products
and offer fair prices can pose a challenge for some farmers.
Establishing and sustaining such markets can be intricate and may
necessitate cooperation throughout the supply chain.
5. Policy and regulatory frameworks: Inconsistent or outdated
agricultural policies and regulations can hinder the widespread
adoption of sustainable practices. Governments and policymakers
must establish a supportive regulatory environment for sustainable
agriculture.
6. Land ownership and tenure: Secure land ownership and tenure are
essential for long-term investments in sustainable agriculture.
Insecure land rights can discourage farmers from adopting
sustainable practices.
7. Climate variability: Sustainable agriculture plays a pivotal role in
climate change mitigation and adaptation. Nonetheless, changing
weather patterns and heightened climate variability can present
challenges to agricultural systems.
8. Pest and disease management: Sustainable agriculture frequently
relies on integrated pest management (IPM) practices, which can be
more intricate to implement compared to conventional pesticide-
based approaches. Pest and disease outbreaks can pose threats to
crops and livelihoods.
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9. Resource constraints: Limited access to resources such as water and
fertile land can pose challenges in the execution of sustainable
practices.
10. Market demand and consumer awareness: The demand for
sustainable agricultural products is expanding, yet consumer
awareness and willingness to pay premium addressing these
challenges necessitates a concerted effort involving farmers,
government agencies, researchers, non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), and other stakeholders. Tailored solutions that consider
local contexts and offer support in terms of knowledge, resources,
and incentives are crucial for promoting sustainable agriculture on a
larger scale.
Present scenario of sustainable agriculture in India
The status of sustainable agriculture in India is in a state of development
as the country grapples with a range of agricultural, environmental, and
socioeconomic challenges. While there has been notable progress in
promoting sustainable farming practices, ongoing efforts are needed, and
areas for improvement remain. Here is a summary of the present situation of
sustainable agriculture in India:
1. Adoption of sustainable practices: In recent years, there has been an
increasing uptake of sustainable agricultural practices in India.
Farmers are gradually embracing methods such as organic farming,
integrated pest management (IPM), crop rotation, and the utilization
of organic fertilizers to reduce the use of chemicals and enhance
soil health.
2. Government initiatives: The Indian government has launched
several initiatives to promote sustainable agriculture. Notable
programs include the National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture
(NMSA) and the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY), both
aimed at supporting organic farming and sustainable practices.
3. Organic farming: Organic farming is gaining momentum in India,
driven by domestic and export market demands. India is now one of
the leading organic producers globally, with the establishment of
certification agencies and support systems for organic farmers.
4. Water management: Sustainable water management practices, such
as drip and sprinkler irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and efficient
water use, are being adopted to address water scarcity issues in
various regions.
Page | 21
5. Biodiversity conservation: Efforts to conserve biodiversity,
including the promotion of traditional crop varieties and the
establishment of seed banks, are helping protect native genetic
resources.
6. Soil health: Soil health cards and soil testing services have been
introduced to assess and improve soil conditions. There is a push to
encourage farmers to adopt practices that enhance soil fertility and
structure.
Conclusion
India has made significant strides in promoting sustainable agriculture,
but further progress is necessary. Continued investment in research,
infrastructure, training, and policy support will be essential to advance
sustainable agriculture practices and address the specific challenges faced by
Indian farmers. Sustainable agriculture is recognized as a vital pathway to
improving food security, conserving natural resources, and enhancing the
livelihoods of rural communities in India.
References
1. Altieri, M. A. 1987. Agroecology: The Scientific Basis of Alternative
Agriculture. Boulder, Colo.: Westview. National Academies of
Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 1993. Sustainable Agriculture and
the Environment in the Humid Tropics. Washington, DC: The National
Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/1985.
2. Gulati, Ashok, Meinzen-Dick, Ruth, and Raju, K.V. (2005) Institutional
Reforms in India Irrigation, Sage Publication.
3. International Journal of Management Research and Technology
“Productivity and Sustainability in Agriculture: An Application of LPP
Model”, Vol. 2 No.2 July-Dec 2008.
4. Kumar, Praduman and Mittal, Surabhi (2006). “Agricultural
Productivity Trends in India: Sustainability Issues” Agricultural
Economic Research Review. Volume 19, Pp 71- 88.
5. Kushwaha Niru (2003) Environment, Sustainable Development and
Rural Poverty in India. Ph.D. Thesis, M.J.P. Rohilkhand University,
Bareilly Ch. 4.
6. Mishra, V.N. and Rao., Govinda (2003), Trade Policy, Agricultural
Growth and Rural Poor: Indian Experience, 1978-79 to 1999-00,
Economic and Political Weekly, October 25, 2003
Page | 22
Chapter - 3
Role of Diffusion Double Layer Theory
Authors
Saniya Syed
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Banda
University of Agriculture and Technology, Banda, Uttar
Pradesh, India
Ashutosh Kumar
Abhishek Kumar
Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural
Chemistry, CS Azad University of Agriculture and
Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Page | 23
Page | 24
Chapter - 3
Role of Diffusion Double Layer Theory
Saniya Syed, Ashutosh Kumar and Abhishek Kumar
Abstract
DDL introduced by Helmholtz in 1897. This is one of the simplest
theories, opposite charges ions attracted towards the charged colloidal
surface, whereas ions of same charge experience repulsion. In DDL
formation of two layers, first is electrical double layer which carries negative
charges whereas second layer carries positive charges. The negative charge
on clay surface and the swarn of positive counter ions are called electric
double layer. This distribution recognizes the existence of two fixed layers,
one that of the charged surfaces of the colloids surrounded by the fixed layer
of the counter ions. A fixed covering of positive ions is formed over a group
of negatively charged particles. This fixed layer of charge is called the Stern
layer. These are surrounded by a thin movable layer of positive charges
called the diffuse layer. The thickness of the diffuse double layer is also
affected by the valence of the exchangeable cations. Generally, it has been
reported that at equivalent electrolyte concentrations, mono valent cations in
exchange positions yield thicker diffuse double layers than divalent cations.
The thickness of double layer with increase in distance more the cation
concentration – reduced concentration gradient in the liquid interface –
smaller the double layer thickness. At equivalent electrolyte concentrations,
monovalent cations in exchange positions yiled thicker diffuse double layer
than divalent cations. DDL are ordinarily balanced by exchangeable cations
adsorbed on their surfaces.
Keywords: DDL theory, clay surface, ions.
Introduction
Introduced by Helmholtz in 1897. The Helmholtz double layer theory is
one of the simplest theories. Ions of the opposite charges are attracted
towards the charged colloidal surface whereas the ions of same charge
experience repulsion. The presence of an electronegative charge, clay in the
suspension attract cations. This results in the formation of two layers, the
Page | 25
first layer is the surface charge, (negative) and second is counter ions
(opposite of the surface charges). These counter ions (positive ions) are not
distributed uniformly throughout the medium (suspension). The negative
charge on clay surface and the swarn of positive counter ions are called
electric double layer. The concentration of cations decreases with distance
from the surface whereas that of anions increase with distance from the
surface. After some distance, there will be a bulk solution where the
concentration of cations and anions are equal and unaffected by clay surface.
In a distribution suggested by Helmholtz, there is only a fixed layer of
charges at molecular dimension around the fixed molecular condenser. This
distribution recognizes the existence of two fixed layers, one that of the
charged surfaces of the colloids surrounded by the fixed layer of the
counterions. A fixed covering of positive ions is formed over a group of
negatively charged particles. This fixed layer of charge is called the Stern
layer, which in turn is surrounded by a thin movable layer of positive
charges called the diffuse layer. The electrochemical potential is maximum
at the colloids surface and drops linearly at locations with increasing
distance from the surface with the double layer. Enthalpy and entropy both
are minimum, but the free energy of the system is not minimum. The
negative charge is again considered distributed evenly over the colloid
surface. However, the counterions are dispersed in the liquid layer, as are the
gas molecules in earth’s atmosphere. This theory is, therefore, called the
diffuse double-layer theory of Gouy and Chapman. The Gouy–Chapman
diffuse double-layer theory is equally valid for positively charged colloidal
surfaces. Positively charged surface, excess anions will be present in the
liquid interface, and a deficit of cations is then expected to occur at the
surface.
The thickness of the diffuse double layer is also affected by the valence
of the exchangeable cations. Generally, it has been reported that at
equivalent electrolyte concentrations, monovalent cations in exchange
positions yield thicker diffuse double layers than divalent cations.
This phenomenon is due to the tendency of ions to diffuse away from
the colloidal surface in the decreasing order: Monovalent ions > divalent
ions > trivalent ions.
1. Electric double layer
A double layer or electric double layer is formed when a body (solid,
gas bubble, or liquid droplets) is placed in a liquid, forming a structure
composed of two layers. Negative or positive surface charges make up the
Page | 26
first layer, whereas ions in the liquid that is opposite to the surface charges
make up the second layer. In nature, such interfacial double layers are
ubiquitous, particularly in soil or clay suspensions. Clay in suspension can
attract cations because it has an electronegative charge. The dispersion
medium does not include an even distribution of these positively charged
ions. They are kept on the clay surface or close by. Some cations can be
freely traded with other cations. An analogous swarm of positive counterions
therefore screens the negative charge of the clay surface. The electric double
layer is made up of the swarm of positive counterions and the negative
charge on the clay surface. The charge on the clay's surface creates the first
layer of the double layer. Although the charge is technically a localized point
charge, we typically think of it as being evenly dispersed throughout the clay
surface. The liquid layer next to the clay surface is where the second layer of
the double layer is located. Although the positive counterions in this zone are
drawn to the clay's surface, they are also free to move throughout the
solution phase as they choose. When the two processes reach equilibrium,
the distribution zone that results in changes in accordance with the theories
about electric double layers.
2. The Helmholtz double-layer theory
Undoubtedly one of the simplest theories is the Helmholtz double-layer
one. Charge density describes how equally distributed the negative charge is
throughout the surface of the colloid. According to Figure 1, the second
layer's total countercharge is concentrated in a plane that is parallel to the
surface at distance χ. The electrokinetic potential ζ and the total potential
ψ are equal in the case where the medium has a dielectric constant D.
The electrochemical potential is maximum at the colloid surface and
drops linearly at locations with increasing distance (χ) from the surface
within the double layer. This is because the value for σ is decreasing very
fast with distance from the surface and reaches zero at the border of the
double layer.
ψ=(4πσχ)/D
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Figure 1: Helmholtz double layer
Stern layer: -layer of cation tightly adsorbed by the colloid (located in
immediate vicinity of colloids).
Diffuse layer: -Layer of cation beyond stern layer diffused due to
combined electrostatic force and diffusive force.
Key point
• The negative charge on the colloid is considered to be evenly
distributed over the surface (charge density).
• The total countercharge in the second layer is concentrated in a
plane parallel to the surface at distance (χ).
• If the medium has a dielectric constant D, then the electro kinetic
potential ζ is the same as the total potential ψ:
ψ=(4πσχ)/D
• The electrochemical potential is maximum at the colloid surface
and drop linearly as locations with increasing distance from the
surface within the double layer.
3. The Gouy–Chapman double-layer theory
Once more, the colloid surface is assumed to have a uniformly
distributed negative charge. The counterions, however, as well as the gas
molecules in the earth's atmosphere, are scattered throughout the liquid layer.
Thus, the diffuse double-layer theory of Gouy and Chapman is the name
given to this hypothesis. The Boltzmann equation is followed by the
concentration distribution in the liquid zone.
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Cx=Coexp(–zeψ/kT)
where Cx is the concentration of cations (mol/L) at distance x from the
surface, Co is the concentration of cations in the bulk solution (mol/L), z is
the valence, e is the electronic charge, ψ is th electrical potential, kis the
Boltzmann constant, and Tis the absolute temperature.
Key point
• The negative charge is again considered distributed evenly over the
colloid surface.
• The counterions are dispersed in the liquid layer, as are the gas
molecules in earth’s atmosphere. This theory is therefore, called the
diffuse double layer theory of Gouy and chapman.
• Because of the attraction by the negative charged surfaces, cations
in the solution phase tent to distribute themselves over the colloid
surface so these ions to diffuse away is counteracted by van
darwaals attractions. A deficit of anions is usually present in the
liquid interface, and the total charge of the surface is considered to
be balanced by excess cations.
• The initial electric potential at the colloidal surface is maximum and
decreases exponentially with distance from the surface as follows:
Ψx = ψo exp (-Kx)
Ψx = electric potential at distance x,
ψo= surface potential
Kx = constant associated with concentration, valence of ions, dielectric
constant, and temperature.
Figure 2: Potential distribution in a diffuse double layer
Page | 29
Assumptions of Gouy-Chapman double layer
1) The surface is flat, infinite and uniformly charged
2) The ions are assumed to be point charges, distributed according to
the Boltzmann distribution
3) The solvent is represented solely by a dielectric constant
4) The electrolyte is assumed to be symmetrical.
4. The stern double-layer theory
Stern revised the double-layer hypothesis by taking the ionic dimensions
into account. Near the colloidal surface, the ionic dimension has the most
impact. The first layer of the Stern theory is comparable to that of the earlier
theories. However, the second layer is split into a diffuse layer and (2) a sub-
layer closest to the colloidal surface.
Key point
• Combines both Helmholtz and gouy-chapman double layer concept.
• The Stern layer, which is the first sublayer, is densely packed with
cations.
• It ought to have been termed the Helmholtz layer as that is what it
is. The Helmholtz and Gouy-Chapman diffuse double layer appear
to be combined in the potential distribution.
• There are also two aspects to the probable decline. According to the
Helmholtz hypothesis, the potential in the Stern layer diminishes
with increasing distance from the surface.
• The Gouy-Chapman hypothesis predicts that potential will drop
with distance from this point on (in the diffuse layer).
Figure 4: Stern double layer
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Comparing double layer models
a) Helmholtz model
Counterions are held in a fixed layer between clay surface and soil
solution.
b) Gouy-Chapman model
A diffuse double layer due to the thermal energy of cations causing a
concentration gradient, which leads to a condition of maximum entropy or
diffuse double layer.
c) Stern model
Combines the above two Double layer comprises a rigid region next to
mineral surface and a diffuse layer joining the bulk solution.
Thickness of double layer
• With increase in distance, ions diffuse away.
• More the cation concentration – reduced concentration gradient in
the liquid interface – smaller the double layer thickness.
• At equivalent electrolyte concentrations, monovalent cations in
exchange positions yied thicker diffuse double layer than divalent
cations.
Clay properties effect in DDL
Clay carries negative charges, which are ordinarily balanced by
exchangeable cations adsorbed on their surfaces. In suspension, the cations
tend to diffuse away from the clay surface into the bulk solution to balance
the concentration difference occurring between the interface and the bulk
liquid phase.
• Large portion of these ions, especially those in the immediate
vicinity of the clay surface, cannot move very far away because of
the strong attraction in the interface, thereby forming an electric
double layer, which may vary in thickness from 50 to 300 A.
• Whenever such clay particles approach each other, repulsion
between the particles occurs because the outer parts of the double
layers have the same type of charges (positive). The suspension is
then considered stable, and the clay is considered to be dispersed.
• Because of this approach, the diffuse counterion atmospheres of the
two particles interfere with each other. The amount of work to bring
Page | 31
the changes is called repulsive energy or repulsive potential V. at
the given distance.
• The range and effectiveness of the repulsive potential depends on
the thickness of the double layer.
• The repulsive forces decrease, usually, exponentially with
increasing distance between the particles.
• At interparticle distance of>20 A, repulsive forces are dominant,
creating a stable clay suspension.
• Repulsion will dominate at low electrolyte concentration. The clay
particles are shielded by relatively thick double layer, decreasing
the possibility of mutual approach.
• At high electrolyte concentration, the chances of close approach are
made possible by compression of the double layers. In this
condition, van darwaals attraction may overcome the repulsive
forces and congulation of flocculation of colloidal particles occur
rapidly.
Reference
1. Adamson, A.W. 1976. Physical chemistry of surfaces. Third edition.
Wiley, New York.
2. Belloni, L. 2000. Colloidal interactions. J. Phys. Condens. Matter R-
549–R-587.
3. Benoit, P.H. Contribution de l'etude de l'effet Kerr presente par les
solutions diluees de macromolecules rigides. Ann. de
Physique 1951 6 (Ser. 12) 561– 609.
4. Brown, A.B.D. Ordered phase of platelike particles in concentrated
dispersions. Langmuir 1998 14 3129– 3132.
5. Hansen, J.-P. Effective interactions between electric double
layers. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 2000 51 209– 242.
6. Harada, T. An exact evaluation of salt concentration dependence of
interparticle distance in colloidal crystals by ultra-small-angle X-ray
scattering. 3. Confirmation of solid-liquid transition by three-
dimensional paracrystal analysis. Langmuir 1999 15 573– 577
7. Guldbrand, L. Electrical double layer forces. A Monte Carlo study. J.
Chem. Phys. 1984 80 2221– 2228.
8. Kjellander, R. Attractive double-layer interactions between calcium clay
particles. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 1988 126 194– 211.
Page | 32
Chapter - 4
Smart Agriculture: A New era in Farming
Authors
Anchal Singh
Ashutosh Kumar
Devrani Gupta
Pragya
M.Sc. Student, Department of Agricultural Economics, Banda
University of Agriculture & Technology, Banda, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Page | 33
Page | 34
Chapter - 4
Smart Agriculture: A New era in Farming
Anchal Singh, Ashutosh Kumar, Devrani Gupta and Pragya
Abstract
Throughout human history, agriculture has been a fundamental activity,
providing sustenance, livelihoods, and the foundation upon which societies
have prospered. Yet, as we step into the 21st century, agriculture faces a
pivotal moment, where tradition and innovation converge to address
unprecedented challenges and opportunities. This juncture, where ancient
practices intersect with cutting-edge technology and data-driven solutions,
heralds the emergence of a groundbreaking phenomenon: Smart Agriculture.
Smart Agriculture, synonymous with precision agriculture and digital
farming, signifies a significant departure from traditional farming methods.
It symbolizes a transformative shift towards a future where age-old farming
practices intertwine with technology, data analytics, and interconnectedness.
This multifaceted approach is not just an adaptation to changing times; it
represents a testament to human inventiveness, adaptability, and resolve to
confront the formidable challenges ahead.
Keywords: Smart farming, new technologies, profitability.
Introduction
The origin of Smart Agriculture can be attributed to a convergence of
factors that have reshaped agriculture in recent decades. A surging global
population, poised to exceed nine billion by mid-century, has elevated
agriculture to the forefront of food security concerns. Simultaneously,
climate change has introduced unpredictable weather patterns, testing the
predictability and reliability of conventional farming practices. Furthermore,
the imperative to reduce resource consumption, limit environmental impact,
and embrace sustainability has put a spotlight on agriculture's ecological
footprint. Within this backdrop of profound global shifts, Smart Agriculture
has emerged as a beacon of innovation and hope. At its essence, this
revolutionary approach blends data-informed decision-making, state-of-the-
art technology, and an unwavering dedication to preserving the integrity of
Page | 35
the land. Smart Agriculture leverages a range of advanced tools and
methodologies, including the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence
(AI), big data analysis, automation, and precision equipment, to enhance the
efficiency, sustainability, and productivity of farming practices. In the
forthcoming sections, we embark on an immersive exploration of the domain
of Smart Agriculture, revealing its fundamental principles, delving into its
myriad components, and uncovering the profound advantages it confers upon
farmers, ecosystems, and society. From the fertile grounds of traditional
agriculture to the interconnected networks of intelligent farms, we will
observe the transformation of long-standing customs into a future where data
holds as much value as soil, and innovation is as vital as irrigation.
Definition
Smart Agriculture represents more than just a farming revolution; it
embodies humanity's adaptability, ingenuity, and capacity to flourish in the
face of challenges. It underscores our enduring commitment to sustainably
feed a growing global population while safeguarding the Earth's invaluable
resources for generations to come. As we embark on this enlightening
journey through the realm of Smart Agriculture, we encounter the promise of
a more sustainable, efficient, and plentiful future - a future where technology
and tradition merge to ensure that agriculture remains the cornerstone of
human existence, as it has for millennia.
Smart Agriculture, also recognized as precision agriculture or digital
farming, signifies a modern and data-centric method applied to agricultural
processes. It utilizes state-of-the-art technologies such as the Internet of
Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), extensive data analysis, and
automation to optimize and refine various facets of agricultural activities.
Smart agriculture vs traditional agriculture
Smart agriculture and traditional agriculture are two distinct farming
approaches, each with its own set of characteristics, methods, and objectives.
Here's a comparison between the two:
1. Utilization of technology and data
• Smart agriculture: Smart agriculture heavily depends on cutting-
edge technology and data-driven solutions, employing sensors,
drones, satellites, AI, and IoT devices to gather and analyze data
related to farming, such as soil conditions, weather patterns, and
crop health.
• Traditional agriculture: In contrast, traditional agriculture relies
Page | 36
on conventional farming practices that have been passed down
through generations. It typically does not make extensive use of
advanced technology or data-driven methodologies.
2. Resource management
• Smart agriculture: Smart agriculture optimizes the allocation of
resources such as water, fertilizers, and pesticides through precise
application based on data analysis. This approach minimizes
resource wastage and reduces environmental impact.
• Traditional agriculture: Traditional agriculture commonly adopts
a uniform approach to resource management, which can result in
overuse of inputs in some areas and underuse in others.
3. Labor and automation
• Smart agriculture: Smart agriculture integrates automation and
robotics for tasks like planting, monitoring, and harvesting,
reducing the dependence on manual labor.
• Traditional agriculture: In traditional agriculture, manual labor
plays a more prominent role in various farming tasks, including
planting, weeding, and harvesting.
4. Data-informed decision making
• Smart agriculture: Data serves as the foundation for decision-
making in smart agriculture. Farmers utilize real-time data and
predictive analytics to make informed choices about planting,
irrigation, pest control, and other aspects of farming.
• Traditional agriculture: In traditional agriculture, decision-
making often relies on accumulated experience, generational
knowledge, and observations rather than data-driven analyses.
5. Environmental impact
• Smart agriculture: Smart agriculture places a strong emphasis on
minimizing the environmental footprint of farming by reducing
resource consumption, chemical inputs, and emissions of
greenhouse gases.
• Traditional agriculture: Traditional agriculture may have a larger
environmental impact due to less precise resource management and
a greater reliance on chemical inputs.
Page | 37
Types of smart agriculture
Smart agriculture, which is also referred to as precision agriculture or
digital farming, utilizes technology and data-driven methods to enhance
different facets of agriculture and boost overall effectiveness and output.
Various categories of smart agriculture practices and technologies exist, and
the following is an overview of several of them-
1. Precision farming techniques
• Utilizing GPS technology: Employing Global Positioning System
(GPS) for precise field mapping and machinery tracking to enhance
planting, fertilizing, and harvesting accuracy.
• Variable Rate Technology (VRT): Adjusting input applications
like pesticides, fertilizers, and water based on real-time data, such
as soil conditions and crop health.
• Remote sensing: Making use of satellites, drones, or ground-based
sensors to gather data on crop status, moisture levels, and nutrient
content.
2. Internet of Things (IoT) in Agriculture:
• Deploying sensor networks: Installing sensors to monitor
environmental factors (e.g., temperature, humidity, soil moisture)
and transmit data to a central system.
• Implementing smart irrigation systems: Employing automated
irrigation systems that adapt water usage based on soil moisture and
weather conditions.
• Monitoring livestock: Tracking the well-being and behaviour of
livestock using wearable devices and sensors.
3. Data analysis and artificial intelligence (AI)
• Predictive data analytics: Employing historical data and machine
learning algorithms to forecast crop yields, disease outbreaks, and
ideal planting times.
• Crop modelling: Creating digital representations of crop growth
and yield based on real-time data and weather predictions.
• Image recognition: Utilizing AI-powered systems to identify and
diagnose plant ailments, pests, and nutrient deficiencies from
images.
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4. Automation and robotics
• Autonomous tractors: Self-driving tractors capable of performing
tasks like ploughing, seeding, and harvesting without human
intervention.
• Weed removal robots: Robots equipped with AI and computer
vision for the selective identification and elimination of weeds.
• Harvesting robots: Automated systems designed to pick fruits and
vegetables efficiently and precisely.
5. Blockchain for supply chains
• Enhancing supply chain transparency: Utilizing blockchain
technology to establish transparent and traceable supply chains,
ensuring product authenticity and quality.
6. Smart greenhouse technologies
• Climate control automation: Implementing automated systems to
regulate temperature, humidity, and lighting for optimal plant
growth.
• Energy efficiency measures: Utilizing renewable energy sources
and energy-efficient technologies to reduce operating costs in
greenhouses.
7. Livestock management strategies
• RFID tag implementation: Using Radio-Frequency Identification
(RFID) tags for tracking and managing individual animals.
• Health monitoring: Employing wearable devices and sensors to
oversee the health and well-being of livestock.
8. Online agricultural marketplaces
Digital market platforms: Online platforms that connect farmers
directly with consumers or buyers, streamlining transactions and promoting
transparency.
These various forms of smart agriculture technologies and approaches
are continually advancing, driven by progress in technology, data analysis
capabilities, and the imperative to address modern agriculture's challenges,
including food security and ecological sustainability.
Concept of smart agriculture
The notion of smart agriculture, also referred to as precision agriculture
or digital farming, is cantered on the incorporation of advanced technologies
Page | 39
and data-driven methodologies to enhance the efficiency, sustainability, and
productivity of farming. Its core objective is to optimize various facets of
agricultural practices, including crop cultivation, livestock management,
resource allocation, and supply chain operations. Here are the primary
components of the concept of smart agriculture:
1. Data gathering and interpretation: Smart agriculture relies on
collecting extensive data from diverse sources like sensors,
satellites, drones, and on-field observations. This data is then
analysed to gain insights into aspects such as crop health, soil
conditions, weather patterns, and more.
2. Precise farming: Precision agriculture techniques entail the
accurate application of resources such as water, fertilizers, and
pesticides, guided by real-time data and spatial variability. This
ensures efficient resource utilization while minimizing waste.
3. Automation and robotics: Automation technologies, including
self-driving tractors, drones, and robotic harvesters, are employed
for tasks like planting, monitoring, and harvesting, leading to
increased precision and reduced labour needs.
4. Internet of Things (IoT): IoT devices and sensors are deployed
across the farm to monitor environmental conditions, equipment
status, and the health of livestock. This real-time data aids farmers
in making well-informed decisions.
5. Remote sensing: Satellite imagery and remote sensing technologies
provide valuable insights into crop health, moisture levels, and
disease occurrences, enabling timely corrective actions.
6. Artificial intelligence and machine learning: AI algorithms are
used to analyze data and generate predictions, including crop yield
forecasts, identification of pests and diseases, and optimal planting
schedules.
7. Smart irrigation: Automated irrigation systems adjust water
distribution based on real-time data, soil moisture levels, and
weather forecasts to minimize water wastage.
Benefits of smart agriculture
Smart agriculture brings about a multitude of advantages for farmers,
the environment, and society. Here are some of the primary benefits of
adopting smart agriculture practices and technologies:
1. Enhanced crop productivity: Smart agriculture enables precise
resource management, leading to improved crop yields and quality.
Page | 40
2. Optimized resource usage: By using resources efficiently and
effectively, smart agriculture minimizes waste of water, fertilizers,
and pesticides.
3. Cost-efficiency: Farmers can achieve substantial cost savings
through resource optimization and reduced labour requirements.
4. Sustainable farming: Smart agriculture practices promote
sustainability by reducing environmental impact, conserving natural
resources, and preventing soil erosion.
5. Resilience to climate change: Farmers can adapt to shifting
weather patterns and climate conditions through data-driven
insights.
6. Environmental conservation: Precision agriculture lowers the use
of chemicals and fertilizers, mitigating the risk of pollution and
harm to ecosystems.
7. Enhanced livestock care: Monitoring livestock health leads to
fewer disease outbreaks and improved animal welfare.
8. Crop protection: Early identification of pests and diseases allows
farmers to take prompt actions to safeguard their crops.
Challenges in smart agriculture
Smart agriculture, despite its many advantages, confronts a range of
obstacles that must be overcome for it to achieve widespread adoption and
success. These are some of the primary challenges encountered in smart
agriculture:
1. Substantial initial expenditures: The deployment of smart
agriculture technologies, such as sensors, drones, and automated
equipment, can be costly, presenting a financial barrier, especially
for small-scale farmers.
2. Data security and privacy: The collection and transmission of
sensitive agricultural data raise concerns about privacy and
cybersecurity. Safeguarding data against unauthorized access and
breaches is of utmost importance.
3. Connectivity gaps: Many rural areas still lack reliable internet
connectivity, which is fundamental for data transmission and real-
time monitoring. Inadequate connectivity can restrict the
effectiveness of smart agriculture solutions.
Page | 41
4. Data standardization and integration: The diverse array of
sensors and systems employed in smart agriculture can result in
fragmented data and compatibility challenges. Standardizing and
seamlessly integrating data from various sources is pivotal.
5. Technical proficiency: Farmers may lack the technical expertise
and capabilities required to effectively implement and maintain
smart agriculture systems. Training and support are essential for
successful adoption.
6. Power supply: Numerous smart agriculture devices and sensors
demand a stable and ample power supply, which can be problematic
in remote or off-grid locations.
7. Regulatory complexities: Regulations and policies regarding data
ownership, privacy, and drone usage can be intricate and may differ
by region, introducing
Conclusion
In essence, smart agriculture strives to meet the changing demands of
contemporary farming, encompassing priorities such as food security,
ecological sustainability, and economic viability. It achieves this by utilizing
technology and data to enhance farming's efficiency and reduce its
environmental footprint. This approach marks a substantial transformation in
agricultural practices and holds the potential to bring about a revolutionary
change in the industry.
References
1. Dvorak, J.S.; Stone, M.L.; Self, K.P. Object Detection for Agricultural
and Construction Environments Using an Ultrasonic Sensor. J. Agric.
Saf. Health 2016, 22, 107–119.
2. Murray, S.C. Optical Sensors Advancing Precision in Agricultural
Production. Photonics Spectra 2018, 51, 48.
3. Weiss, U.; Biber, P. Plant detection and mapping for agricultural robots
using a 3D-LIDAR sensor. Robot. Auton. Syst. 2011, 59, 265–273.
Page | 42
Chapter - 5
Natural Farming: A New Direction of Agriculture
Authors
Shweta Gupta
Anchal Singh
Ankur Tripathi
Agriculture, Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and
Technology, Kumarganj, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India
Page | 43
Page | 44
Chapter - 5
Natural Farming: A New Direction of Agriculture
Shweta Gupta, Anchal Singh and Ankur Tripathi
Abstract
Natural farming, also known as "Do-Nothing Farming" or "Do-Nothing
Agriculture," is an agricultural philosophy and practice that seeks to align
with nature, reduce human intervention, and limit the use of synthetic inputs.
This approach to farming is rooted in principles promoting sustainability,
biodiversity, and the preservation of natural ecosystems. It often emphasizes
traditional and indigenous knowledge systems passed down through
generations. Natural farming advocates for minimal disruption of natural
farming processes, letting nature take its course as much as possible. Healthy
soil is the cornerstone of successful natural farming. It focuses on nurturing
and sustaining fertile, biologically active soil through techniques like
composting, mulching, and cover cropping. Natural farming encourages
diversity in crops and ecosystems by fostering the growth of native plants
and beneficial insects, making farming systems more resilient and balanced.
Keywords: Natural agriculture, healthy soil, conservation.
Introduction
Natural farming rejects synthetic chemicals like pesticides and artificial
fertilizers, favouring organic and sustainable alternatives for pest control and
soil enrichment. Natural farmers keenly observe their fields and ecosystems,
adjusting their practices in response to their land's specific needs. Natural
farming draws upon traditional and indigenous agricultural practices from
various cultures, integrating the wisdom of local communities into modern
farming methods. At its core, natural farming aims to create sustainable
farming systems that don't deplete natural resources or harm the environment
over the long term. Natural farming takes a holistic view, recognizing the
interconnectedness of all elements within an ecosystem and treating the farm
as a self-sustaining system. Some proponents of natural farming stress self-
sufficiency, with farmers producing their seeds, compost, and other inputs
on-site to reduce external dependencies. Natural farming often reduces the
financial burden on farmers by minimizing the need for expensive inputs and
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machinery, making it particularly appealing to small-scale and subsistence
farmers. Well-known figures associated with natural farming include
Masanobu Fukuoka, a Japanese farmer and philosopher, and his book "The
One-Straw Revolution," which popularized these concepts in the 20th
century. Natural farming is a diverse and evolving field, with various
interpretations and practices. Farmers worldwide continue to adapt and
innovate within this framework to develop sustainable and environmentally
friendly farming systems.
Definition
Natural farming is an approach to agriculture that prioritizes minimal
human involvement, sustainable management of ecosystems, and the
exclusion of synthetic inputs. Its primary objective is to align farming
practices with natural processes, with a focus on soil health, biodiversity
promotion, and the production of agricultural goods. Natural farming
commonly includes methods like reduced soil disturbance, organic
fertilization, crop variety, and a comprehensive knowledge of local
ecosystems. The central aim is to establish self-sustaining, environmentally
conscious farming systems that have a minimal impact on the environment,
sustain soil fertility, and ensure long-term agricultural productivity.
Natural farming can be described as a method of agriculture that
abstains from using chemicals in both crop cultivation and livestock
management. Rooted in agro ecology, this approach involves a diverse
farming system that combines crops, trees, and livestock, making the most of
functional biodiversity. It offers the potential to increase farmers' earnings
while simultaneously providing various advantages, including soil fertility
restoration, environmental well-being, and the mitigation or reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions.
Natural farming vs organic farming
Natural farming and organic farming are two sustainable agricultural
methods with similarities but distinct differences:
1. Use of synthetic chemicals
• Natural farming: In natural farming, synthetic chemicals like
pesticides, herbicides, and artificial fertilizers are strictly avoided. It
relies on natural processes for soil fertility and pest management.
• Organic farming: Organic farming also prohibits synthetic
chemicals but uses organic inputs like natural fertilizers and non-
synthetic pest control methods.
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2. Soil health
• Natural farming: Emphasis is placed on nurturing soil health
through practices such as minimal soil disturbance, mulching, and
cover cropping.
• Organic farming: Organic farming also prioritizes soil health and
may use approved organic inputs for soil enrichment.
3. Biodiversity
• Natural farming: Natural farming encourages biodiversity by
allowing diverse crops and native plants to coexist. It aligns with
permaculture and agroecology principles.
• Organic Farming: Organic farming promotes biodiversity by crop
rotation and fostering diverse ecosystems but may not fully embrace
agroecological principles.
4. Weeding and soil disturbance
• Natural farming: Practices like ploughing, tilling, and weeding are
typically avoided, allowing natural regulation of soil and
ecosystems.
• Organic farming: Organic farming minimizes soil disturbance and
uses organic mulches and cover crops for weed control.
5. Philosophy
• Natural farming: Rooted in holistic and minimalistic principles,
natural farming aims to harmonize with natural processes and
ecosystems.
• Organic farming: Organic farming adheres to standardized
certification and regulatory standards, focusing on sustainability but
not always fully embracing natural farming's broader philosophy.
Characteristics of natural farming
The characteristics of natural farming can be summarized as follows:
1. Limited soil disturbance: Natural farming avoids extensive
ploughing and tilling to maintain soil quality.
2. Exclusion of synthetic chemicals: This approach refrains from
using synthetic pesticides, herbicides, and artificial fertilizers.
3. Soil health emphasis: Natural farming places a strong focus on
enhancing soil health through processes like organic matter
decomposition and microbial activity.
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4. Encouragement of biodiversity: It promotes biodiversity by
allowing diverse crops and native plants to coexist, fostering
ecological balance.
5. Minimal weed management: Typically, manual weeding is not
practiced; the natural balance of the ecosystem is relied upon.
6. Responsive farming: Natural farmers closely observe their fields,
adapting their methods to the specific needs of their land.
7. Incorporation of traditional wisdom: Traditional and indigenous
farming knowledge is often integrated into natural farming
practices.
8. Sustainability objective: The primary goal is to create sustainable
farming systems that conserve natural resources and the
environment.
Benefits of natural farming
Natural farming provides a range of advantages, benefiting both farmers
and the environment. Here's a rephrased overview of its key advantages:
1. Sustainability: Natural farming practices are designed for long-
term sustainability, preserving soil fertility, and reducing reliance
on external inputs.
2. Enhanced soil health: Through the avoidance of synthetic
chemicals and encouragement of organic matter decomposition,
natural farming improves soil health, making it more fertile and
biologically active.
3. Environmental well-being: It minimizes the environmental impact
of agriculture by reducing the use of synthetic pesticides and
fertilizers, resulting in cleaner water and decreased pollution.
4. Biodiversity promotion: Natural farming fosters biodiversity by
cultivating a variety of crops and native plants, supporting
beneficial insects and wildlife.
5. Cost savings: Farmers often incur lower expenses with natural
farming as it reduces the need for costly synthetic inputs and
machinery.
6. Climate resilience: Natural farming systems tend to exhibit greater
resilience to environmental changes and challenges, making them
well-suited for coping with climate-related issues.
7. Erosion control: By maintaining ground cover and soil structure,
natural farming practices mitigate soil erosion.
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8. Nutrient recycling: It encourages nutrient cycling within the
farming system, reducing dependence on external inputs.
Limitation of natural farming
1. Yield variability: Natural farming practices can lead to
inconsistent crop yields due to their heavy reliance on natural
processes, which are influenced by factors like weather and
environmental conditions.
2. Transition challenges: Shifting from conventional farming to
natural farming can be difficult and may initially result in lower
yields or income until the soil and ecosystem adapt.
3. Time-consuming: Natural farming often demands more time and
meticulous attention than conventional methods, potentially
requiring significant labour input, which may not be feasible for
large-scale commercial farming.
4. Pest and disease management: Without synthetic pesticides,
natural farming relies on organic and biological pest control
methods, which may not always effectively prevent crop damage.
5. Weed control: Minimal soil disturbance and weeding practices in
natural farming can lead to weed problems, potentially reducing
crop yields, and necessitating more manual labour for weed
management.
6. Limited crop variety: Some proponents of natural farming may
focus on a restricted range of crops suited to their specific
ecosystem, potentially limiting diversification and market
opportunities.
7. Knowledge and skill requirement: Effective natural farming
demands a deep understanding of local ecosystems and soil
microbial activity, often involving a steep learning curve for
newcomers.
8. Inconsistent certification standards: The absence of standardized
certification for natural farming can lead to uncertainty in labelling
and certification, which may confuse consumers.
Status of natural farming in India
Natural farming had gained significant attention and traction in India,
particularly in select regions and among specific groups of farmers. Here's a
rephrased summary of the status of natural farming in India:
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1. Government support: Various Indian states, under government
leadership, had launched programs and policies to encourage the
adoption of natural farming practices. Notably, Andhra Pradesh had
initiated the "Zero-Budget Natural Farming" (ZBNF) program with
the goal of transitioning six million farmers to natural farming
methods by 2024.
2. Farmers' adoption: A growing number of Indian farmers had
embraced natural farming techniques to reduce their reliance on
synthetic chemicals, enhance soil health, and improve crop
sustainability. Some reported positive outcomes, including
increased yields and reduced input costs.
3. Awareness and training: Multiple non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), agricultural institutions, and farmers'
associations were actively involved in creating awareness about
natural farming and providing training and technical support to
interested farmers.
4. Challenges: Despite increasing interest and adoption, natural
farming in India encountered certain obstacles. These included the
need for comprehensive training and knowledge dissemination,
resistance to change among some farmers, and concerns about the
initial transition phase and potential income fluctuations.
5. Market access: Access to markets for products from natural
farming and certification issues were crucial considerations for
farmers. The certification standards for natural or organic produce
could vary, and establishing reliable supply chains was a key
concern.
6. Regional variances: The promotion and acceptance of natural
farming practices varied across different states in India. While
states like Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka actively promoted natural
farming, others were at different stages of implementation.
7. Research and advancements: Research institutions and
universities in India were conducting studies on the impact of
natural farming practices in the country's agriculture. This research
aimed to provide valuable data and insights for farmers and
policymakers.
Conclusion
In summary, natural farming is an eco-friendly and sustainable
agricultural approach. It's based on principles like minimal interference,
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biodiversity, and soil health, aiming to align farming practices with nature.
By avoiding synthetic chemicals, minimizing soil disturbance, and fostering
self-sustaining ecosystems, natural farming offers numerous advantages,
including improved soil fertility, reduced environmental impact, and
healthier food production. However, it also presents challenges such as yield
variability, the need for knowledge and skill development, and market access
concerns. The adoption of natural farming varies by region and is influenced
by government initiatives and farmer interest. As an evolving agricultural
method, natural farming holds promise for addressing environmental and
sustainability issues in agriculture while promoting a holistic and
harmonious relationship between farming and the natural environment.
Continuous research, education, and support are crucial for its ongoing
growth and success.
References
1. Floyd, J.; Zubevich, K. (2010). "Linking foresight and sustainability: An
integral approach". Futures. 42: 59–68.
2. Fukuoka, Masanobu (2012). Sowing seeds in the desert: natural
farming, global restoration, and ultimate food security. Larry Korn.
White River Junction, Vt.: Chelsea Green Pub. pp. xix. ISBN 978-1-
60358-418-0.
3. Priya Reddy; Prescott College Environmental studies (2010).
Sustainable Agricultural Education: An Experiential Approach to
Shifting Consciousness and Practices. Prescott College. ISBN 978-1-
124-38302-6.
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Chapter - 6
Conservation Agriculture: Problems, Prospects,
and its Issue
Authors
Ashutosh Kumar
Amar Singh Gaur
Chemistry, Banda University of Agriculture and Technology,
Abhishek Kumar
Ph.D. Scholar: Department of Soil Science and Agricultural
Chemistry, CS Azad University of Agriculture and
Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Anchal Singh
Ph.D. Scholar: Department of Agronomy, Banda University of
Agriculture and Technology, Banda, Uttar Pradesh, India
Saniya Sayed
Chemistry, Banda University of Agriculture and Technology,
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Chapter - 6
Conservation Agriculture: Problems, Prospects, and its
Issue
Ashutosh Kumar, Amar Singh Gaur, Abhishek Kumar, Anchal Singh and Saniya Sayed
Abstract
Minimal soil disturbance, crop leftovers or cover crops to keep the soil
covered, and crop rotation with pulse crops are all examples of conservation
agriculture. Even though there are numerous barriers to the effective
adoption of CA, initiatives to create, improve, and spread conservation
technology have been ongoing in India over the past 20 years and have
achieved notable progress since then. Adoption of CA has more benefits than
drawbacks, but both adopters and promoters are aware of how the two
factors must balance one another. Through the use of CA technology, it is
possible to lower production costs, conserve water and nutrients, boost
yields, diversify crops, optimize resource utilization, and protect the
environment. However, there are still barriers to the promotion of CA
technologies. These include the lack of suitable seeders, particularly for
small and medium-sized farmers, the conflict between CA use and livestock
feeding over crop residues, the burning of crop residues, the lack of skilled
and scientific labor, and the need to change people's perceptions about
tillage. The need to develop the policy frame and strategies is urgent to
promote CA in the region. This chapter reviews the emerging concerns due
to continuous adoption of conventional agriculture systems, and analyses the
constraints, prospects, policy issues and research needs for conservation
agriculture in India.
Keywords: Conservation agriculture, conventional agriculture, constraints,
prospects and policy of CA adoption, resource use efficiency.
Introduction
Modern agriculture is characterized by high crop yields achieved using
chemical inputs and advanced machinery. Meeting the growing global food
demand due to population growth is challenging, as available agricultural
land is limited, and issues like land degradation, water scarcity, and climate
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variability hinder crop production. To ensure an adequate food supply for the
increasing population while sustaining natural resources, a holistic approach
called conservation agriculture (CA) has gained significant attention.
Conservation agriculture serves several purposes, including physically
shielding the soil from environmental factors like sunlight, rain, and wind
and nourishing soil organisms. Soil microorganisms and fauna take on the
role of traditional tillage practices and nutrient management. CA has
garnered substantial interest and support from the scientific community
worldwide, primarily for its potential to enhance soil quality and
environmental sustainability. Assessing and monitoring soil quality,
identifying its physical, chemical, and biological properties, have become
critical concerns for land managers and food producers worldwide (Laishram
et al., 2012). CA has been shown to improve the relationship between input
and output in crop production, conserve natural resources by reducing soil
erosion and water loss through reduced soil evaporation, sequester
atmospheric carbon in the soil, and decrease the energy demands of the
agricultural sector (Jat et al., 2005; Yadav et al., 2016).
Status of conservation agriculture in India and abroad
Globally, conservation agriculture (CA) is practiced on approximately
125 million hectares (refer to Table 1). Leading countries in CA adoption
include the USA (26.5 million hectares), Brazil (25.5 million hectares),
Argentina (25.5 million hectares), Australia (17.0 million hectares) and
Canada (13.5 million hectares). In India, the adoption of CA is still in its
early stages. In recent years, the use of zero tillage (ZT) and CA has
expanded to encompass approximately 1.5 million hectares (Jat et al., 2012;
www.fao.org/ag/ca/6c.html). The primary CA technology being embraced in
India is zero-till (ZT) for wheat cultivation within the rice-wheat (RW)
system in the Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP). In various other crops and
cropping systems, the conventional intensive tillage methods are gradually
transitioning to reduced or zero-tillage practices. Apart from ZT, there is a
need to introduce other CA concepts into the system to further enhance and
sustain agricultural productivity, as well as explore new sources of growth in
agricultural output. Adopting CA also opens opportunities for essential
diversification efforts, including crop intensification and relay cropping
involving sugarcane, pulses, vegetables, and other crops alongside wheat and
maize. These practices aim to intensify and diversify the RW system. CA-
based resource conservation technologies (RCTs) also contribute to
integrating research on crop, livestock, land, and water management, both in
low-potential and high-potential environments.
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Table 1: Global adoption of conservation agriculture systems
Table Country Area (Mha) Percentage of global area

1. USA 26.5 21.2
2. Brazil 25.5 20.4
3. Argentina 25.5 20.4
4. Australia 17.0 13.6
5. Canada 13.5 10.8
6. Russia 4.5 3.6
7. China 3.1 2.5
8. Paraguay 2.4 1.9
9. Kazakhstan 1.6 1.3
10. Others 5.3 4.2
Total 124.8 100.0
Source: FAO 2012
Definition and goals
Conservation agriculture is a management system that maintains a soil
cover through surface retention of crop residue with zero tillage and reduced
tillage. As per Dumanski et al. (2006) conservation agriculture (CA) is not
“business as usual”, based on maximizing yields while exploiting the soil
and agro-ecosystem resources. Rather, CA is based on optimizing yields and
profits, to achieve a balance of agricultural, economic, and environmental
benefits. It advocates that the combined social and economic benefits gained
from combining production and protecting the environment, including
reduced input and labor costs, are greater than those from production alone.
With CA, farming communities become providers of more healthy living
environments for the wider community through reduced use of fossil fuels,
pesticides, and other pollutants, and through conservation of environmental
integrity and services.
Conservation agriculture systems require a total paradigm shift from
conventional agriculture about management of crops, soil, water, nutrients,
weeds, and farm machinery (Table No.2).
Table 2: Some distinguishing features of conventional and conservation agriculture
systems
Conventional agriculture Conservation agriculture

Cultivating land, using science and
Least interference with natural processes
technology to dominate nature
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Excessive mechanical tillage and soil No-till or drastically reduced tillage
erosion (biological tillage)
High wind and soil erosion Low wind and soil erosion
Surface retention of residues
Residue burning or removal (bare surface)
(permanently covered)
Water infiltration is low Infiltration rate of water is high
Use of ex-situ FYM/composts Use of in-situ organics/composts
Brown manuring/cover crops (surface
Green manuring (incorporated)
retention)
Kills established weeds butal so stimulates Weeds area problem in the early stages
more weed seeds to germinate of adoption but decrease with time
Free-wheeling of arm machinery, Controlled traffic, compaction in
increased oil compaction tramline, no compaction in crop area
Mono cropping/culture, less efficient
Diversified and more efficient rotations
rotations
Heavy reliance on manual labor, Mechanized operations, ensure
uncertainty of operations timeliness of operations
Poor adaptation to tresses, yield losses More resilience to stresses, yield losses
greater under stress conditions are less under stress conditions
Basic principle of conservation agriculture

Conservation agriculture practices, widely adopted in various regions
worldwide, are founded on ecological principles aimed at promoting
sustainable land use (Wassmann, 2009; Behera et al., 2010; Lal, 2013).
1. Minimized soil disturbance: This principle revolves around
planting directly into the soil, bypassing the need for traditional
ploughing or hoeing methods. The tillage system is simplified to
activities such as creating planting lines or holes for direct seed or
fertilizer placement.
2. Sustained soil cover: At least 30% of the soil surface should
remain covered with crop residues and cover crops. Techniques
such as mulching, utilizing specific cover crops, and leaving crop
residues in the field play a crucial role in safeguarding the soil from
erosion and limiting weed growth. In conventional farming, crop
residues are often removed or mixed into the soil with Plows or
hoes, leaving the soil exposed to the risk of erosion through rain or
wind.
3. Enhanced crop rotations: Crop rotation entails planting different
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crops sequentially on the same land plot to enhance soil health,
optimize nutrient content in the soil, and combat pest and weed
pressures. This practice disrupts the life cycles of pests, diseases,
and weeds, ultimately resulting in higher crop yields and the
preservation of soil fertility. To enhance crop rotation, more
leguminous crops are cultivated, which fix nitrogen in the soil,
benefiting subsequent crops. Minimal tillage primarily aims to
reduce losses of soil organic matter while increasing soil carbon and
nitrogen stocks.
Figure 1: Principle and health of conservation agriculture

Procedures of conservation agriculture
Conservation agriculture is a sustainable approach method to improve
agricultural production which aims to protect soil from erosion and
degradation, and then increase crop yields. Conservation Agriculture
involves the below procedure;
• Timely implementation: All operations carry at the best time in
the cropping season that is preparation, seeding/ planting,
fertilization with organic and inorganic fertilization with organic
and inorganic fertilizers, and controlling weeds and pests.
• Precise operation: Paying attention to carry out all tasks carefully.
• Efficient use of inputs - not wasting any resources such as labor,
time, seeds crop residue, manure fertilizer and water.
• Minimizing soil mechanical disturbance - and crop diversification
is a sustainable agro-ecological method to resource-conserving
agriculture production.
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Soil management in conservation agriculture
The biological activity of soil like the spatial arrangement of soil
components is fundamental to sustaining agriculture productivity and
determines in their complexity the soil health and fertility. Soil management
practices improve soil fertility by minimizing losses of soil, nutrients, and
agrochemicals from erosion, and surrounding natural vegetation and wildlife
in absolute terms in the self-recovery of the respective ecosystems. Good
agriculture practice must be;
• Create detailed knowledge of the nature, distribution, and potential
uses of soils.
• Avoid mechanical soil disturbance to the possible extent.
• Avoid soil compaction beyond the soil elasticity
• During rotations improve soil organic matter until reaching an
equilibrium level.
• By using cover crops to minimize erosion loss by wind and water.
• Maintain balanced nutrient level in soils.
• By adopting application methods avoid contamination with
agrochemicals, organic and inorganic fertilizers, and other
contaminants.
• Keep a record of input and outputs of each land-management unit.
1) Benefits and challenges of conservation agriculture
Zero-tillage farming with residue cover save water, increase the organic
matter of soil, as well as costs of machinery, will be reduced, fuel and times
associated with tilling. Leaving the soil undisturbed increase water
infiltration moisture and then helps to Prevent topsoil erosion. It improves
water intake that allows for more stable yields during weather extreme
conditions exacerbated by climate change.
Conservation agriculture provides many benefits for farmers. Farmers
can face constraints to adopt these conservation agriculture practices. There
are many benefits of adopting conservation agriculture to the farmers, soil,
environments, and ultimately to the whole society by sustaining and
conserving our natural resources. These all benefits comprise economic,
environmental, resources conservation, sustained crop productivity,
enhancement in water and nutrient use efficiency, erosion control, and
adaptation to climate change, etc.
Sustainability - conservation agriculture enhancing the natural
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resources and increasing the different variety of soil biota in agriculture
systems without sacrificing yields on high production levels.
Land - conservation agriculture increases the productivity of land. It
improves the soil structure and protects the nutrients losses by maintaining a
permanents soil cover and minimizing soil disturbance. Also, these practices
enhance soil organic matter levels and nutrient availability by utilizing
growing green manure and keeping these residues as surface mulch.
Carbon sequestration - No-till fields act as a sink for Co2 and
conservation farming applied on a global scale can provide the main
contribution to controlling air pollution in general and global warming.
Healthy soils - Soil under conservation agriculture have high infiltration
capacities reducing surface runoff and thus soil erosion significantly. This
improves the surface water quality reducing pollution from soil erosion, and
enhances groundwater resources.
2) Policy issues
Conservation agriculture implies a radical change from traditional
agriculture. There is need for policy analysis to understand how CA
technologies integrate with other technologies, and how policy instruments
and institutional arrangements promote or deter CA (Raina et al., 2005). CA
offers an opportunity for arresting and reversing the downward spiral of
resource degradation, diminishing factor productivity, decreasing cultivation
costs, and making agriculture more resource – use-efficient, competitive, and
sustainable. The following are some of the important policy considerations
for promotion of CA.
• Scaling up conservation agriculture practices: Efforts to adapt
the CA principles and technological aspects to suit various agro-
ecological, socio-economic, and farming systems in the region
started a few decades ago. Greater support from stakeholders
including policy and decision makers at the local, national and
regional levels will facilitate expansion of CA and help farmers to
reap more benefits from the technology. In India much research
work on CA has been conducted for more than a decade, mostly at
the Indian Agricultural Research Institute. However, its percolation
to farmers is very limited.
• Shift in focus from food security to livelihood security: Myopic
“food security” policy based on cereal production must now replace
a well-articulated policy goal for livelihood security. This will help
the diversification of d0ominant rice-wheat cropping systems
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(occupying about 10.5 million ha) in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, the
cultivation of which in conventional tillage
Conclusion
Conservation agriculture offers a new paradigm for agricultural research
and development different from the conventional one, which mainly aimed
at achieving specific food grains production targets as well as offers an
opportunity for arresting and reversing the downward spiral of resource
degradation, decreasing cultivation costs, and making agriculture more
resource - use efficient, competitive and sustainable. The significant
improvement in soil physical, chemical, and biological properties to sustain
soil health.
CA based crop production system is one of the pathways for improving
productivity as well as food security while sustaining and preserving the
natural resources in a variety of agro-ecological regions.
References
1. Abrol, I. P. & Sangar, S. (2006). Sustaining Indian agriculture-
conservation agriculture the way forward. Current Science, 91(8), 1020-
2015.
2. African Conservation Tillage Network. (2011). www.act-africa.org.
Aina, P. O. (1979). Soil changes resulting from long-term management
practices in western Nigeria. Soil Science Society of America Journal,
43,173-177.
3. Behera, U.K., Amgain, L.P. & Sharma, A.R. (2010). Conservation
agriculture: principles, practices and environmental benefits. In Behera,
U. K., Das, T. K., & Sharma, A. R. (Eds.), Conservation Agriculture
(pp. 28-41). Division of Agronomy, Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi– 110012, 216p.
4. Boatman, N., Stoate, C. Gooch, R., Carvalho, C. R., Borralho, R., de,
Snoo, G., & Eden, P. (1999). The environmental impacts of arable crop
production in the European Union: practical options for improvement. A
report prepared for Directorate-General XI of the European
Commission.
5. Derpsch, R. (2001). Keynote: Frontiers in conservation tillage and
advances in conservation practice. In Stott, D. E., Mohtar, R. H., and
Steinhart, G.C.(Eds.), Sustaining the global farm. Selected papers from
the10th International Soil Conservation Organisation Meeting held May
24-29, 1999 at Purdue University and the USSA-ARS National Soil
Erosion Research Laboratory.
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6. Dumanski, J., Peiretti, R., Benetis, J., McGarry, D., & Pieri. C. (2006).
The paradigm of conservation tillage. Proceedings of World Association
of Soil and Water Conservation, P1, 58-64.
7. Gathala, M. K., Ladha, J. K., Saharawat, Y. S., Kumar, V., Kumar, V.,
Sharma, P. K. (2011b). Effect of Tillage and Crop Establishment
Methods on Physical Properties of a Medium-Textured Soil under a
Seven-Year Rice – Wheat Rotation. Soil Science Society of America
Journal, 75, 1851-1862.
8. Ghosh, P.K., Das, A., Saha, R., Kharkrang, E., Tripathy, A.K., Munda,
G.C., & Ngachan, S.V. (2010). Conservation agriculture towards
achieving food security in northeast India. Current Science, 99(7), 915-
921.
9. Jat, M. L., Gathala, M. K., Ladha, J. K., Saharawat, Y. S., Jat, A.S.,
Kumar Vipin, Sharma, S. K., Kumar V., & Gupta, R. (2009a).
Evaluation of Precision Land Leveling and Double Zero-Till Systems in
Rice-Wheat Rotation: Water use, Productivity, Profitability and Soil
Physical Properties. Soil and Tillage Research, 105,112-121.
10. Lal, R. (2013). Climate-resilient agriculture and soil Organic Carbon.
Indian Journal of Agronomy, 58 (4), 440-450.
11. Pathak, H., Saharawat, Y.S., Gathala, M., & Ladha, J.K. (2011). Impact
of resource-conserving technologies on productivity and greenhouse gas
emission in rice-wheat system. Greenhouse Gases: Science and
Technology, 1, 261-277.
12. Sharma, A.R., Singh, R., & Dhyani, S.K. (2005). Conservation tillage
and mulching for optimizing productivity in maize-wheat cropping
system in the outer western Himalaya region–a review. Indian Journal
Soil Conservation, 33(1), 35-41.
13. Sidhu, H.S., Singh, M., Humphreys, E., Singh, Y., Singh, B., Dhillon, S.
S., Blackwell, J., Bector, V. M., & Singh, S. (2007). The happy seeder
enables direct drilling of wheat into rice straw. Australian Journal of
Experimental Agriculture, 47, 844-854.
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Ismail, A., Serraj, R., Redona, E., Singh, R. K., & Heuer, S. (2009).
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Chapter - 7
The Impact of Modern Technology on
Agriculture
Authors
Usha Shukla
Department of Horticulture, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar
University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Rubee Lata
Anchal Singh
Department of Agronomy, Banda University of Agriculture and
Technology, Banda, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sudheer Kumar Yadav
Hareesh Kumar Yadav
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Chapter - 7
The Impact of Modern Technology on Agriculture
Usha Shukla, Rubee Lata, Anchal Singh, Sudheer Kumar Yadav and Hareesh Kumar
Yadav
Abstract
The agriculture sector forms only about 18 percent of India’s GDP
despite employing almost 65 percent of the total workforce. It is impossible
to separate agricultural advances from the institutional, socio economic, and
political context in which they are rooted. It is crucial to put innovations in
the framework of history, emphasizing the revolutions of the previous
century because this background is constantly changing. Despite major
improvements in food grain output, the government faces many hurdles as it
seeks to raise agricultural production as a share of GDP. Agriculture in India
is heavily reliant on nature, yet climate change and global warming make
farming uncertain. Farmers must be educated on how to use contemporary
technologies and novel ways to boost productivity and profitability.
Agricultural development practices have long been seen as depleting natural
resources faster than they could be replenished. Human population growth
has led in an increase in demand for food and shelter, which the "natural"
carrying capacity of the land is under strain to provide.
Keywords: Climate change, environmental impacts
Introduction
Pollution, degraded soil, declining wildlife populations, and altered flora
and fauna are all signs of natural imbalance. It is reasonable to predict that
the agri-ecosystem will face higher demands as a result of the continued
growth in human population. Therefore, technology has played a vital role in
agricultural and sustainable development and will continue to do so in the
future. Climate change has now become a reality. It is adversely affecting -
agricultural production and pushing the poor to below the poverty line. With
the development of digital technology, the role of technology in farming and
agricultural practices has widened. A change in agricultural practises is
being driven by innovation, which lowers costs and boosts productivity.
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Farmers are benefiting from this. Agriculture is undergoing continual
improvement because to the use of digital and analytical technologies, and
this trend is here to stay. This has improved crop yields and contributed to
the farming community's economic growth. With the introduction of digital
technology, the impact of contemporary technology on agricultural
development has increased. Agricultural practices are evolving as a result of
innovation, which lowers costs and boosts productivity.
According to Shang et al. (2021), the key determinants of digital
agriculture technologies are the following:
1) Farm size: it is positively associated with the adoption of such -
technologies.
2) Biophysical conditions: farmers with better quality lands and
resources are more likely to adopt these technologies.
3) Complementary technologies: farmers who already adopted some
digital technologies are more likely to advance it with the adoption
of more such technologies.
4) Labour availability: farmers with permanent skilled labour are
positively related with adoption decisions.
5) Computer use: farmers with computer skills are positively
associated with the adoption of digital technologies.
6) Innovative farmers: Innovative and risk-taking farmers are more
likely to adopt digital technologies.
7) Capacity development: those farmers having received or are
receiving training on the use of these technology are likely to follow
the digital practices.
8) Information channels: an effective communication channel facilitate
use of these technologies.
9) Technology attributes: higher the compatibility of digital
technology with the existing technologies, the adoption is likely to
be higher.
10) Behavioral factors: higher the inclination of user for digital
technologies, higher is the adoption
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Uses of modern technology in agriculture in India
Increased production as a result of agricultural mechanization -
Particularly in tropical areas, manual labour and hand tools used in
agriculture have energy and productivity constraints. Due to accessibility,
cost, and maintenance concerns, smallholder farmers' resistance to
agricultural mechanization is frequently counterproductive. Combine
harvesters are being used more frequently to eliminate manual labour and
accelerate procedures. Indian agriculture is characterized by limited
landholdings, making collaboration necessary to utilize contemporary
machinery.
The application of artificial intelligence (AI) in climate/weather
prediction is a significant advancement in agriculture. Data collection is
made possible by current technology and AI-based solutions, which also
support precision farming and well-informed decision-making. Drones,
remote sensors, and satellites continuously collect data on the weather in and
around fields, giving farmers crucial knowledge on temperature, rainfall,
soil, humidity, and other factors.
Agriculture refers to a broad range of technologies, including
conventional breeding techniques, genetic engineering, and the production of
microorganisms for agriculture. Resilient crops created using biotechnology.
Generally speaking, genetic engineering makes improvements to animals
and crops by identifying and manipulating genes to increase crop resistance
to pests. High-yielding varieties are also created through the application of
genetic engineering.
Agriculture sensors - Communications technology has evolved rapidly
in India and made smart farming a possibility. Sensors are now being used in
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agriculture to provide data to farmers to monitor and optimize crops given
the environmental conditions and challenges. These sensors are based on
wireless connectivity and find application in many areas such as determining
soil composition and moisture content, nutrient detection, location for
precision, airflow, etc. Sensors help farmers save on pesticides, and labor,
and result in efficient fertilizer application. They allow farmers to maximize
yields using minimal natural resources.
Increasing farm outputs and using supply chain management - Big Data
The use of data for decision-making and problem-solving is being expanded
through its collection, compilation, and subsequent processing. The benefits
of using big data in smart farming are expected to spread throughout the
entire supply chain and the markets. Agriculture is expanding and is
influenced by a wide range of factors.
Livestock monitoring is essential for large-scale livestock management
and can help prevent disease outbreaks. Chips and body sensors are used in
this process. Body sensors and chips measure essential data and signs that
could identify disease early and stop herd infection. In a similar vein,
ultrasounds are a helpful tool for determining meat quality. This aids in
maintaining and raising the meat's quality.
Smartphone-Based Crop Irrigation System Monitoring and Control -
Crop irrigation systems have been monitored and managed significantly by
mobile technologies.
Farmers may now use computers and smart phones to regulate their
irrigation systems rather than travelling to each field thanks to contemporary
technology.
Impact of modern technology on agriculture
Technologies can help modern agriculture adapt to the field. Although
some technologies have revolutionized the way we live and work, there is
still a need to promote agricultural technology developments like artificial
intelligence and machine vision. Millions of farmers could gain from the
collection of real-time farm information thanks to the application of
contemporary technologies in agriculture. Weather information, hazard
alerts, and immediate access to farm data are all readily available to farmers.
The implementation of modern agriculture on the ground is made possible
by a variety of technologies. The use of cutting-edge technology in
agriculture is showing a lot of interesting trends and pilot projects.
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SM Sehgal foundation promotes technology in Indian agriculture
Farm mechanization: To assist farmers in making agriculture more
rewarding, the S M Sehgal Foundation and GE launched the Gramme
Utkarsh project in Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh. These are some of the things this
programme has been able to assist with:
Paddy thresher - Brijesh Pal, a farmer in the village of Chakanur,
obtained an electric paddy thresher through the Gramme Utkarsh Project,
which aids in separating the grain from the crop. The paddy thresher has
reduced the amount of time and labour necessary for crop threshing and has
also allowed Brijesh to make additional money by renting the equipment to
other farmers.
Drill - Another piece of farm mechanization equipment that supports
farmers during sowing is a seed drill. The seed drill that farmer Inderjeet
Singh from the village of Chakpura Miyan Khurd got as part of the project
was put to use. He discusses a number of advantages, including the
penetration of the seed into the soil at the proper depth, the use of manure,
even seed distribution, water savings, the use of fewer seeds, good sprouting,
and, of course, cost savings.
Solar sprayer - With the aid of this project, Kamlesh Pandey from the
village of Rahikala was able to employ a solar sprayer in his farm. He
explains that he can now spray alone and cover one bigha in thirty minutes,
as opposed to earlier when it took longer and manual labour.
Laser land leveling: The time and expense associated with irrigation
have decreased because to the adoption of contemporary technologies for
land levelling. He learned about the many advantages of laser land levelling
through a CSR-funded initiative run by the SM Sehgal Foundation, and he
chose to test the technique on one acre of his two-acre property. As a first-
time implementer and as a demonstration for future farmers, he received
funding from the project in the amount of INR 800 out of the total rental cost
of INR 2,250 for laser levelling one acre of his farm. The cost and duration
of irrigation were roughly cut in half after the implementation of laser land
levelling. Previously, it used to take him 10–11 hours and cost him INR 90
per hour to water his one-acre wheat field once. He had to perform five such
irrigations, which added up to a total cost of INR 4,500. After laser levelling,
he irrigated the field in just six hours, saving INR 1,800 in the process. Due
to the uniform distribution of water and fertilizer throughout the field, this
technique also increased crop output.
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Conclusion
By 2050, the estimated global population will be around 9 billion.
Finding ways and means to create enough food to feed it is the difficulty.
The issue of lowering agricultural land use and food loss during production
and distribution is having a significant effect on the entire planet. The only
option to ensure future food security is to increase the use of technology in
agriculture to address these problems. Technology can help nations conserve
foreign currency, boost output, and raise the general living standards of
farming populations. India still has a long way to go before adopting
technologically advanced modern farming methods. The pace is modest, and
innovative initiatives are required to inform farmers about the advantages of
technology. For a better future, it is necessary to break down the boundaries
of antiquated farming methods and mediaeval mindsets. Agriculture
technology has the ability to make India genuinely "Atmanirbhar Bharat" in
every way and less reliant on outside sources. New challenges, such as
climate change, degradation of natural resources and undernourishment,
need a different approach and larger research resources. It appears that future
agricultural research would be more capital intensive, and this would 48 P K
Joshi and Deepak Varshney require modern tools, infrastructure and
upgraded skills. Next-generation technologies, such as climate smart
agriculture, frontier technologies and digital agriculture, require a different
approach in technology generation and their dissemination.
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References
1. Annonymous (2023). Role of Modern Technology in Agriculture.
Senghal Foundation.
2. Annonymous (2022). Use of Modern Technology in Agriculture Sector.
Aeo Logic Your Technology Arm.
3. Joshi, P K and Varshney D. (2022). Agricultural Technologies in India:
A Review. NABARD Research and Policy Series No. 5/2022.
4. Pal, B D, A Kishore, P K Joshi and N K Tyagi (2019): Climate Smart
Agriculture in South Asia: Technologies, Policies and Institutions,
Springer, Singapore.
5. Shang, L, T Heckelei, M K Gerullis, J Börner and S V Rasch (2021): -
“Adoption and Diffusion of Digital Farming Technologies – Integrating
Farm-Level Evidence and System Interaction”, Agricultural Systems,
Vol. 190, No. C, pp. 1-17
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Chapter - 8
A Study on Women Empowerment in India
Authors
Pragya
M.Sc. Student, Department of Agriculture Economics, Banda
Pradesh, India
Anchal Singh
Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Banda University
of Agriculture and Technology, Banda Uttar Pradesh, India
Nidhi Verma
Department of Agronomy, Banda University of Agriculture and
Technology, Banda, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Chapter - 8
A Study on Women Empowerment in India
Pragya, Anchal Singh and Nidhi Verma
Abstract
The present study deals with women empowerment in India. The aims
of this study are to find out women education in pre-colonial, colonial, and
modern India, the forms of empowerment of women, the violence against
women, women rights, legal protection of women in Indian constitution, the,
the Government schemes and programmes for women empowerment, how
education has helped woman empowerment. As a result, it is observed that
the historical background of women education in Indian society in Vedic era
women education was good. It also shows that women empowerment refers
to increasing and improving the social, economic, political and legal strength
of the women, to ensure equal-right to women and to make them confident
enough to claim their rights. A country’s all-round development is only
possible when its women become powerful.
Keywords: Women education, women empowerment, women rights,
violence against women.
Introduction
Women empowerment is the key to strengthen their participation in the
decision making which is most important key to socio-economic
development. India is a developing country and but its economic status is
bad because of the male dominated country. Women empowerment is very
necessary to make the bright future of the society, family and country.
Women comprised the key role in the span of Indian society. No doubt the
Rig Vedic Women in India enjoyed high status in society and their condition
was good. Even the women were provided opportunity to attain high
intellectual and spiritual standard. But from enjoying free and esteemed
positions in the Rig-Vedic society, women started being discriminated since
the Later-Vedic period in education and other rights and facilities. Indian
society doubts that we are in the midst of a great revolution in the history of
women. The voice of women is increasingly heard in Parliament, courts and
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in the streets. While women in the West had to fight for over a century to get
some of their basic rights, like the right to vote, the Constitution of India has
given women equal rights with men from the beginning. The Ancient and
medieval status of women in modern Indian society regarding Equality,
Education, Marriage and Family life, Race and Gender, Religion and Culture
is maintained or deteriorated. There is a list of safety laws for women in
India working in the field to provide safety to the women from all types of
crimes against women.
Women education in pre-colonial, colonial and modern India
Women education in pre-colonial period
The women education in ancient Vedic era was very good. Women in
ancient India had free access to education. They were expected to participate
in Vedic sacrifices and utter mantras. In the earlier Vedic and Upanishad
time, girls were free to go through the ‘Upanayana’ ceremony, live a life of
celibacy, studies Vedas, Vedangas and other subjects along with their
brother pupils. The Vedas give a very honourable and respectable status to
women. They were eligible for higher education for the study of the Vedas.
Women education during the Buddhist period was at its lowest ebb, as the
women folk were despised in the sense that Lord Buddha had regarded them
as the source of all evils. So, he had advised during his lifetime not to admit
women in monasteries. But after some time, due to the insistence of his dear
pupil Ananda, Buddha had permitted about 500 women along with his
stepmother for admission in Bihar with many restrictions and reservation.
Women education in colonial period: The ideas and pedagogical
methods of education during the colonial period from 1757 to 1947 were
contested terrain. The commercial British East India company ruled parts of
India from 1764 to 1858. The idea of imparting education to women
emerged in the British period. Earlier, it was almost universally hailed that
since women need not earn their livelihood, there was no need of education
for them. After the Bhakti Movement, the Christian missionaries took
interest in the education of the girls. The Christian missionaries, whatever
their motive, were the first to set up the Calcutta Female Juvenile Society in
1819. Vidyasagar established no less than 35 girl’s school in Bengal. Charles
wood’s dispatch on education (1854) laid great stress on the need for female
education. The Hunter Commission too emphasized on the need for female
education in 1882. The Calcutta, Bombay and Madras institutions did not
permit the admission of girls till 1875. It was only after 1882 that girls were
allowed to go for higher education. Since then, there has been a continuous
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progress in the extension of education among females. Some women’s
organizations such as Bharat Mohila Parishad (1904), Bharat Stree
Mahamandal (1910), Women’s Indian Association (1917), National Council
of Women India (1925) and All India Women’s Conference (1927) took up
issues like women’s education, abolition of social evils, Hindu law reform,
equality of rights and opportunities and women’s suffrage.
Women education in modern India: Women education in modern
India is traced back to the years after the Indian Independence Modern India
refers to the period from 1700 A.D. to 1947 A.D. In the background of the
intellectual upheaval of the 18th and 19th century, there was a worldwide
demand for establishing of independent and egalitarian nationalist societies
which invariably emphasized the equality of women with men.
Women in modern India have largely been influenced by the programs
of reform and upliftment largely influenced by the western democratic and
liberal ideology. Before the advent of the British in India, the life of women
was rather oppressive, and they were subject to a constant process of
subjugation and social oppression. During the British rule, a number of
changes were made in the economic and social structures of Indian society,
and some substantial progress was achieved in elimination of inequalities
between men and women, in education, employment, social rights, etc.
After the Bhakti Movement, the Christian Missionaries took interest in
the education of the girls. The Hunter Commission too emphasized on the
need for female education in 1882. The Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (now
Kolkata, Mumbai, and Chennai) institutions did not permit the admission of
girls till 1875. It was only after 1882 that girls were allowed to go for higher
education.
Since then, there has been a continuous progress in the area of education
among females. Though the number of girls studying at various levels was
low, yet there has been a marked increase in the number of female students
at every level from 1941 onwards. During the 19 th century, women in India
suffered from disabilities like child-marriage, practice of polygamy, sale of
girls for marriage purposes, severe restrictions on widows, non-access to
education, and restricting oneself to domestic and child-bearing functions.
The Indian National Conference started in 1885 by Justice Ranade
contained these disabilities. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, who played an important
role in getting the Sati system abolished raised voices against the child-
marriage and fought for the right of inheritance for women. Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar launched a movement for the right of widows to remarry and
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also pleaded for educating women. Maharaja S. Rao, ruler of Baroda State
worked for prevention of child-marriages, Polygamy, and getting the rights
of education to women, and the right of remarriage to widows.
The present position of women in Indian society
For what is a man profited, if he shall gain the whole world, and lose his
own soul? Unfortunately, the liberty and equality enjoyed by Indian women
today have not reached the vast majority of women citizens in India. When a
brief study was comprehensively done through facts escalation and conse-
quences of sex-selection of boy child over girl child are quite shocking and
very disturbing and very much widely practiced even today in almost all
parts and all sections of people in India. The question arises here – are we a
Nation of Mass Murders? Does a Girl not have a right to born peacefully and
with the same respect like a boy child in our so called cultural and spiritual
enriched land?
As a nation, we are proud on our strong family values but in the real
sense most of us are still dwelling with ‘Artificial Balance’ family to have a
son by killing preceding daughters? Ultimately the way we treat any one
relationship in the family will eventfully affect every other relationship in
the family. Marriage is one of the key institutions of civilization. The family
unit created in the society is a fundamental building block of the Nation
Building. Unstable, unhappy family and children will create an unstable and
chaotic society.
National policy for the empowerment of women (2001)
The principle of gender equality in the Indian Constitution in its
Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive
Principles. The Constitution not only grants equality to women, but also
empowers the State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of
women.
Within the framework of a democratic polity, our laws, development
policies, Plans and programmes have aimed at women’s advancement in
different spheres. From the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-78) onwards has been
a marked shift in the approach to women’s issues from welfare to
development. In recent years, the empowerment of women has been
recognized as the central issue in determining the status of women. The
National Commission for Women was set up by an Act of Parliament in
1990 to safeguard the rights and legal entitlements of women. The 73rd and
74th Amendments (1993) to the Constitution of India have provided for
reservation of seats in the local bodies of Panchayats and Municipalities for
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women, laying a strong foundation for their participation in decision making
at the local levels.
Goal and objectives
The goal of this Policy is to bring about the advancement, development
and empowerment of women. The Policy will be widely disseminated so as
to encourage active participation of all stakeholders for achieving its goals.
Specifically, the objectives of this Policy include
• To Creating an environment through positive economic and social
policies for full development of women to enable them to realize
their full potential.
• Equal access to participation and decision making of women in
social, political and economic life of the nation
• Equal access to women to health care, quality education at all
levels, career and vocational guidance, employment, equal
remuneration, occupational health and safety, social security and
public office etc.
• Strengthening legal systems aimed at elimination of all forms of
discrimination against women
• Changing societal attitudes and community practices by active
participation and involvement of both men and women.
• Mainstreaming a gender perspective in the development process
and Elimination of discrimination and all forms of violence against
women and the girl child.
National Policy for Women - 2016
Introduction
Empowerment of women is a socio-political ideal strategic in relation to
the wider framework of women’s rights. It is a process that leads women to
realise their full potential, their rights to have access to opportunities,
resources and choices with the freedom of decision making both within and
outside home. Empowerment would be achieved only when advancement in
the conditions of women is accompanied by their ability to influence the
direction of social change gained through equal opportunities in economic,
social and political spheres of life.
The Constitution of India conveys a powerful mandate for equality and
rights of women in its Preamble, Fundamental Rights, and Duties and also
provides for specific provisions for affirmative actions. India is also a
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signatory to a number of UN Conventions, primarily Convention on
Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW),
Beijing Platform for Action and Convention on Rights of the Child where
the commitment of the nation to protect and empower its women and girls is
quite pronounced. The recent endorsement by India, of the ambitious 2030
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) will further change the course of
development by addressing the key challenges such as poverty, inequality,
and violence against women, which is critical for the global success of the
goals as well.
Goal and objectives
• Creating a conducive socio-cultural, economic and political
environment to enable women enjoy de jure and de facto
fundamental rights and realize their full potential.
• Mainstreaming gender in all-round development
programmes/projects/ actions.
• A holistic and life-cycle approach to women’s health for
appropriate, affordable and quality health care.
• To Improving and incentivizing access of women/ girls to universal
and quality education.
• To increasing and incentivizing work force participation of women
in the economy.
• Equal participation in the social, political and economic spheres
including the institutions of governance and decision making.
The government schemes and programmes for women empowerment
The Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD) and the
Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) are implementing various welfare
schemes and programmes for Indian women. These schemes and
programmes are listed below
1. Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls
(RGSEAG)-Sabla.
2. Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana (IGMSY).
3. Support to Training & Employment Programme for Women
(STEP).
4. Working Women Hostel (WWH).
5. Women Empowerment and Livelihood Programme in Mid-
Gangetic Plain (Priyadarshini).
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6. Swadhar Scheme for Women in Difficult Circumstances.
7. Scheme for Combating Trafficking.
8. Family Counseling Centers (FCCs).
9. Short Stay Home Programme.
10. Awareness Generation Programme (AGP).
11. Condensed courses of Education for Adult Women (CCE).
12. Integrated Scheme for Women’s Empowerment (ISWE).
13. Gender Budgeting Scheme (GBS).
14. Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme.
15. One stop centre scheme.
16. Women Helpline Scheme.
Many programmes have been implemented and course by the
government such as international women’s day, National Women’s Day,
Mother’s Day etc. in order to bring awareness in the society about the true
constitutional rights and value of the women in the development of the
country.
Conclusions
Therefore, we see that in this century societies have been accepted
women’s empowerment for development of the creation, women as an active
representative for development, participation in and guiding for their own
development. Women education is essential in the 21st century for women
empowerment. Education is an important tool that enables women and girls
to participate in decision making process that affect their lives and in
improving their social status. Women empowerment makes them
independent decision makers. By the women empowerment social, political
and economic development of a country is possible. So, to develop a country
woman should be empowered from all directions. For this the women should
be provided more opportunities and returns.
References
1. Saravanakumar, A. R. (2016). Present scenario of women’s education in
India. In a National Seminar sponsored by ICHR on Educational
Practices in Chola Kingdom (850 – 1279 AD) EPICK – 2016 organized
by Department of History & DDE, Alagappa University, Karaikudi.
2. Altekar, A. S. (1983). Position of women in Hindu Civilization.
Banaras: The Culture publication House, Banaras Hindu University.
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3. Devandra, Kiran. (1985). Status and position of women in India. With
Special Reference to Women in Contemporary India. New Delhi: Shakti
Books.
4. Sharma, Radha Krishna. (1981). Nationalism, Social Reform, and Indian
Women. New Delhi: Janaki Prakashan.
5. Krishnaraj, Maithveyi. (1986). Women’s studies in India. Bombay
Popular Prakasham.
6. Chaturvedi, Geeta (1985). Women administration in India. Jaipur:
RBSA Publication.
7. Saravanakumar, A. R. (2017). Difference between human rights and
fundamental rights. In two-day, National Conference on Human Rights
Education: (NCHRE – 2017) organized by Department of Education,
Alagappa University, Karaikudi.
8. Sen, S. N. (1988). Ancient Indian history and civilization. New Delhi:
Wiley Eastern Limited.
9. Dutt, M. N. (1937). Status of women. Calcutta: Mohendra Publishing
Committee.
10. Menon, Indu, M. (1989). Status of Muslim women in India. A case
study of Kerala. New Delhi: Uppal Publishing House.
11. Sharma, Y. (2013). ‘Women Entrepreneur in India.’ Journal of Business
and Management, 15(3) pp-9-14.
12. Shettar, R. M. (2015). ‘A Study on Issues and Challenges of Women
Empowerment in India.’ IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 17
(4) pp-13-19.
13. Suguna, M. (2011). ‘Education and Women Empowerment in India.’
International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 1(8) pp-198-204.
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Chapter - 9
Conservation Tillage, its Advantage and
Disadvantage in India
Authors
Devrani Gupta
Ph.D., Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Banda
Pradesh, India
Shravan Kumar Maurya
Ph.D., Research scholar, Department of Agronomy, Chandra
Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology,
Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Chapter - 9
Conservation Tillage, its Advantage and Disadvantage in
India
Devrani Gupta and Shravan Kumar Maurya
Abstract
Conservation tillage is a widely used technique worldwide, the adoption
of climate-resilient management practices such as advancing the sowing time
and conservation tillage can improve the productivity of soil as well as crop
consequences on the environment. Conservation tillage systems, that
maintain the resources of soil and maintain soil productivity, such as no
tillage, no tillage with straw return, and straw acceptance into the field, have
been recognized as effective. Conservation tillage strategies have a
significant impact on soil characteristics, bacterial composition, and
assembly procedures. However, more research is needed to determine how
different crops, tillage techniques, and physiological traits affect the
structure and functions of bacterial communities. Although conservation
tillage is a frequently utilized technique throughout the world, little is known
about how it affects bacterial community structure.
Keywords: Soil productivity, soil health, conservation.
Introduction
The purpose of tillage is to improve the soil's ability to support plant
development. Tillage is the physical, chemical, or biological alteration of the
soil to improve the circumstances for seed germination, seedling
establishment, and crop growth. The fertility status of the soil can be
significantly changed through soil manipulation, and the alterations may
result in crops performing well or poorly. Tillage activities alter soil
attributes such as bulk density, pore size distribution, and soil atmospheric
composition that have an impact on plant growth by loosening, granulating,
crushing, or compacting the soil structure.
The two forms of tillage operations are primary tillage (ploughing) and
secondary tillage. Primary tillage involves using various ploughs to break up
compacted soil. It is mostly used to break up hard soil and distinguish the
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topsoil from deeper layers. Secondary tillage, on the other hand, refers to
lighter or finer activities done on the soil after primary tillage. Conventional
tillage is the process of opening the soil using a plough, then harrowing,
planking, and other tillage techniques.
Conventional tillage is time-consuming, expensive, labor-intensive, and
frequently results in soil erosion. Conservation tillage is a new type of tillage
that has arisen as a solution to the issues with conventional tillage.
Conservation tillage refers to tillage techniques that leave a considerable
amount of residue on the soil surface throughout the entire year. It is actually
crop production methods that deal with surface residue control. Compared to
conventional tillage, conservation tillage is more cost-effective. The
following economic considerations influence interest in conservation tillage.
1) High prices for labour, tractors, gasoline, and other supplies.
2) Expensive equipment maintenance and inventory expenditures.
3) The capacity to plant crops more intensively on erodible terrain.
4) The potential for more intensive cultivation, avoiding lengthy
fallow periods due to better water management.
When compared to conventional tillage, conservation tillage can reduce
soil loss by up to 99%. In comparison to conventional tillage, it often
reduces soil loss by 50%. Conservation tillage also prevents precipitation
from removing nutrients from the soil and keeps the soil's organic matter
level high. Earthworm and microbial populations in the soil rise as a result of
conservation tillage. The following are additional benefits of conservation
tillage
1) Maintains the productivity of upland soils by reducing erosion.
2) Keeps the soil at a comfortable temperature.
3) Improves the soil's ability to hold water.
4) Improves water use efficiency; and
5) Increases the nutrient use efficiency.
Types of conservation tillage
1. Stubble mulch tillage: This is the practice of tilling soil while
leaving behind plant residue or other items to cover the soil's
surface. Mulch farming, garbage farming, mulch tillage, and plough
less farming are other names for it. Stubble mulch tillage can be
defined as any type of tillage that keeps plant leftovers on the soil's
surface. When abnormally high volumes of residue are retained on
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the surface, disc type or other implements integrate some of the
residue into the soil while leaving some to prevent erosion. The
primary tillage depth in stubble mulching is typically 12 to 15 cm.
The depth at which subsequent tillage is performed decreases
gradually. It may grow in any kind of soil. Yet, compared to fine-
textured soils, coarse-textured soils require more surface residues to
control wind erosion. As a result, stubble mulch tillage is more
effective at controlling wind erosion on fine-textured soils than on
coarse-textured soils. The rapid water infiltration in coarse-textured
soils makes it simple to control soil erosion caused by water. In
order to prevent water erosion on coarse-textured soils, less surface
residues would be needed.
The stubble mulch is more suited to humid and sub-humid climates than
arid and semi-arid ones. Yet, in arid environments, it reduces nitrification
(the conversion of ammonia to nitrate), which avoids over stimulating plant
growth and enhances the balance of water fertility. The rate of organic matter
loss in this kind of conservation tillage is minimal.
2. Minimal tillage: In the United States of America, the idea of
minimum tillage has become popular. The high expense of tillage as
a result of the sharp increase in oil prices in 1974 was the
immediate reason for the introduction of limited tillage. With the
current soil and climatic circumstances, minimum tillage refers to
the least amount of soil manipulation required for crop production.
Crop leftovers are kept around for a longer period of time or the
entire crop season under a low tillage system. Therefore, less tillage
essentially improves soil conditions and preserves soil moisture.
Through this excellent conservation, the productivity of land can be
maintained for continued crop yield. It uses fewer tractors and less
equipment since it entails fewer cultural operations or less intensive
soil manipulation. In addition, time and energy.
The use of little tillage has some drawbacks. They include pest issues,
poorer nutrient availability, and poor seed germination. These are some
examples of the main minimum tillage system types
1) Autumn plough: In this system, secondary tillage is reduced to one
shallow cultivation and the soil is then leveled by planking at the
time of planting. Primary tillage is done using a mould board
plough in this system. To create a finer and firmer seedbed, a disc
or rotary tiller may be used instead of a field cultivator. On the
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deep, nearly level, medium to fine-textured clay loam soils, it is
commonly employed.
2) Spring plough: In this system, strip seedbed is prepared on soil that
was initially ploughed i.e., only 12-24 hours before planting the
crop. By planting soon after ploughing, the soil does not dry
appreciably and the soil water content at planting would be such
that the clods get broken and make the seedbed firm. This system
provides greater protection against erosion because residues from
the previous crop are maintained on the surface until ploughing.
3) Disk and plant: The initial disking often takes place in the fall, and
one or more discs may be applied in the spring prior to planting.
3. Strip tillage: In this approach, only a little portion of the soil is
tilled. A typical tillage zone is between 5 and 10 cm deep and
around 20 cm wide.
4. No-tillage: The no-till system is a specific form of conservation
tillage that entails a one-pass fertilization and planting process with
the least amount of soil and surface disturbance. For the protection
of soil and water, the surface residues of such a system are crucial.
Herbicides are often used to manage weeds, while crop rotation
may also be used in some circumstances. Apart for the opening of a
thin (2–3 cm wide) strip or tiny hole in the ground for seed insertion
to ensure proper seed–soil contact, no-tillage systems do not require
any mechanical seedbed preparation prior to planting.
Crop residue mulch or destroyed sod covers the entire soil surface. This
type of conservation tillage also results in better wind and water erosion
control, increased land use, improved water conservation, decreased energy
requirements, decreased labour requirements, decreased equipment
inventories, decreased tractor and equipment wear and tear, and higher net
returns. The application of more nitrogenous fertilizers due to the slower
mineralization of organic waste, the emergence of perennial weeds, and an
increase in the population of insect pests are all drawbacks of non-tillage.
Equipment for conservation tillage systems
Sweepers are used for primary tillage in stubble mulch tillage systems,
which utilize bladed machinery. A sweeping machine, spring teeth
cultivator, chisel plough, etc. are used for subsequent or secondary tillage
activities. With its shallow ploughing and firm seedbed, the rod weeder may
perform the last tillage operation. Chisel applicators can be used to apply
Page | 90
fertilizers. For seeding, hoe opening drills are frequently employed.
Herbicides can be used to control weeds.
Several types of medium to big tractors can be utilized in minimum
tillage. Primary tillage can be done with a rotary tiller, disc plough, chisel
plough, mould board plough, etc. The process of planting and applying
fertilizer is comparable to the stubble mulch system. Herbicidal applications
are used to control weeds.
Conclusion
Soil tillage is one of the fundamental and crucial elements of
agricultural production technology. Over the world, different types of tillage
Page | 91
are used, from the straight forward stick or jab to the complex para-plough.
No tillage, minimal tillage, conservation tillage, and conventional tillage are
the four basic categories into which the practices adopted, regardless of the
equipment employed, can be divided. With regard to the various tillage
systems, energy is crucial. Conservation tillage is utilized in farming
techniques instead of conventional tillage. This indicates that the soil must
be kept for at least 30 percent of the crop residue present before using this
method, such as rummage soil tillage methods. This type of farming is based
on the preservation of the land, water, and plants.
References
1. Advantages and Disadvantages of No till farming, Retrieved on October
24, 2018 from: https://notillagri culture.com/notill-farming/advantages-
and disadvantage -of- no-till-farming.
2. Neufeldt, H., Kissinger, G. and Alcamo, J. (2015). No-till agriculture
and climate change mitigation. Nature Climate Change, 5(6), pp.488-
489.
3. Akhilesh, S. (2017). Zero Tillage- A Profitable Resource Conservation
Technology in Agriculture. Advances in Plants & Agriculture Research,
6(1).
4. Moreno F., Pelegrin F., Fernandez J.E., Murillo J.M., (1997). Soil
physical properties, water depletion and crop development under
traditional and conservation tillage in southern Spain, Soil & Tillage
Research 41: 25-42.
5. Hussain I., Olson K.R., Ebelhar S.A., Impacts of tillage and no-till on
production of maize and soybean on an eroded Illinois silt loam soil,
(1999), Soil & Tillage Research, 52: 37-49.
Page | 92
Chapter - 10
Soil Health Card Scheme and Importance
Authors
Nidhi Verma
M.Sc. Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, College of
Vijay Kumar Kushwaha
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant
Breeding, College of Agriculture, Acharya Narendra Deva
University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj,
Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India
Pragya
M.Sc. Research Scholar, Department of Economics, College of
Arun Kumar
Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy, College of
Page | 93
Page | 94
Chapter - 10
Soil Health Card Scheme and Importance
Nidhi Verma, Vijay Kumar Kushwaha, Pragya and Arun Kumar
Abstract
Soil health is defined as the continued capacity of soil to function as a
vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans. The soil
health card is a simple document, which contains useful data on soil based
chemical analysis of the soil to describe soil health in term of its nutrient
availability and its physical and chemical properties. Soil Health Card (SHC)
is a Government of India's scheme promoted by the Department of
Agriculture & Co-operation under the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers'
Welfare. It is being implemented through the Department of Agriculture of
all the State and Union Territory Governments. The scheme will monitor the
soil of the farmers well and will give them a formatted report. So, they can
decide well which crops they should cultivate and which ones they should
skip. Some farmers complained that the soil test values are not representative
of their fields and that the field staff did not collect the soil samples in their
presence. To build trust, samples need to be collected in the presence of
GRID farmers.
Keywords: Soil, soil heath card, benefits, constraints.
Introduction
Soil health card: A soil health card is used to evaluate the state of the
soil's health right now and, over time, to identify changes brought on by
changes in land use. The indicators of soil health and the related descriptive
phrases are shown on a soil health card. The indicators are frequently based
on farmers' first-hand knowledge of the region's natural resources and
practical experience. The card provides indications of soil health that can be
evaluated without the use of technical or laboratory apparatus. Soil Health
Card (SHC) is a Government of India's scheme promoted by the Department
of Agriculture & Co-operation under the Ministry of Agriculture and
Farmers' Welfare. It is being implemented through the Department of
Agriculture of all the State and Union Territory Governments.
Page | 95
Soil Health Card Scheme is a very beneficial scheme for farmers. There
are many farmers in India. And they do not know which types of crops they
should grow to get maximum yield. Basically, they do not know the quality
and the type of their soil. They might know by experience what crops grow
and what crops fail. But they don't know what they can do to improve the
condition of the soil. Studies have shown that farmers traditionally adopt soil
management strategies based on their own experience, knowledge
disseminated by local agricultural officers, and knowledge of location-
specific conditions (Jensen et al., 2003; A.A. Reddy, 2011; B.S. Reddy,
2018). For increased yields, more profitability, and lower expenses, farmers
combine various crops with chemical fertilizers and farmyard waste. The
Soil Health Card Scheme was introduced by the Indian government in 2015
to promote the sensible application of fertilizers. As part of the program, the
government tested the soil and distributed soil health cards (SHCs), which
contain recommendations for the precise fertilizers needed for each crop.
This allowed for more prudent fertilizer use, which might increase
productivity and/or lower expenses. In labs around the nation, the soil
samples underwent testing. Experts analyzed the nutrient levels of soils and
recommended suitable crops on the SHCs, along with fertilizer levels. To
120 million farmers, the government distributed SHCs. The SHCs include
data on the soil's physical and chemical properties, including the type of soil,
GPS location, irrigation source, farm size, and 12 chemical elements,
including the pH of the soil, electrical conductivity (EC), organic carbon
(OC), and the nutrients that are currently available, such as nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulphur (S), zinc (Zn), boron (B), iron (Fe),
manganese (Mn), and copper (Cu). Pilot tests of the SHC scheme have had
positive results in the past, as mentioned below (Chander et al., 2014;
Fishman, et al., 2016; Raju, Gaur, & Wani, 2015).
Details of SHC
Given the overall positive experience from the pilot studies, guidelines
for a national SHC scheme were prepared and the scheme was launched by
the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare, Government of India on
February 19, 2015 (Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers
Welfare. Under this scheme, SHCs would be provided to all farmers in the
country at an interval of 2 years to enable them to apply recommended doses
of nutrients based on soil test values. The cropped area is divided into grids
of 10 ha for rainfed lands and 2.5 ha for irrigated lands. (Detailed guidelines
for soil sample collection, soil testing, and fertilizer recommendations are
given in Appendix 2.) The grid size is less on irrigated lands to capture the
Page | 96
higher variability in soil nutrients, since nutrients will run off and also leach
with the flow of running water in the soil. In India, the average farm size is
1.05 ha. Of the total cropped area, 48% is irrigated. This indicates that in
rainfed areas, each grid may cover on the average 9–10 farmers, while under
irrigated conditions each may cover about 2–3 farmers, if the whole field is
irrigated. One soil sample (pooling 5–6 subsamples from the grid) is
collected and test results are distributed to all farmers whose cropland falls
under the grid. India has a federal political system; agriculture comes under
state government. While some special programs were funded and sponsored
by the central government, implementation is in the hands of the states. The
SHC scheme is one of these centrally sponsored schemes, Different states
have different implementation capabilities in terms of skilled staff and soil
testing labs per 1000 ha. The state capabilities have a significant impact on
the actual implementation of the scheme at local level (Muralidharan et al.,
2016; Andrews, Pritchett, & Woolcock, 2013). The SHC scheme has
generated public interest in India and other countries due to the enormous
scale of the program and the huge potential benefits for smallholder farmers.
Level of utilization and impact of the SHC scheme
➢ Approximately 66% of farmers reported being able to comprehend
the SHC's content, 57% said the recommendations applied to their
farms, and 53% were able to implement the advice.
➢ The SHC program is inclusive in nature, and small and marginal
farmers take the initiative to accept recommendations based on
SHC.
➢ There was a reduction in the use of urea and DAP by 20 to 30% in
paddy and cotton in some states, resulting in decreased cost of
cultivation. The reduction in the cost of cultivation ranged between
Rs. 1,000 and Rs. 4,000 per acre.
➢ The use of micro-nutrients (especially gypsum) was slightly
increased after SHC distribution
➢ There was a significant increase in yield for farmers who practiced
recommended practices as per the SHC.
➢ With decrease in the cost of cultivation and increase in yields, net
incomes of the farmers increased between 30 and 40% after the
SHC scheme.
Benefits of soil health card
• The scheme will monitor the soil of the farmers well and will give
Page | 97
them a formatted report. So, they can decide well which crops they
should cultivate and which ones they should skip.
• The authorities will monitor the soil on a regular basis. One in every
3 years, they will provide a report to farmers. So, farmers need not
worry if the nature of the soil changes due to certain factors. Also,
they will always have updated data about their soil.
• The work of the government does not stop at listing down measures
required to improve the quality of the soil. In fact, they will also
employ experts to help farmers in carrying out the corrective
measures.
• Farmers will get a proper soil health record, thanks to the Soil
Health Card Scheme. Also, they can study the soil management
practices. Accordingly, they can plan the future of their crops and
land.
• Generally, in government schemes, the person carrying out the
study for a particular farmer gets changed. But in the Soil Health
Card Scheme, the government is paying attention that the same
person carries out soil analysis for a farmer. This will further
enhance the effectiveness of the scheme.
• The soil card will give the farmers a proper idea of which nutrients
their soil is lacking. And hence, which crops they should invest in.
they will also tell which fertilizers they need. So, ultimately, the
crop yield will see a rise.
• The main aim behind the scheme was to find out the type of
particular soil. And then provide ways in which we can improve it.
Even if a soil has some limitations, we can do something to get the
most out of it. And that is what the government is trying to do with
the help of this scheme.
Constraints of the SHC scheme
• Some farmers complained that the soil test values are not
representative of their fields and that the field staff did not collect
the soil samples in their presence. To build trust, samples need to be
collected in the presence of GRID farmers.
• Uniform soil GRIDS of 10 ha for rainfed and 2.5 ha for irrigated
should be re-examined. The grid size should be determined based
on the soil variability index (soil variogram). If variability is high,
GRID size should be less and vice versa.
Page | 98
• Soil variogram needs to be developed at each block level to
determine the GRID size at the block level.
• Many farmers are unable to understand the content and hence are
unable to follow the recommended practices. Only 44% of the
farmers mentioned that the extension officers explained the content.
• SHC distribution and awareness campaigns needs to be arranged
before the sowing season so that farmers can practice recommended
crop choice and fertilizers.
• Awareness campaigns need to be organized for the use of SHC in
reduction of fertiliser use and costs and increase in yields.
• Many farmers feel that SHC should also mention one or two
physical and micro-biological indicators (such as soil texture, water
holding capacity, and water quality and bacterial content).
• There is a need to identify best practices in soil sample collection
(predetermined DRID apps practiced in Punjab and TN) and testing
for scale-up.
• Development of GIS-based soil fertility maps at the village/block
level and wider publicity through wall posters and display boards in
village panchayats should be promoted. 11. The Government should
ensure availability of recommended fertilizers and bio-fertilizers at
the village level at reasonable prices.
Policy recommendations for improvement
• Index of soil health needs to be developed and incorporated into
SHC, which indicates the overall health of the soil. Based on the
index, soils should be classified as grade A, B, or C. The grades can
be updated every SHC cycle based on soil tests. This updating of
soil health index may act as an incentive to farmers to put in special
efforts to upgrade soil health index, say, from Grade C to Grade A,
as grade A soils may fetch higher land rental value for agricultural
purposes and get higher land sale price if the land is put for sale
compared to soils with grade C.
• All agricultural and rural development schemes should make it
mandatory to mention soil health index based on SHC along with
Aadhar in their application forms in order to get benefits. The SHC
information should be linked to Aadhar and be available for
download at e-seva in the public domain.
• If the SHC programme is to be successful, the high fertilizer
Page | 99
subsidy for NPK needs to be reduced. Prices should reflect true cost
to the economy; only then will farmers have an incentive to use
fertilizers judiciously according to the recommendations of the
SHC. At the same time, subsidy on use of recommended dose of
micro-nutrients, bio-fertilizers, and organic inputs should be
encouraged. However, the quality of these inputs supplied on
subsidy needs to be monitored and stringent punishment needs to be
enforced if quality standards are not maintained.
• The government should set up state-of-the-art labs to test the quality
of micro nutrients supplied. Accreditation of such labs to
national/international standard institutes should be initiated. Supply
of phosphorous soluble bacteria should be mandatory along with
phosphate fertilizers and rock phosphate such as neem-coated urea.
FPCs need to be encouraged to take up the SHC scheme as a
business model by setting up state-of-the-art labs at the district
level. Since FPCs are already involved in selling fertilizers, they are
in a better position to stock all the required (according to SHC
recommendations) fertilizer and micro-nutrient compositions and
supply them to individual FPCs across the district.
• There should be some incentives/awards for the farmers who grow
green manure and vermicompost and whose soil fertility increased
over the years based on Soil Health Card.
• Some incentives should be provided to local bodies that encourage
good practices such as recycling crop residues, encouraging
common lands for corporate, etc. Similarly, incentives can be given
to villages when they adopt crop rotation with legumes.
• Innovative techniques such as neem-coated urea (for slow release of
fertilizer into the soil) need to be promoted by the government.
There should be 45 kg urea bags instead of 50 kg ones, which will
reduce the loss/excessive use of fertilizers by about 10-20%,
especially by small and marginal farmers. Soil sample collection,
testing, and printing at the district level is significantly positively
influenced by fertilizer use, number of bank accounts, net sown
area, number of soil testing labs, and households with mobiles.
• Other policies, such as water exploitation, electricity, etc., should be
in line so that crop diversity can protect soil health in the long run.
References
1. Reddy, A. A. (2019). The soil health card Scheme in India: Lessons
Page | 100
learned and challenges for replication in other developing countries.
Journal of Natural Resources Policy Research, 9(2), 124-156.
2. Chouhan, R. S., Sharma, H. O., Rathi, D., & Niranjan, H. K.
(2017). Impact of Soil Health Card Scheme on Farmers’ Income–A
Case Study of Kharif Crops in Madhya Pradesh. Agricultural
Economics Research Review, 30(conf), 139-141.
3. Niranjan, H. K., Chouhan, R. S., Sharma, H. O., amp; Rathi, D. (2018).
Awareness and performance of soil health card scheme in central
India. Journal of Crop and Weed, 14(1), 99-103.
4. Reddy, A. A. (2019). The soil health card Scheme in India: Lessons
learned and challenges for replication in other developing
countries. Journal of Natural Resources Policy Research, 9(2), 124-156.
5. Sood, Jyotika (7 October 2015), " Unearthing the loopholes in
Modi government's Soil Health Card scheme & quot;, Daily News
and Analysis, Mumbai
Page | 101

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S. No. Chapters Page Nos.

1. Precision Agriculture: A Modern Approach to Efficient 01-11

2. Sustainable Agriculture 13-22

3. Role of Diffusion Double Layer Theory 23-32

4. Smart Agriculture: A New Era in Farming 33-42

5. Natural Farming: A New Direction of Agriculture 43-51

6. Conservation Agriculture: Problems, Prospects, and its 53-63

7. The Impact of Modern Technology on Agriculture 65-73

8. A Study on Women Empowerment in India 75-84

9. Conservation Tillage, Its Advantage and Disadvantage in 85-92

10. Soil health Card Scheme and Importance 93-101

Figure 2: Potential distribution in a diffuse double layer

Figure 4: Stern double layer

Table Country Area (Mha) Percentage of global area

Conventional agriculture Conservation agriculture

Basic principle of conservation agriculture

Figure 1: Principle and health of conservation agriculture

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