Health Psychology 1

between anger, fear, and health histories of college students. Other psychologists
became involved in research on problems of sex, often using new technologies to
study relations of endocrine function to behavior and health (Pettit, 2013; Pickren,
1997).
Psychologists began to do research that was more explicitly connected to health
and illness in the 1930s, though it formed only a small part of psychological research
during this era. Although it may seem odd to us today, psychoanalytic concepts were
often the point of departure for the research. It has often been noted that
psychoanalysis and psychology have had a complex history (e.g., Hornstein, 1992;
Shakow & Rapaport, 1964). Psychologists have long struggled with what they
perceived as internally inconsistent theory, unclear conceptualizations, and the
mixture of theory with clinical practice in psychoanalysis. On the other hand,
psychoanalysts have often charged psychologists with conducting research that was
irrelevant to the problems of daily life. Nevertheless, in the 1930s a small number of
experimental psychologists attempted a rapprochement between psychoanalysis and
academic psychology. These psychologists believed that their commitment to
methodological rigor would actually help psychoanalysis by lending precision and
definition to its often vague formulations. Interestingly, many of the psychologists
involved had undergone a course of psychoanalytic therapy prior to their research
(see the special issue of the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1940,
volume 35, issue 1, for examples).
The center of research was the Rockefeller philanthropy-supported Institute of
Human Relations at Yale University. There, some of the most prominent
psychologists of the mid-twentieth century tested psychoanalytic constructs with the
methods of experimental psychology. Clark Hull, Neal Miller, Robert Sears, Leonard
Doob, and other leaders developed complex research programs to investigate
frustration and aggression (Dollard et al., 1939). Freud had posited that aggression is
the result of frustrated needs, whether in humans or animals. John Dollard and his
colleagues suggested that their research provided some support for Freud’s idea,
especially in the economically difficult Great Depression. Frustration could even lead
to illness, as well as contribute to criminal behavior, dysfunctional families, and
industrial labor problems. Psychologists at other institutions were stimulated by the
work at Yale and engaged intensely in empirically testing psychoanalytic ideas. They
saw their work as advancing psychology in new directions, while at the same time
addressing the irrelevance charge levied against their field. Their work, they argued,
provided potential answers to a range of human problems, including health and
illness.
On the organizational side of psychosomatic medicine, psychologists such as
Walter Hunter, Robert Yerkes, and Walter Miles played key roles in establishing the
new field’s first journal through their positions on the National Research Council.
Leading philanthropies of the day, such as the Rockefeller Foundation and the Josiah
Macy Jr. Foundation, believed that the social sciences, particularly psychology, could
be of great assistance in stabilizing society during a time of great unrest (Brown,
1987; Bugos, 1989). The foundations provided funding to the National Research
2 wade e. pickren

Council to generate ideas based on psychoanalytic ideas and psychological research

that could be used to advance social equilibrium. The major result of the funding was
the establishment of a new journal, Psychosomatic Medicine, in 1939. The research
published in the journal’s first five years was dominated by psychological research.
The experimental work of psychologists gave credibility and legitimacy to the new
field in the eyes of the medical and scientific community. Their success in this period
laid the foundation for the current importance of psychology in health care. Between
1940 and 1978, the year that the Division of Health Psychology was formed in the
American Psychological Association (APA), a small number of psychologists
continued to contribute a more holistic approach to understanding and treating
illness. In doing so, they responded to societal changes that placed greater emphasis
on lifestyle and sought to find ways to help Americans adapt to the stressful
conditions of postwar life.

Stress, Personality, and Lifestyle in Post–World War II America

The events of World War II only served to highlight the perceived
importance of mind–body connections in health and disease. The new field of
psychosomatic medicine flourished and books like Men under Stress (Grinker &
Spiegel, 1945) told of the impact of the mind on survival and health during wartime
and influenced how American physicians thought about psychological factors in
illness. After the war, psychological – psychosomatic and/or psychoanalytic –
models of personality, relationships, as well as health and disease had their greatest
impact on American medicine and, more broadly, American cultural life (Grob, 1991;
Hale, 1995; Kimball, 1970). Reflecting this influence, new models of health and
disease found a place. I briefly outline these models, paying special attention to
stress and then moving to a reconceptualization of health-risk factors as lying in
human behavior.
After immigrating to Canada in the 1920s, Hungarian-Canadian endocrinologist
Hans Selye studied how stressors such as surgery, extreme temperatures, or intense
exercise regimens affected human adaptation. He found that in such conditions the
body releases hormones to help regulate the body’s functions and so adapt to the
situation. He continued this work for the next fifty or so years. While he focused on
endocrinology, his work clearly implicated the human response to adverse or intense
events and thus suggested a possible role of psychological or behavioral factors in
health. In the postwar period he adopted the term stress to cover a range of
responses. Selye called his model of health and disease the general adaptation
syndrome. It is a balance or homeostasis model. He interpreted his laboratory results
as indicating that bodies, human, rat, or other, always seeks to maintain homeostasis
and thus respond to stressors by seeking to find balance through biochemistry, such
as the release of adrenocortical hormones. If these hormones remain imbalanced, the
organism will experience what he called diseases of adaptation, which in humans
included heart disease, ulcers, and high blood pressure, along with many other
diseases.
 Health Psychology 3

Selye’s model proved appealing to both the medical community and the general
public, thanks in part to his tireless advocacy on its behalf through such popular
books as The Stress of Life (1956). Such was the popularity of his model that one
reviewer cited it as having had greater influence than “any other theory of disease
ever proposed” (Engel, cited in Mason, 1975, p. 10). Certainly, at the very least,
Selye helped create possibilities for psychological research and practice in health-
related areas.
Stress and its sequelae became a major emphasis of research and treatment in the
largest health care system in the United States, the Veterans Administration (VA; now
the Department of Veterans Affairs). After World War II, the VA was faced with the
immense problem of health care for discharged soldiers. To meet the needs, the VA
expanded its hospital system and proactively sought arrangements with medical
schools that made VA hospitals sites for training the full gamut of medical and allied
professions, including clinical psychology. Medical research, which increasingly
included research by psychologists and often in collaboration with other medical
scientists, also became a crucial part of most VA medical centers (Hildreth, 1954).
Psychologists were particularly involved in stress and its effects on health; in such
studies as those done by Joseph Brady (1958) on stress in “executive” monkeys and
the potential role of personality factors among tuberculosis patients care (Calden et
al., 1955). One of the most widely used measures of the stressful impact of life
events on health and psychological functioning was developed in the VA (Holmes &
Rahe, 1967).
Psychologist William Paré developed an extensive research program on stress–
disease relationships at the Perry Point, Maryland, VA Medical Center. Paré was
greatly influenced by Hans Selye’s work on stress and disease, but chose a different
approach to inducing stress in the experimental animals he used. Paré rejected
Selye’s use of restraint-induced stress because of his distaste for the physical insult to
the animals. Instead, he developed an activity stress model in which one animal (rat)
was placed in a running wheel cage and allowed to eat one hour a day, while yoked
to another nonactive rat. Both animals received the same amount of food. The
nonactivity rat survived nicely on the amount of food provided, but the activity
wheel rat ran excessively and developed significant ulcers within twelve days. A
selection of a different rat strain allowed for Paré to induce ulcers more quickly. He
concluded that this resembled the typical stress situation in the general population in
which some people develop stress reactions, while others are capable of handling
much more stress without any ill effects (Paré, 1962). His long-term program found
that the effects of stress on health are multiply determined through the varying
impacts of behavior, environment, physiology, and genetics. Later, after the publicity
around the role of the helicobacter bacterium in ulcers, Paré argued that the finding
that stomach ulcers are caused by the helicobacter bacterium did not invalidate his
research, since about 80 percent of the population carries helicobacter in their
digestive system and only a small percentage has ulcers.
An additional indicator of the increasing role of psychologists in health care after
World War II can be found in the growth of the number of psychologists employed in
4 wade e. pickren

medical schools and hospitals. This increase reflected the growth of health care as an
industry, as well as the emergence of clinical psychology as an allied health
profession, initially in primary service to psychiatry (Starr, 1984). In 1953, there
were 255 psychologists working full- or part-time in medical schools (Mensh, 1953).
But, by 1976 there were 2,336 so employed. This growth reflected the usefulness of
psychologists to other medical specialties, but by the 1970s it also reflected a major
change in the leading causes of disease and death, from acute to chronic, and the role
of behavior and lifestyle in their onset and possible treatment.

Lifestyle, Behavior, and Health

The 1960s brought a new emphasis and understanding of health and disease
in American life. President John F. Kennedy stressed the importance of fitness
through activity as he encouraged Americans to be always prepared for the rigors of
the Cold War. Indeed, American life had changed since the end of World War II as
Americans became more sedentary and concerned with the passive consumption of
creature comforts. The shift from worklife dominated by physical labor to factories
and offices had left Americans less fit. Now, Americans were more likely to enjoy
being a spectator at sporting events than participating in them. These changes left
many Americans vulnerable to such diseases as coronary heart disease.
In the 1960s, epidemiological studies began to show that the primary causes of
death and disability were no longer diseases such as polio, tuberculosis, influenza, or
measles. Now, public health research indicated that the primary causes of mortality
and disability were coronary heart disease and its cognates, along with cancer, stroke,
and accidents. In each of these, behavior was an important factor in both cause and
treatment. Chronic diseases were costly in every sense, from personal distress to
increased insurance expenditures, to lost wages and productivity.
Perhaps no health issue better illustrated the role of behavior than the link between
smoking cigarettes and lung cancer. In 1957, the US Surgeon General declared that
there was a causal relationship between smoking and cancer. A Presidential panel’s
report, Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon
General (1964), concluded that cigarette smoking was responsible for a 70 percent
increase in the mortality rate of smokers over nonsmokers and that heavy smokers
had twenty times the risk for developing lung cancer than nonsmokers. The report
implicated smoking in bronchitis and coronary heart disease and found that smoking
during pregnancy was responsible for low birth weight in the infants of smoking
mothers. This report and others, such as the report of the Commission on Heart
Disease, Cancer and Stroke (1964), indicated a major change in American health
policy.
This change also opened the door for psychologists as behavioral scientists and
professionals, since it was clear that behavior played a major role in health and
disease. However, the field of psychology was not yet ready to take on a role as
behavioral health experts. Despite an increased presence in medical settings, few
 Health Psychology 5

psychologists were engaged in research or practice directly related to health. Even in

a political atmosphere that emphasized lifestyle and behavior in health and disease,
psychologists found themselves outside the loop, to use a Washington phrase, on one
of the most important new government initiatives in years that held particular
relevance to the field. A striking example of this occurred when Medicare was
established in 1965. Psychologists were offered an opportunity to participate as
providers in the program. However, APA leaders decided that such a role was not
appropriate for psychologists and declined the opportunity. Within a few years, APA
realized their error and asked a well-known clinical psychologist, William Schofield,
to develop a position paper on the possible roles of psychologists in health care and
research (Schofield, 1969). Schofield found that in none of the areas that were then at
the forefront of public health concerns – coronary heart disease, stroke, and cancer –
were psychologists substantively involved in either research or practice. Still,
Schofield concluded that psychology was definitely a health profession, whether
psychologists understood their field as such or not.
By, 1973, with the launch of the APA Task Force on Health Research,
psychologists had moved firmly toward a recognition of the possibilities for
psychologists in health. The official report of the Task Fore (1976) noted a number of
issues psychologists could address: illness behavior, adaptation to chronic disease,
medical compliance, and health promotion, among others. Coincident with the
report, the number of psychologists interested and committed to pursuing research
and practice in health had grown large enough to apply for membership as a division
of the APA. In 1978, APA Division 38, Health Psychology, was established
(Wallston, 1997). From a small beginning, the division grew, and its journal, Health
Psychology, became one of the leading journals in the field. The establishment of
behavioral medicine at almost the same time indicated that psychological approaches
to health and disease were now considered important aspects of American health
care.
What was not clear, however, was the intellectual or theoretical basis of
psychology’s role in health care. The introduction and rapid acceptance of the
biopsychosocial model provided an initial intellectual foundation, but it was not
without its critics.
George Engel was the originator of the biopsychosocial model of health and
disease, first published in Science (1977). A physician and medical professor at the
University of Rochester’s medical school, Engel had long been interested in
intraindividual and interpersonal factors in health and disease (e.g., Engel &
Schmale, 1972). Engel had been influenced by psychosomatic medicine and later by
general systems theory (Bertalanffy, 1968). Based on his long experience in patient
care and teaching medical students, Engel came to see how important relational
factors are in health and disease. He began with the traditional doctor–patient
relationship, then to the interpersonal relationships, and then outward to macro
factors, such as the hospital, its neighborhood, the larger city, and so on. In this, he
moved toward a public health understanding of illness and health care. It was this
multiple, complex relational understanding of health that he tried to express in the
6 wade e. pickren

biopsychosocial model. When published, the biopsychosocial model was greeted

with criticism from many, but also came to be accepted by many health care
professions, especially those in the allied health professions, such as psychology. The
publication of the model occurred at the time of the creation of the subfield of health
psychology and soon became its intellectual touchstone.
Psychologists readily embraced the biopsychosocial model, as it opened up
possibilities to play an important role in research and intervention. An indicator of
this acceptance can be found in the issue of the Journal of Clinical and Consulting
Psychology (1982, volume 50, issue 6) devoted entirely to the theoretical and
practical application of the model in the then new fields of behavioral medicine and
health psychology (Schwartz, 1982). The model continued to inform the field well
into the twenty-first century, although it also was criticized for being vague (Marks,
1996) and was perceived by some as providing cover for the use of a stricter medical
model in health intervention research and practice (Ghaemi, 2010; Lyons &
Chamberlain, 2006). Critiques were also levied that the model is so imprecise as to
be neither model nor theory. Rather, it is a loose formulation of possible relationships
among biological, psychological, and social factors (Stam, 2000). In this sense, then,
American health psychology is undertheorized, which may have been to its benefit as
such an approach allows practitioners and researchers to create niches in the
American health care system based on functional utility and that fit well with the
demands of biomedicine operating in a capitalist system (Stam, 2015). What is
missing, as well, is attention to the patient. What is the experience of illness and
treatment to those suffering? And what are the consequences of having to navigate a
complex health care system when one is ill? (Radley, 1994).
Certainly, the emphasis in American health psychology, especially its clinical
applications, has been on individual responsibility. As Joseph Matarazzo (1982), one
of the founders of American health psychology, wrote, “We must aggressively
investigate and deal effectively with the role of the individual’s behavior and lifestyle
in health and dysfunction” (p. 12). And much of clinical health psychology has
stayed true to this charge. The focus has almost always been on individual behaviors
and interventions, such as smoking cessation, obesity, pain management, etc. Seldom
have mainstream American health psychologists called attention to the structural
inequities that also play a causal and contributing role in health and disease (e.g.,
Adler & Stewart, 2010; Wilkinson & Pickett, 2010). These kinds of concerns also
contributed to the emergence of new approaches to psychology and health.
Whileclinicalhealthpsychologywithclosetiestothehealthcaresystemquickly emerged
as the dominant approach to health psychology in the United States, other models
have also developed, some with greater presence in other countries.
Alongside this dominant model, a public health perspective has also become a
prominent approach. In this model psychologists, typically in consort with
epidemiologists and other health professions, consider how health is determined by
social,economic,andpoliticalfactorsandnotonlythebehaviorandchoicesofthe
individual.A community health orientationthat seeks toworkinpartnership with
vulnerable populations to reduce risk and promote resilience through an emphasis on
 Health Psychology 7

health promotion and prevention has also found a significant place. Finally, an
importantvoice intherealm ofpsychology andhealth isacritical health approach that
examines how power dynamicsand social processes structure the understanding and
practices of health and health care. I turn now to a brief account of these approaches
in order to provide a more complete picture of how psychology as a field has
developed in relation to health and health care.

Community Health Psychology

In the United States and Canada, community psychologists have developed an
approach to health and illness that focuses on the social, cultural, and political
context of human lives. Community psychology emerged as a distinct field
beginninginthelate1950sthatsoughtto articulate humanhealth –mental orphysical–
fromastrengths,rather than adeficit, model(Cowen, 1980;Sarason,1981). Many of the
early community psychologists were trained as clinical psychologists, but believed
that too much emphasis was placed on intrapsychic factors and not enough on social
and cultural factors in health and illness (Kelly, 2005; Pickren
&Rutherford,2010).Asthefieldofcommunitypsychologydeveloped,manyofits
practitioners were drawn to research and interventions related to community
improvement through efforts to reduce social, political, and income inequalities. By
the end of the twentieth century, a growing number of community psychologists
were focused on how these inequalities impacted health and illness. This was and is
particularly true in the United States, Canada, South Africa, and New Zealand
(Hodgetts, Stolte, & Rua, 2016; Murray et al., 2004; Yen, 2016). Many community
health psychologists are guided by a theoretical orientation that individuals,
communities,andthe societies/culturestheyare embeddedinare truly
interdependent.Thus,improvinghealthalsomeansimprovingthecommunityand society
and reducing the inequities that contribute to illness.

Critical Health Psychology

Like community health psychology, critical approaches to health psychology pay
attention to social structures, but place greater emphasis on the power relationships
that undergird them. Various threads of theory and interventions that began in the
1980s began to coalesce in the 1990s to form contemporary critical health
psychology. Although there is no one approach to critical health psychology in terms
of methods, populations, or interventions, questions of values are central: Who does
health psychology serve? What is it for? (Murray, 2015). For example, critical health
psychologists may focus on the individual experience of health or illness, often
employing narrative approaches that allow for the richness of the experience and that
avoid the reduction of what are complex experiences to catchwords such as coping or
resilient that fit better within the health care system and management (Radley, 2009).
Critical health psychology places theory and research first in order to generate
critiques that can then guide action. Theory that is grounded in relational, moral, and
experiential approaches is privileged (see the chapters in Murray, 2015). The
8 wade e. pickren

theoretical critique may lead to social activism intended to strengthen communities

and individuals and enable resistance to oppressive health practices. In particular,
critical health psychologists have offered strong critiques of the typical approach of
contemporary clinical health psychology, especially its embededness in the
biomedical health care system (Hepworth, 2006; Prilletensky & Prilleltinsky, 2003).
Like community health psychology, critical approaches seek to advance social and
economic justice in order to promote health.

Public Health Psychology

Public health as a field has a long and distinguished history (Rosen, 1958). It is
unusual in that its experts and expertise come from many scientific and medical
disciplines. Public health is international in scope and practice, with the World
Health Organization (WHO) playing a critical role in global efforts related to
primary prevention, health promotion, and epidemiology. Psychologists have long
been involved in public health efforts, but it is not a common area of research or
intervention for most psychologists. This is partly because Western psychology’s
intense focus on the individual does not translate well to the kinds of problems that
public health addresses, where there is a focus on patterns of health and disease.
Health inequities, often referred to as health disparities by psychologists in order to
maintain the focus on individual responsibility, has become a major global focus of
public health. Poverty is a strong correlate, if not causal agent, of many diseases,
including cancer, cardiovascular disease, stroke, and mental health. Western,
especially North American, health psychologists have largely resisted a move away
from their focus on individual responsibility and thus fail to address socioeconomic
factors, such as income inequality, in health and disease. The WHO and many
epidemiologists have provided convincing evidence for the social determinants of
health and disease (e.g., Marmot, 2004; Wilkinson & Pickett, 2006).
Nevertheless, in recent years, psychologists of various orientations have been
drawn into public health research and interventions. Nancy Adler, a wellknown
social psychologist, had been at the forefront of mainstream psychologists in her
leadership of multidisciplinary work on health disparities (e.g., Adler & Stewart,
2010). Her experiences in this large research program have led her to call for
psychologists to move beyond individual level psychological determinants to also
include social determinants of health and disease and related structural factors
(Adler, 2009). Critical health psychologists, such as Julie Hepworth in the United
Kingdom, have sought to incorporate the emphasis on power, social structure, and
values into public health psychology (Hepworth, 2004). Such a psychology must
incorporate individual action or behavior, relational factors, and structural
interventions to meet the demands of population health. A critical approach to public
health incorporates the awareness that our health behaviors and decisions are
constructed, made up, if you will, by the social, economic, and political conditions in
which we live. Taking this approach allows for consistency in thinking of health in
nonreductionist ways. Public health psychology, then, is multifaceted. It draws on
elements of conventional health psychology while also seeking to incorporate the
 Health Psychology 9

principles of traditional public health research. It is also increasingly being

influenced by theories and methods from critical and community health approaches.

Conclusion
This chapter began with a broad historical overview that provided the
necessary background to understand the emergence of a psychology of health as a
scientific discipline and profession, primarily in the United States. Health
psychology as a distinct subfield of disciplinary psychology emerged from a matrix
of factors in American society, including such macrolevel events as the shift in
mortality and morbidity from acute illnesses to chronic diseases. Many chronic
conditions have a strong behavioral or psychological component to them. The rapidly
growing field of clinical psychology seized upon this change, guided by the very
loosely knit biopsychosocial model. As a result, much of what became health
psychology in the United States was clinical in orientation. For economic and status
reasons, clinical health psychologists, by and large, were drawn into the health care
system as one of the allied health professions. There, they have done important work
and brought relief and improved health to untold numbers of people. This approach,
with local variations, has also played out in many other countries.
Still, there has been significant pushback against this dominant model. The three
major alternatives that have developed, community, critical, and public health
approaches, have succeeded because they have paid necessary attention to the reality
that human beings live in societies and are embedded in specific cultures. The social,
political, and economic structures in which we become psychological creatures are
what constructs us as human beings. Thus, our experiences of health, illness,
suffering, recovery, and/or death do not originate only within us. It is to the credit of
these major alternatives that our understanding of what a psychology of health can
and must be has broadened.

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 Index
326–7 race and culture study, 329–30 social
issues study, 330 sociology, psychology and,
321–4
Amusement Park Theoretical (APT) model, of
creativity, 259–60
analytical psychology, of Jung, 452–3
ancient civilizations, personality interest in,
413–15
Alcibiades and, 414
Galen and Soranus on, 415
Plutarch and, 415
abnormal psychology, 441–2, 462–4 Surpu descriptions and incantations, 413
cultural aspects of, 454–8 DSM Tacitus and, 415
development and, 461–2 hysteria Theophrastus and, 414 Anglophone
studies, 444–6 Internet influence on, psychologists, 10 animal spirits, 64–6
463 Descartes on, 64 Galvani
Jung psychology of complexes and on, 65 measurements of,
archetypes, 451–3 65–6 Whytt on, 64
neurasthenia, 446–64 Willis on, 63
Pavlov and experimental neurosis, APA. See American Psychological Association
453–4 pharmaceutical industry influence aphasia, 71 applied behavior analysis, 155
on, 463, applied memory research, 203–4 APS. See
490 technology influence American Psychosomatic Society
on, 463 trauma studies, 447– APT. See Amusement Park Theoretical
51 ARAS arousal model, 77–8 archetypes, of
abnormality, 442–3 cultural Jung, 451–3
context of, 454–8 deviance Aristotle, 8–9 on sensation, 88–90, 94 on
and, 442–4 maladjustment tactile illusions, 89–90 Army Beta
and, 442–4 psychopathy psychological test, 47 arousal system,
and, 458–61 neuroscience and, 77–8
ADHD. See attention deficit hyperactive ARAS arousal model, 77–8
disorder Adrian, Edgar, 94 aesthetic level, Aserinsky and sleep states in, 78
of emotions, 373 in exteroceptive stream, EEG on, 78
374–5 in interoceptive stream, 373–4 artifacts for emotions, of Dimitrovsky figures, 88,
affect heuristic, of Slovic, 241 affective 371, 378–80, 386–7 Asch, Solomon, 16–17, 334
system, of brain, 71–3 ASD. See autism spectrum disorders
functional neurosurgery and, 73 Aserinsky, Eugene, 78 Associative
Hess on, 72 Theory, of Mednick, 253 asylums, 470–
Lashley on, 73 1, 490
Mark and Ervin on, 73 Atkinson-Shiffrin model, of memory, 185,
Papez on, 72 aggressive systems, 81–2 188–9 attention, 111–30. See also neural
Alcibiades, on personality, 414 alerting networks
and orienting disorders, 127–8 Allais ADHD and, 127 ASD
paradox. See certainty effect Allport, and, 127–8
Floyd, 324–6 attention blocks, 121 attention span,
Allport, Gordon, 58–9, 423 117–18 behaviorism and, 114 conflict
Amabile, T. M., 257–8 resolution, 122 consciousness and,
American Psychological Association (APA), 124–5 cueing of, 122–4 disorders in
75, 176, 330 divisions executive, 128–30 information
of, 75 journals of, 75 processing and, 114–16 introspection
Task Force on Health Research of, 503 and, 113–14 James on, 111, 124
American Psychosomatic Society (APS), 75 measurements of, 111–12 mental
chronometry, 115, 118–19
multitasking, 121–2 pathology of, 127
512 responding and, 115 tasks for
American social psychology, 318–19, 323, studying, 117–30 theory and, 113–17,
326–30 attitudes and public opinion study, 328–9 130 training of, 126–7
groups, study of, 327–8 interindividual influence study,
 Index 15
Wundt and Titchener on, 114 attention deficit hyperactive Watson, J., on, 7–8, 137, 393 behavior-primacy
disorder (ADHD), theory, of Woodworth, 392–3
127 attention-network test, 116–17 Bell, Charles, 65
Attitude-Interest Analysis Test, of Terman and Bell-Magendie Law, 65, 91
Miles, 350 attitudes, study of, 328–9, 331 Bem, Sandra, 350–1
attributional approach, of Weiner, 399 Auburtin, Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), 350–1 Benjamin,
Ernest, 70 audition Jessica, 354
Helmholtz on, 99 sensory qualities for, Bentham, Jeremy, 105
99 Berger, Hans, 74
Von Bekesy on, 99 autism spectrum disorders (ASD), Bernoulli, Daniel, 221–2
127–8 autobiographical memory, 195–8 Bernreuter Personality Inventory, 422–4
life scripts, 197 Beta psychological test, 47 Big Five
memory and self, 197 reminiscence bump and, personality structure, 49 binary
196 sociocultural construction, 196–205 thinking, gender and, 365
autotelic experience, of Csikszentmihalyi, Binet, Alfred on intelligence measures,
403 available memory, 194 269–70 on memory, 173 on mental age,
aversions, 148 30–47 Biogenetic Law, of Haeckel, 295
fear conditioning and, 147–8 Mowrer two-factor biological bases, of intelligence, 275–6
theory on, 148 odor aversions, 146–7 taste aversion cerebral efficiency for, 276
learning, 146–7 Avicenna, 90–1, 99 avoidance neural efficiency for, 275–6
learning, 148–9 P-FIT and, 276 biological
fear reduction research on, 150 learned helplessness conjectures, of Piaget, 291
research on, 150 Mowrer on, 148–9 biosocial interactionist theory of gender, of Eagly
Pavlovian conditioning and, 149 Axel, Richard, 97–8 and Wood, 360
axioms, in normative analysis, 217–18 Bitterman, M. E. “Jeff,” 143
Blalock, Hubert M., 57 Blau,
Baddeley, A., 192 Sidney, 379–80 blind sight
Baldwin, James Mark, 293–4, 321–2 circular process of, dissociation, 124
294–6 on functional selection, 294, 305 on genetics, 296, Blind Variation and Selective Retention theory,
306 on organic selection, 293–4 Piaget influence from, 256 blocking effect, Kamin on, 151
292 Bandura, Albert, 397–8, 483 Bolles, Robert, 104–5, 146 borderline
Barron–Welsh Art Scale, 254 personality disorder, 128–9 boredom
Bartholow, Roberts, 71–2 avoidance drive, 400
Bartlett, Frederic on conventionalization, 174 effort Boring, E. G., 4, 12, 88, 289 biased
after meaning of, 173–5 on memory, 171–5 methods history of, 290 on emotions, 377 on
of, 172–4 on remembering as activity, 175 on quantitative methodology, 58–9 on taste
schema, 174–5 sensitivity, 93 Bouillaud, Jean Baptiste,
base rate neglect, in decision making, 226 70 bounded rationality, 224 Bousfield,
Baumeister, Roy, 403 W. A., 179, 194 Bower, Gordon, 1 box
Bayes theorem, 225 and arrow models, 181, 185 brain, 73–4.
Bayesian approach, 30, 51, 225 See also neuroscience
Beard, George, 446–64 affective system of, 71–3 Broca’s area of, 71
Beare, J. I., 99 cells, Golgi and Cajal on organization of, 66
Beck, Aaron, 484–5 Beebe-Center, John G., 105 Circle of Willis at base of, 63 Golgi on
behavior, lifestyle and health, 502–5 behavior therapy reticular model of, 66 limbic network of, 72
movement, 155 localization of speech in, 70–1 motor
advent of, 480–1 to CBT, 483–6 systems in, 71–2 organization, sex/gender
Eysenck and, 481 behavioral neuroscience, 83 animal differences and,
learning and, 153–5 on classical conditioning, 154 360 structures and functions,
extinction and, 154 on fear conditioning, 154 on 68–70
instrumental learning, 155 model systems approach to, brain activity recording
153–4 EEGs, 74, 78 fMRI
behaviorism, 12 and PET, 80 X rays,
attention and, 114 conditioned reflexes in, 8–9 on 73–4
creativity, 257 elementarism, 8–9 introspectionism Brainerd, Charles, 235–6, 244
compared to, 8–9 motivation and, 393–4 of Pavlov, Bravais, Auguste, 41 correlational calculus
137–8 as psychology paradigm, 13 of Skinner, 139–40, and, 41–2 correlational theory geometrical
257 basis of, 39–41
16 Index

Galton correlational theory origins compared to, Cognitive Analytic Therapy (CAT), of Ryle,
39–42 Broadbent, D. E., 115 485–6 cognitive behavior therapy (CBT),
Broca, Pierre Paul, 70–1 485, 488 Beck and, 485 behavior therapy to,
Broca’s area, of brain, 70–1 483–6
Brown–Peterson task, in short-term store, 187 cognitive correlates research, 274–5 cognitive
Bruner, Jerome, 14 development stages, Piaget on, 291 cognitive
BSRI. See Bem Sex Role Inventory movement, in motivation, 396–9 Bandura and,
Buck, Linda, 97–8 397–8 Dweck mindset, 399
Burks, B. S., 53–4 Buss, David, 405 Rotter and, 397
Seligman and, 397
Cabanac, Michel, 106 Tolman and, 396–7
Cacioppo, John, 77 Weiner attributional approach, 399 cognitive
Cajal, Ramon y on brain cells organization, 66 Law neuroscience, 76–7, 166, 192 Cognitive
of Dynamic Polarization of, 67 on neuron theory, Neuroscience Society (CNS),
66–7 76–7 cognitive perspective, of
calculus, 31, 36 correlational, 41–2 intelligence
Calkins, Mary, 176 on gender differences, 348 cognitive correlates research, 274–5
paired associates learning of, 176 Piaget on, 273–4 Spearman on, 274–5
canalized paths, in cybernetics, 298 on working memory, 275
Cannon, Walter, 68, 378 on ANS, 79 cognitive psychology, 13–17. See also
on emotions, 374 information processing approach
Carroll, J. B., 272–3 Cartwright, Dorwin, 334 case Bruner and, 14 Chomsky and, 14 computer
study, 32 CAT. See Cognitive Analytic Therapy; simulation and, 14–15 computer symbol-
Consensual Assessment Technique Catania, Charles, processing model and,
140 category scale, for sensation measurement, 102–3 183–4 ecologically valid, 17
Cattell, James McKeen, 46, 269, 417 Cattell, Raymond, memory approach from, 167
47, 49 causal inferences, Blalock on, 57 causal Miller, G., and, 14
language, statistics and, 56–7 causal path, 56 causality, Simon, H., and, 14
53 causation, methodological issue of, 56–8 CBT. See Cognitive Psychology (Neisser), 16–17, 175, 182
cognitive behavior therapy cognitive scaffolding, 196–7 cognitive therapy of
cell depression, 488 Cole, Elizabeth, 364–5
brain, Golgi and Cajal on organization of, 66 Hebb on collaborative inhibition, 202 collaborative
assembly of, 18, 153 remembering, 202 Collins, Patricia Hill, 363 color
Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek on theory of, inheritance, path analysis on, 54–5
66 central nervous system, 8 cerebral efficiency, for color vision Newton on, 98
intelligence, 276 certainty effect (Allais paradox), in opponent process theory of, 98
decision making, 227–8, 237–45 sensory qualities for, 98
challenging rationality, in decision making, Young–Helmholtz trichromatic theory of, 98
223 community health psychology, 505 comparative
Charcot, Jean-Martin, 78, 444–5, 471–2, cognition experiments, 141–4 Bitterman and, 143
497 on chimpanzees, 141–2 of Couvillon, 143 of
Chesler, Phyllis, 358 chimpanzees, Harlow, 142–3 of Macphail, 143 Thorndike on,
comparative cognition 141
experiments on, 141–2 Chodorow, Nancy, 352–3 Wasserman and, 143–4
Chomsky, Noam, 14, 181–2, 306, 405 Christian Science, of Yerkes on, 141 complementarity and
Eddy, 474, 496 difference, in gender,
chronological organization, intellectual history 346–9 complexes, Jung
and, 2 on, 451–3
cingulate, executive attention and, 116 Circle of Willis, Componential Theory of Creativity, of
at brain base, 63 circular process, of Baldwin, 294–6 Amabile, 257–8
circular reaction, genetics and, 296–300 classical Comprehensive System (CS), of Exner, 429,
conditioning, 154 Cleckley, Hervey, 460 cliff effect, in 432–3 computer simulation of
statistical significance, 52 clinical psychology thinking
formal assessments in, 50 measurement influence on, cognitive psychology and, 14–15 thinking
49–50 quantification of uncertainty in, 50–2 Witmer aloud in, 15
definition of, 49–50 Turing’s test in, 15 computer symbol-
CNS. See Cognitive Neuroscience Society CNV. See processing model, 183–4 computers, 57–8
contingent negative variation cognition, processes of, 13–14 computing, information processing and,
 Index 17
183–4 conditioned connections, in central nervous Five A Framework for, 259 Four C
system, 8 theory on, 256–7
conditioned preference, for taste, 95–6 conditioned reflexes, in Gardner MI theory of, 259
behaviorism, 8–9 conditioned response (CR), 8, 149–51 Geneplore model, 256 Guilford
conditioned stimulus (CS), 8, 149–51 conditioned taste on, 252–3
aversions (CTA), Garcia on, IPAR measures of, 254 mental illness
146 conditioning, Pavlov, 8, 114, 138, 453–4 association with, 251 nature vs.
conditioned stimulus and, 8, 149–51 CR and, 8, nurture and, 252 novel and appropriate
149–51 instrumental learning and, 148–9 Mowrer definition of, 252–3
on, 149 Osborn on, 254
UCR and, 8, 137 Renaissance and, 250
UCS and, 8 Rhodes on study of, 257 Skinner
confirmatory factor analysis, 48–9 conflict resolution, and behaviorism on, 257 social
attention and, 122 consciousness based perspective of, 258
attention and, 124–5 blind sight dissociation Sternberg three-facet model of, 258
and, 124 consciousness (cont.) TTCT and, 255
Descartes on, 113–14 Wallas five step model of, 255–6 Crenshaw,
Janet on, 448 Kimberlé, 363 criminals, psychopathy and, 459
Koch, C., and Tsuchiya on, 124–5 critical health psychology, 505–6 cross-tabulation
Watson, J., on, 7–8 of parents’ heights, of Galton, 42–4
Consensual Assessment Technique (CAT), CS. See Comprehensive System; conditioned
257–8 conservation bias, in decision making, 225 stimulus
Constantinople, A., 349–50 constructive conduct Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 258, 403
genetics and, 302–3 mathematical illustration of, CTA. See conditioned taste aversions
305–13 cueing, of attention, 122–4 cultural
contemporary psychology, 4 context, Fechner on context
measurement and, 37 contingent negative variation (CNV), of abnormality, 454–8 of
122–3 conventionalization, of Bartlett, 174 conversational intelligence, 276–8
influences, in social cultural psychology. See Völkerpsychologie
remembering, 202–3 Corbetta, M., 116 culture, study of, 329–30
correlation coefficient, 44–5 Pearson, K., Cumulative Prospect Theory (CPT),
development of, 38 scatterplot of, 38–9 233–4 cybernetic approach, in
correlation matrix, 47–8 correlational calculus, Bravais and genetics canalised paths in, 298
Galton on, developmental pathway in, 298
41–2 correlational designs, 38, 56–8 fertilized egg differentiation, 297
correlational statistics, 32, 38–46 correlational resource-allocation, 297–8
theory Waddington on, 296, 299
Bravais geometrical basis of, 39–41
Galton organical association of, 40, 45 cortical-cognitive Dallenbach, K. M., 176–7
processes, 80–1 Cosmides, Leda, 405 Damasio, Antonio, 241
Couvillon, Patricia, 143 Danziger, K., 58 on method precise
CPS. See Creative Personality Scale nature, 30 on methodology, 29–30,
CPT. See Cumulative Prospect Theory 57–8 on methodology starting points,
CR. See conditioned response 30
Craik, F. I. M., 190 Craske, Michelle, 155 Darwin, Charles on emotions, 375–6
creative genius, James on, 251 evolutionary theory of, 6–7, 319–22 James
Creative Personality Scale (CPS), of Gough, on evolutionary theory of, 6 on
254 creative process motivation, 392 qualitative methodology
hierarchical distinction in, 256 ideas and action in, of, 32 theory of mental evolution of, 135–
255–6 6 Darwinian paradigm, 13, 293–4 Davitz,
Wallas on, 255–6 creativity, 250–1 Joel, 378–80, 383, 386 De Bono, Edward,
4Ps framework for, 258–9 Amabile and, 257–8 254–5 de Charms, Richard, 402 decay
ancient and biblical ages on, 250 APT model theory, of memory, 177 Deci, Edward,
of, 259–60 402–3
Blind Variation and Selective Retention Theory on, 256 decision approach, to hypothesis-testing
Csikszentmihalyi Systems Model of, 258 methodology, 51–3
De Bono on, 254–5 decision making, 216–19, 243–4, 361. See also
DIY movement in, 256
18 Index

emotions; expected value theory; fuzzytrace theory Ebbinghaus, Hermann derived list
base rate neglect in, 226 bounded rationality and experiment of, 170 findings of, 169–70
satisficing, 224 certainty effect in, 227–8, 237–45 on forgetting curve, 170 James on, 168
challenging rationality, 223 conservation bias in, 225 memory studies by, 167–70 methods
descriptive analysis of, 218 EU theory and, 222–3, 243 of, 168–9 modern psychology of
fourfold pattern of risk attitudes, 231–2 framing effect in, learning of, 4 on serial learning, 168–9,
229–30 heuristics and, 223 inconsistent choice behavior, 175–6
227 loss aversion and endowment effect, 230–1 Monty Hall ecologically valid cognitive psychology, 17
problem in, 224–5 normative analysis of, 217–18 Eddy, Mary Baker, 474, 496
preference reversals in, 227 prescriptive analysis of, 218–19 EDR. See electrodermal
probabilities and, 224 probability weighting function, 234 education Dewey progressive,
prospect theory in, 232–5, 237, 244 rational models of, 223 7 formal discipline in, 7
reflection effect in, 228–45 under uncertainty, 217 Edwards, Ward, 223, 225
depth brain stimulation, 72–3, 82 derived list experiment, of EEA. See era of evolutionary adaptation
Ebbinghaus, 170 EEG. See electroencephalograph effort after
Descartes, René, 31 on animal spirits, 64 meaning, of Bartlett, 173–5 Ekman, Paul,
on consciousness, 113–14 on language, 405 electrodermal (EDR) measures, 74, 78–
70 9 electroencephalograph (EEG), 74, 78
descriptive analysis, of decision making, 218 The Design of electromyographic (EMG) measures, 74
Experiments (Fisher), 36, 51–2 Deutsch, Helene, 352 elementarism, of introspectionism and
development, 306–8 evo-devo synthesis on, 288 genetics and, behaviorism, 8–9
296–305 intellectual history of, 287–9 neglected invisibles Elements of Psychophysics (Fechner), 33–4, 36,
identification, 289–90 Piaget hazardous hypotheses, 290–2 167–8
rejections of, 305–6 Elliot, Andrew, 403
Weismann and, 293 developmental pathway, in Ellis, Albert, 426, 483–5
cybernetics, 298 developmental reversal, FTT and, 238–40 EMG. See electromyographic Emmanuel
deviance, abnormality and, 442–4 movement, of Worcester, 474 emotional and
Dewey, John, 321–2 on education formal motivational processes, 81 emotional intelligence,
discipline, 7 James on, 6–7 progressive 385 emotions. See also macrohistory, of emotions;
education of, 7 microhistory, of emotions
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental aesthetic level of, 373–5 artifact
Disorders (DSM), 487 development of, representation of, 371 Darwin and, 375
461–2 MCMI and, 428 diminishment of complexity of, 375–6
on neurosis, 462–3 on psychopathy, Dimitrovsky figures and, 371–2, 378–80,
461 386–7 exteroceptive stream of, 373–5,
Dimitrovsky, Lilly, 371–2, 378–80, 386–7 direct scaling 386 facial expressions of, 385
method, 101 discourse approach, to gender, 363 discrimination facial/gestural code use for, 371
learning, 152 interoceptive stream of, 373–4, 386
dissociation, 448 James-Lange theory of, 376–7, 386
Do It Yourself (DIY) movement, 256 doctrine of separate language of, 378–9 macroscopic
spheres, in gender, 346 dodo bird verdict, 487, 489 approach to, 371, 373–8 microscopic
Draw-A-Person test, of Goodenough, 380, approach to, 371 of pleasure and pain,
386–7 drive theory 373–4 Plutchik emotion wheel, 384
intrinsic motivation and, 400 motivation Russell circumplex model of, 384 as
and, 394 operant theories and, 396 signals, 373–4
Woodworth on, 392–3 drives. See also urges Troland and Tolman on, 376–7 urges and
and drives drives of, 373, 385
exploratory, visual-exploration, Watson, J., three-primary system of, 375
manipulation, and boredom avoidance, emotions, decision making and, 240–3 Damasio
400 motivational, 243 somatic marker hypothesis, 241 incidental
DSM. See Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of feelings and, 243 models for, 241–2
Mental Disorders motivational drives and, 243 Slovic affect
Du Bois-Reymond, Emil, 65, 136 heuristic and, 241 Empedocles, 89, 100
Dubois, Paul, 472 empirical philosophy, 34–7 empirical
Dweck, Carol, 399 relationship, 42–5 encoding specificity
principle, 195, 239 endowment effect, 231
Eagly, Alice biosocial interactionist theory of gender of, Engen, Trygg, 97 environment, Galton on
360 social role theory of, 360 heredity and, 46 epiphenomenon, 8 episodic
memory, 193–5
 Index 19
available memory and, 194 explicit memory tests experimental psychology and, 33–6
and, 199 metaphysics of, 35 normal science and,
Tulving on, 193 equilibration, Piaget on, 291, 302 36–7 operationalism and, 37 quantitative
equipotentiality principle, of Pavlov, 146 era of methodology of, 32 on sensory
evolutionary adaptation (EEA), 406 experiences, 33–4 on unit of sensation,
Ervin, F. R., 73 100–1 Fechner–Weber Law, 35–6 females
EU. See expected utility EV. See expected value theory Hollingworth on functional periodicity of,
evaluative conditioning, 96–106 evidence-supported 349 intellect inferiority of,
psychotherapy, 487–8 evo-devo synthesis, of development, 346–7
288 evo-devo-psych/know synthesis, 290–2, 307 STEM underrepresentation of, 359 feminism
evolutionary psychology gender and psychologists of, 358–9
Buss and, 405 psychoanalysis, gender and, 352–4
Chomsky and, 405 feminist theorizing
EEA and, 406 Ekman and, 405 on androcentrism, 358
motivation and, 405–6 Chesler on women mental health establishment
prosocial motivation and, 405–6 abuse, 358
Tooby and Cosmides SSSM and, 405 evolutionary theory, of emotions and, 383–4 on gender,
Darwin, 6–7, 319–22 executive attention, 116, 122 executive 358–9 research critiques by,
attention disorders, 128–30 358–9 Stoller and, 357
of borderline personality, 128–9 of psychopathy, Weisstein and, 358 Ferguson, A., 101 de Fermat,
128 of schizophrenia, 129–30 Pierre, 219–20, 243 Ferrier, David, 71–2 fertilized
existential psychology of May, 478 qualitative egg differentiation, 297 filter theory, in information
methodology of, 32 Exner, John, 429, 432–3 processing, 115 Fisher, R. A., 36, 50–2 Five A
expected utility (EU) theory, 222 Framework, for creativity, 259 flashbulb
Edwards and Miller, G., on, 223 Miller, G., on, 223 of von memories, 197–8 Flourens, Pierre, 69–70 flow
Neumann and Morgenstern, 222–3, charts, for information processing, 9–16 Flynn,
243 expected value maximizer, 220–2 expected James, 280–1 Flynn effect, intelligence and, 280–1
value (EV) theory, 219–23 Bernoulli challenge to, 221–2 fMRI brain imaging, 80 Fodor, Jerry, 306
expected value maximizer and, 220–2 law of large forgetting curve, 170 formal assessments
numbers and, 220 Pascal and Fermat on, 219–20, 243 in clinical psychology, 50
rational choice behavior and, 220 stock market MMPI, 50
participation puzzle and, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test, 50
221 experimental neurosis, Pavlov and, 4Ps. See person, process, product, press
453–4 experimental psychology, 33–7, 165 Fechner Four C theory, on creativity, 256–7
and, 33–6 philanthropies and, 499–500 quantification and fourfold pattern of risk attitudes, in decision
probability in, 33–4 research and, 499 making, 231–2
experimental social psychology, 325–6 explicit memory fractional anticipatory stimuli, 139 fractional
tests, 199 exploratory drive, 400 exteroceptive stream, of goal responses, 139 framing effect, in
emotions, 373–5, decision making, 229–30 free recall, 179, 194
386 extinction, behavioral neuroscience and, 154 Freud, Sigmund, 1, 10, 418–19, 497–8. See also
Eysenck, Hans, 155, 486 on behavior psychoanalysis
therapy, 481 on talk therapy, 479–80 on emotions, 374–6 on
gender, 351
facial/gestural code, for emotions, 371 factor analysis Money critique of psychosexual theory of,
confirmatory, 48–9 equation for, 48 factor indeterminacy 355 qualitative methodology
problem in, 47–9 latent attributes in, 46 methodological of, 32 on trauma, 450–1
legacy in, 49 in psychometrics, 47 psychometrics Freudian Age, World War II and, 478–9 Freudian
controversy on, 47–9 Spearman on, 47, 271 as statistical slips, 10
tool, 49 Fritsch, Gustav Theodor, 71 FTT. See fuzzy-
unique factor loadings, 47–8 unobservable attributes in, 46 trace theory functional neurosurgery, 73
factor indeterminacy problem, 47–9 fear conditioning functional periodicity, of females, 349
behavioral neuroscience on, 154 Rescorla on, 150–1 functional selection, Baldwin on, 294, 305
of Watson, J., and Rayner, 147–8 functionalism, 6–7, 12 Dewey and, 6
fear reduction, 150 introspectionism compared to, 6–7
Fechner, Gustav Theodor, 167–8, 373 on context and James influence on, 6 fuzzy-trace theory
measurement, 37 on empirical philosophy of psychological (FTT), in decision making,
processes, 34–7 235–40 certainty effect explanation by,
237–45 on developmental reversal, 238–
20 Index

40 encoding specificity and, 239 prospect theory Gough, H. G., 254

challenge from, 237 Reyna and Brainerd on, 235–6, Greek philosophers, on sensation, 88–9 Aristotle,
244 risk avoidance for rewards, 239–40 uncertainty 88–90, 94 on taste and olfaction, 90 on vision, 90
and, 240 verbatim and gist in, 235–6, 238 Green, Barry, 94–5 group vs. individual
distinction, Galton on, 45 groups
Galen, 90–1, 415 American social psychology study of,
Gall, Franz Joseph, 69, 418 327–8
Galton, Francis, 38, 41–2, 44, 251 Lewin study of, 327–8 growth
Bravais correlation theory origins compared to, 39–42 mindset, of intelligence, 268 Guilford, J.
correlational calculus and, 41–2 correlational statistics of, P. on creativity, 252–3 structure-of-
32, 38–46 correlational theory organical association of, intellect model of, 272
40, 45 cross-tabulation of parent heights of,
42–5 empirical relationship discovery by, 42–5 on Haeckel, Ernst, 295, 298, 307
group vs. individual distinction, 45 on heredity and Hall, G. Stanley, 93, 347–8
environment influence, 46 on intelligence, 269 law of Hare’s Psychopathy Checklist, 414
reversion of, 42 on personality, 417 quantitative Harlow, Harry comparative cognition
methodology of, 32 experiments of,
Galvani, Luigi, 65, 91 142–3 emotional research
Garcia, John, 146 of, 379
Gardner, Howard, 259, 278–9 gastrointestinal (GI) tract, oddity learning of, 144
taste and, 95 gender. See also masculinity and femininity WGTA of, 142
Benjamin on, 354 binary thinking and, 365 Calkins on Hartz, Wilhelm von Waldemeyer, 67 Hathaway,
differences in, 348 Chodorow on, 352–3 complementarity Starke, 424–5 hazardous hypotheses, of Piaget,
and difference in, 346–9 Deutsch on, 352 discourse approach 290–2, 296
to, 363 feminist psychologists on, 358–9 biological conjectures of, 291 on
Freud on, 351 equilibration, 291, 302 on
Hall on, 347–8 phenotypical changes, 291–2
Hollingworth on, 349 Horney on, 352 health psychology, 495, 507
identity, Stoller on, 357 intersectionality and, 363–5 APA Task Force on Health Research, 503
meaning of, 345–6 Money on intersex and, 354–6 community, 505
psychoanalysis and feminism, 352–4 psychoanalysis critical, 505–6 emotions and mind-body
theorizing of, 351–2 connection,
relational/cultural approaches to, 360–1 Rubin on role of, 497–500 lifestyle, behavior and health,
355 sex/gender differences research, 359–60 social 502–5 mind-cure in, 495–7 public, 506–7
constructionism on, 362–3 Schofield and, 503
Stoller contributions to theory of, 357 stress, personality and lifestyle, 500–2
Thompson on, 352 Hebb, D. O.
Woolley on differences in, 348–9 gender role on cell assembly, 18, 153 on
Money terminology of, 355–6 emotions, 378, 381 Hebb rule of, 18
Rubin on, 355 neuropsychology and, 18, 117, 378
Stoller on gender identity differentiation from, 357 hedonism, of pleasure and pain, 104–6 Beebe-
generate-explore (Geneplore) model, of Center on continuum of, 105
creativity, 256 Bentham on, 105
genetics Bolles on, 104–5 Cabanac
Baldwin and Piaget on, 296, 306 circular reaction and, alliesthesia and, 106 emotions
296–300 constructive conduct and, 302–3 constructive and, 373–4 Locke on, 104–5
conduct mathematical illustration, 305–13 Pfaffman on, 96–106 von Helmholtz,
evo-devo-psych/know synthesis, 290–2, Hermann, 66, 92, 136 on audition, 99 mental
307 partial influences in, 55 chronometry and, 118 trichromatic color
Wright path analysis on, 54–5 genotypes, of intelligence, vision theory of, 98 heredity, Galton on
267 geometrical basis, of correlational theory, 39–40 environment and, 46 Hess, Walter, 72
Gestalt psychology, 9–10, 12 Anglophone psychologists heuristics, 223, 241 hierarchical models, of
and, 10 of Koffka and Wertheimer, 9 intelligence, 272–3 Carroll strata model,
Perls and, 478 gestalt switch, 12–13 272–3 of Vernon, 272–3
GI. See gastrointestinal Gilligan, Carol, hierarchy of needs, of Maslow, 404
361 gist, in FTT, 235–6, 238 A History of Experimental Psychology (Boring),
Golden Age, post-World War II and, 332–4 Golgi, Camillo, 66 4, 289, 377 Hitch,
Goodenough, Florence, 380, 386–7 G., 192
 Index 21
Hitzig, Eduard, 71 mental abilities and, 272 social,
Hollingworth, Leta, 349 269–83 structure-of-intellect, 272
Hooke, Robert, 63, 66 intelligence measures, 270
Horney, Karen, 352, 455–6, 477 Binet and Simon, T., on, 269–70
Hovland, Carl, 331 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, 270
Hull, Clark, 1 on drive theory, 394 on learning Wissler on, 269 intelligence
in animals, 138–9 quotient (IQ), 270 intelligence
human dissections, 89, 91 humanistic theories
psychology of Maslow, 16–17 Maslow and, of bonds, 271–2 of general
456 qualitative methodology of, 32 Rogers and, intelligence, 271, 281 of multiple
456 intelligences, 278–9 of successful
Humm–Wadsworth Temperament Scale, intelligence, 279–80
423–4 hypothesis-testing methodology. See also interdisciplinarity, in social psychology,
hazardous hypotheses; null hypothesis 333–4 interference theory of
testing forgetting, 177–8
Bayesian approach and, 51 decision approach to, criticism of, 178–9 response
51–3 competition and, 178 unlearning
Fisher contribution to, 51 hysteria, 470–1 Charcot on, and, 178
444–5 studies, in abnormal psychology, 444–6 interindividual influence study, in American social
psychology, 326–7
IBRO. See International Brain Research Organization International Brain Research Organization
ICD. See International Classification of (IBRO), 76
Diseases implicit memory, 198–201 implicit International Classification of Diseases (ICD),
theories, of intelligence, 268 inconsistent choice WHO, 461
behavior, in decision on psychopathy, 461–2
making, 227 International Psychoanalytic Association
independent ego energy, 402 individualized approach, in (IPA), 473
psychometrics, Internet, abnormal psychology influenced by,
30–47 inductive inferences, Fisher on, 52 information 463 interoceptive stream, of emotions,
processing approach, in cognitive 373, 386
psychology, 15–17 at aesthetic level, 373–4 at
attention and, 114–16 box and arrow models in, signal level, 374
181, 185 Chomsky on, 181–2 computing and, intersectionality, gender and, 363–5 Cole
183–4 filter theory, 115 flow charts for, 9–16 on, 364–5
information theory, 182–3 Collins and Crenshaw on, 363
Kahneman on, 115 Reid, P., on Black women racism and sexism,
memory and, 181–4 Neisser on, 15–17, 114, 364 intersex
116, 182 Money gender role terminology for, 355–6
S-R contingencies, 181 information theory, 182–3 Money on gender and, 354–6 sex assignment
Institute for Social Research (ISR), 333–4 criteria, 356
Institute of Personality Assessment and interval scale, 101–2 intrinsic
Research (IPAR), 254 instrumental learning motivation
behavioral neuroscience on, 155 Csikszentmihalyi autotelic experience, 403 de
Pavlovian conditioning and, 148–9 instrumental training, of Charms and, 402 Deci free choice measure
Shettleworth, 144 and, 402 drive-theory accounts on, 400 Elliot
intellectual history on, 403 Harlow and, 399–400 psychological
chronological organization and, 2 of needs and, 399–400 researchers on, 399–400
development, 287–9, 308 reasons for, 1 topical self-regulation and, 403
organization of, 3 White effectance motivation and, 401
intelligence, 281. See also biological bases introspectionism, 5–6, 12
cognitive perspective of, 274–5 cultural context attention and, 113–14 behaviorism
and, 276–8 early intellectual history, 269–71 compared to, 8–9 elementarism
female inferiority of, 346–7 Flynn effect and, of, 8–9 functionalism compared
280–1 Galton on, 269 genotypes of, 267 growth to, 6–7 as psychology paradigm,
mindset and, 268 hierarchical models of, 272–3 13 sensations in, 8–9 subjective
implicit theories of, 268 nature of, 267 overview experience in, 5–6
of field of, 267–9 Piaget on, 273–4 primary Titchener on, 5–6
Wundt, 5
22 Index

IPA. See International Psychoanalytic Law of Effect, of Thorndike, 137–8, 394

Association Law of Frequency, of Watson, J., 137 law
IPAR. See Institute of Personality Assessment and Research of large numbers, EV and, 220 law of
IQ. See intelligence quotient reversion, of Galton, 42 learned
ISR. See Institute for Social Research helplessness, 150, 397
learning, in animals, 145–6
Jacklin, Carol, 359 with aversive stimuli, 147–50 behavioral
Jackson, John Hughlings, 71–2 neuroscience, 153–5 Bolles on avoidant
James, William, 6, 94, 136, 319, 321–2, 373–4, behavior, 146 Catania on, 140 clinical science
495 on attention, 111, 124 on creative genius, and, 155–6 comparative cognition and complex
251 on Darwin evolutionary theory, 6 on learning,
Dewey, 6–7 on Ebbinghaus, 168 functionalism 141–4 constraints
influenced by, 6 psychology and, 93–4 on, 144–7 Herrnstein
qualitative methodology of, 32 on social self, on, 140–1
319 Hull on, 138–9 Kamin on blocking effect, 151
on visual illusions, 94 on Wundt, 93– mental evolution and early experiments on,
4 James–Lange emotion theory, 376– 135–7 odor
7, 386 aversions, 146–7
Janet, Pierre, 471–2 on consciousness, Pavlov on, 137–8
448 on dissociation, 448 on Rescorla on fear conditioning and,
psychasthenia, 449 trauma studies, 150–1 Rescorla-Wagner model for,
447–50 151–3 rewards and, 148–9
JDM. See judgment and decision making Jenkins, J. G., 176–7 Shettleworth instrumental conditioning and,
jnd. See just noticeable differences judgment and decision 144 sign-tracking,
making (JDM), 217 145
Jung, Carl G., 475 abnormal psychology and, 451–3 Skinner on, 139–40 Spence on
analytical psychology of, 452–3 archetypes and discrimination learning, 152 taste
complexes of, 451–3 on personality, 419 aversion learning and, 146–7
just noticeable differences (jnd) unit of sensation, 100–1 theories of associative learning, 150–3 Tolman
on, 138–9, 148
Kahneman, Daniel, 115, 226–8, 244 on CPT, 233–4 Watson, J., on, 137
on fourfold pattern of risk attitudes, 231 on framing Leary, M. R., 403
effect, 229–30 on prospect theory, 232–5 Leavitt, Henrietta, 102
on reflection effect, 228–45 Leonard, Alfred, 123
Kamin, Leon, 151 Levitt, Eugene A., 379–80
Kelly, George, 1, 485–6 Lewin, Kurt, 327–8, 335–6 life
Kessler, Suzanne, 362 Koch, C., scripts, 197
124–5 Koch, J. L., 459 lifestyle
Koffka, Kurt, 9 behavior and health, 502–5 stress and
Kohlberg, Lawrence, 361 personality, in post World War II,
Köhler, Wolfgang, 9, 16–17 500–2 Likert, Rensis, 332 linear
Kraepelin, Emil, 419 relationship Pearson r and, 39–40
Kuhl, Julius, 403–4 positive, 39 statistical, 38–9 among
Kuhn, Thomas, 4–5, 12 on gestalt switch, variables, 38–9 LMS. See Labeled
12–13 paradigm theory of, 17, 19 Magnitude Scale lobotomy, 72–3
Locke, John, 104–5 locus
Labeled Magnitude Scale (LMS), for oral sensations, 103 of causality, 402 of control, 397 Loewi,
labeled-line theory of taste, of Pfaffmann, 96 Lamarckian Otto, 67–8 long-term store, in memory, 187–8
theory, 288, 293–4, 306 loss aversion and endowment effect, 230–1
language Descartes on, 70 of
emotions, 378–9 Maccoby, Eleanor, 359
Lashley, Karl S., 18, 80 on animal brain Mackintosh, Nicholas, 152–3
neuroscience, 153 on brain affective systems, 73 Macphail, Euan, 143
latent attributes, in factor analysis, 46 latent structures, of macrohistory, of emotions, 373–8, 380–1
factor analysis, 49 advantages of, 381–2 contributors to,
Law of Dynamic Polarization, of Cajal and von 382–3 feminist theorizing and, 383–4
Gehuchten, 67 microhistory compared to, 380–7
macroscopic approach, to emotions, 371,
 Index 23
373–8 exteroceptive streams in, 373–5, 386 Magendie, vs. qualitative approaches in, 31–2 rational
Francois, 64–5, 69 maladjustment, abnormality and, 442–4 construction in, 30 scientific method and, 30–1
Maller, J. B., 422 Mandler, G., 180 manipulation drive, 400 starting points in, 30 statistics and probability
Mark, V. H., 73 Marshall, Henry Rutgers, 373–4, 386 theory in, 31
masculinity and femininity (M-F) M–F. See masculinity and femininity MI
measurements, 349–51 theory of creativity, 259 microhistory, of
of BSRI, 350–1 Constantinople on, 349–50 emotions, 371–2, 378–81
Terman and Miles on, 349–50 advantages of, 382–3 contributors
Maslow, Abraham, 456 hierarchy of needs of, 404 to, 382–3 on feminist theorizing, 383
humanistic psychology of, 16–17 macrohistory compared to, 380–7
self-actualization theory of, 478 Miles, Catharine Cox, 349–50
May, Rollo, 478 Milgram, Stanley, 1, 334–5
McDougall, William, 324, 392 Miller, George, 16–17, 76–7, 183
McKenna, Wendy, 362 McKinley, J. C., 424–5 cognitive psychology and, 14 on
MCMI. See Millon Clinical Multiaxial EU model, 223 on recoding, 179,
Inventory measurement of sensations, 100–3 category 183
scale for, 102–3 Fechner on unit of sensation, 100–1 Miller, Jean Baker, 360–1
Ferguson committee on, 101 group comparison difficulties, Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI),
103–4 jnd, 100–1 LMS for oral sensations, 103 on stellar 428 Mind Cure, of Quimby, 474 mindset,
brightness, 102 Stevens direct scaling method, 101 Stevens Dweck on, 399 Minnesota Multiphasic
on jnd problems, 101 of VASs, 103 Personality Inventory
measurement tradition, in psychology, 46 measurements. See (MMPI), 50, 421 for Canadian military
also masculinity and personnel, 426 computer-based interpretation
femininity measurements systems for,
of attention, 111–12 Fechner on context and, 37 427–8 criticism on use
interval, 101–2 nominal, 101–2 ordinal, 101–2 of, 427 Ellis on, 426
in psychometrics, 47 ratio, 101–2 Hathaway and McKinley, 424–5
medieval period, personality interest in, World War II use of, 425–6
415–17 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2
Mednick, Sarnoff, 253–4 Melchert, T. P., 18 memory, 165– (MMPI-2), 427–31
75, 204–5. See also autobiographical memory; episodic Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory2-
memory; modal model of memory; processing approach; Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF),
short-term store; verbal learning tradition; working memory 430–1
applied memory research, 203–4 MMPI. See Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Atkinson-Shiffrin model of, 185, 188–9 Inventory
Bartlett on, 171–5 Binet on, 173 cognitive neuroscience MMPI-2. See Minnesota Multiphasic
of, 192 cognitive psychologists approach to, 167 Personality Inventory-2
Ebbinghaus on, 167–70 explicit, 199 implicit, 198–201 MMPI-2-RF. See Minnesota Multiphasic
information processing tradition, 181–4 long-term store Personality Inventory-2-Restructured
in, 187–8 memory models, 184–91 from 1970s to Form modal model of
present, 191–2 self, in autobiographical memory, 197 memory
study approaches to, 166–7 Tulving on types of, 203 Atkinson-Shiffrin model, 185, 188–9
varieties of, 203 Murdock on, 184–5 model systems
Wundt on, 166 memory organization, approach, in neuroscience,
179–80 153–4 modern psychology of
Bousfield on free recall, 179, 194 learning, 4
Mandler and Pearlstone on, 180 molecular structure theory, of olfaction, 97
Miller, G., on recoding, 179, 183 Money, John
Tulving on subjective organization, 179–80 mental age, Freud psychosexual theory critique, 355
Binet and Simon, T., on, 30–47 mental chronometry, 118–33 gender role terminology of, 355–6 on
attention and, 115, 118–19 intersex and gender, 354–6 sex assignment
Helmholtz and, 118 mental illness, creativity association criteria of, 356
with, 251 metaphysics, of Fechner, 35 methodology, in Monty Hall problem in, in decision making,
psychology, 29. See also experimental psychology 224–5
correlation and causality in, 53–8 Danziger on, 29–30, 57–8 Morey, Leslie, 428
experimental design, 51–3 methodology defined, 29–32 Morgan, C. Lloyd, 136
psychological inquiry methods and, 58–9 psychometrics Morgan, Christiana, 423
and, 46–50 qualitative methodology and, 58–9 quantitative
24 Index

Morgan’s Canon, 136 Morgenstern, Oskar, 222–3, 243 153–4 neuron theory and chemical
mothers, Chodorow on, 352–3 motivation, 391–2. See also transmission,
White effectance 66–8 neurosurgical lesion approach, 82
motivation Oxford Experimental Philosophy Club on, 63
behaviorism movement, 393–4 cognitive professional neuroscience organizations,
movement in, 396–9 contemporary theories on, 74–6 psychosomatics, 78–80 related
406–8 drive theory, 394 early theories of, 392–3 disciplines, 76–7 sensory, motor and affective
evolutionary psychology and, 405–6 intrinsic, systems, 71–3
psychological needs and, social, 77
399–400 operant theory, 394–6 Willis and, 63–4 neurosis, 462–3,
Watson, J., on, 393 motivational 472–3 neurosurgical lesion approach, 82
drives, 243 motor cortex, of brain neurotic disorders, 470–1 Neuroticism,
Ferrier and Bartholow on, 71–2 Fritsch and Extraversion, Openness,
Hitzig on, 71 Jackson on, 71–2 Agreeableness and Conscientiousness
Penfield on, 72 Personality Inventory (NEO-PI), 428
Mowrer, O. Hobart, 148–9 New Thought, 496
Mulaik, S. A., 48–9 Newton, Isaac calculus development by,
Müller, Johannes, 91–2 Müller-Lyer illusion, 31, 36 on color vision, 98 rational
5 multiple regression, 44 mechanics of, 13 Neyman, J., 51–3
Pearson, K., models of, 54–5 nominal scale, 101–2 normal science,
Yule on, 44, 54–5 multitasking, 121–2 multivariate Fechner and, 36–7 normative analysis, of
analysis, 51 Munsterberg, Hugo, 73–4, 474 Murdock, decision making,
B. B., 184–5 Murray, Henry, 404, 423, 425 mutual 217–18 novel and appropriate definition, of
recognition, Benjamin on, 354 myograph, of creativity,
Helmholtz, 66 252–3 null hypothesis
testing, 30, 51–2
Nafe, J. P., 95 naturalistic observation, Skinner and, 46
nature vs. nurture oddity learning, Harlow on, 144 odor
creativity and, 252 aversions, 146–7
development and, 287 Office of Strategic Services (OSS) assessment
neglected invisibles identification, in development, 289–90 program, 425 olfaction
Neisser, Ulric, 16–17, 175, 178–9 on information processing, Buck and Axel on, 97–8
15–17, 114, 116, Engen on, 97 Greek philosophers
182 neo-Freudians, 454–6 NEO-PI. See on, 90 molecular structure theory
Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness and of, 97 sensory qualities for, 97–8
Conscientiousness Personality Inventory nerve energies, vibration theory on, 97
Müller on, 91–2 nervous system, 17–18, 65 operant conditioning, 140 applied
central, 8 behavior analysis and, 155
neural efficiency, for intelligence, 275–6 neural networks, reinforcement and, 395–6
attention and, 116–17 operant theory, 394–6 operationalism, Fechner
attention-network test on, 116–17 cingulate and, 116 and, 37 opponent-process theory of color
Corbetta and Shulman on, 116 neurasthenia, vision, 98 ordinal scale, 101–2 organic
446–64 neuron theory, 66–8 neuropsychology, selection, Baldwin on, 293–4
17–18 Freud and, 17–18 The Organization of Behavior (Hebb), 18, 117,
Hebb and, 18, 117, 378 153
Melchert and, 18 neuroscience, 12, 83. See also Osborn, Alex, 254
behavioral OSS. See Office of Strategic Services
neuroscience Oxford Experimental Philosophy Club, 63
aggressive systems and, 81–2 animal spirits, 64–5
animal spirits measured, 65–6 arousal system and, 77–8 PAI. See Personality Assessment Inventory
brain activity recording, 73–4 brain structures and Papez, J. W., 72 paradigm clashes, 12
functions in, 68–70 cognitive, 76–7, 166, 192 paradigms
conceptual evolution of contemporary perspectives, 77–82 Darwinian, 13, 293–4
contemporary developments in, 80–2 cortical-cognitive Kuhn theory of, 17, 19 Neisser on shift in, 15–
processes and, 80–1 depth brain stimulation and, 72–3, 82 17 polysemous meaning to, 19–20 of psychology,
emotional and motivational processes and, 13 of science, 4–5, 12–13 Paré, William, 501
81 fMRI and PET brain imaging methods, 80 parietal-frontal integration theory (P-FIT), 276
localization of speech, 70–1 model systems approach in,
 Index 25
partial influences, in genetics, 55 Pascal, Blaise, 219–20, 243 stages, 291 on genetics, 296, 306 Haeckel
path analysis, 46 recapitulation rejection by, 307 history of
of Burks, 53–4 correlational designs and causation, 56– science and, 19 on intelligence, 273–4
8 generic path diagram, of Wright in, 54–5 on genetics on self-regulation, 19
and color inheritance, 54–5 Waddington impact on, 300–2
Wright and, 52–8 path coefficients, Wright Piderit, Theodor, 383 placebo
on, 55–6 pathology effect, 486, 489 Plato, 88, 165, 374
of attention, 127 Kraepelin on personality, Plutarch, on personality, 415 Plutchik, R., 384
419 polysemous meaning, paradigm and, 19–20
Schneider on psychopathic personalities, positive linear relationship, 39
459–60 sociocultural norms and, 460–1 Positron Emission Tomography (PET),
pattern theory of taste, by Pfaffmann, 96 Pavlov, I. P. 80 prediction, in Rescorla–Wagner
equipotentiality principle of, 146 experimental model,
neurosis and, 453–4 on learning in animals, 137–8 151–2
Pavlovian conditioning. See conditioning, preference reversals, in decision making, 227
Pavlov preparadigmatic psychology, 13 prescriptive
Pearlstone, Z., 180, 194 analysis, of decision making,
Pearson, Karl, 37–9 correlation coefficient development by, 218–19 primary mental abilities,
38 on multiple regression, 44 on multiple regression intelligence, 272 primary process, of nervous
models, 54–5 on regression coefficients, 54, 56–7 system, 17–18 priming, implicit memory and,
Pearson Product-Moment correlation, 38–9 Pearson r, 39– 199–200
40 perception. See sensation and perception Perls, Fritz, The Principles of Psychology (James), 6–7, 94,
478 person, process, product, press (4Ps) 136, 319 probability,
framework, for creativity, 258–9 51–2, 217
personal construct theory, of Kelly, 485–6 Personal Data Sheet, decision making and, 224 in
of Woodworth, 421 personality, 412–13. See also ancient experimental psychology, 33–4
civilizations, personality interest in Pearson r and, 39 probability theory, 31
Galton on, 417 processing approach, in memory, 189–91
Jung on, 419 Kraepelin on pathology and, 419 Craik and Tulving on, 190 operations of
medieval period interest in, 415–17 19th century remembering and, 191
understanding of, 417–18 Renaissance period interest Treisman stages of perception and, 190
in, 415–17 stress and lifestyle, post World War II, professional neuroscience organizations
500–2 APA, 75, 176, 330 APS, 75 emergence of,
Watson, J., on, 419 74–6 IBRO, 76
Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI), of Psychonomic Society, 76
Morey, 428 personality assessments, 432–3. See also SfN, 76
World SPR, 75–6 progressive education, of Dewey, 7
War I; specific assessments contemporary prosocial motivation, 405–6 prospect theory, in
controversies on, 429 post World War II expansion of, decision making, 233, 244
426–9 in 20th century, 418–19 FTT challenge to, 237 Kahneman and
of World War II, 425–6, 433 Tversky on, 232–5 predictive power
personality theory, 29 PET. See Positron Emission of, 235
Tomography Proust, William, 90 PRT. See
Pfaffmann, Carl on evaluative conditioning, 96–106 labeled- Psychological Round Table
line theory of taste, 96 pattern theory of taste by, 96 P-FIT. See psychasthenia, 449, 470–1
parietal-frontal integration theory pharmaceutical industry, psychoanalysis, 10–11, 47, 418–19
abnormal psychology demise of, 487–8 dream interpretation
influenced by, 463, 490 in, 10–11 feminism and, 352–4 Freud
phenomenology, 9 phenotypical changes, Piaget on, 291–2 followers for, 473 gender theorizing by,
philanthropies, experimental psychology and, 351–2 movement of, 475 on neurosis,
499–500 phonological loop, 192 phrenologists on brain 472–3 psychotherapy and, 472–3, 475
structure and function, 68–9, 418 psychological mechanisms, of social life, 320
Magendie on, 69 psychological refractory period, 121–2
physical stimulation, sensations relationship psychological research program, of Wundt, 33, 92–
with, 34 3, 136, 165
physical variables, 37 Psychological Review, 11 Psychological Round
Piaget, Jean, 1, 287. See also hazardous hypotheses Table (PRT), 102 psychological theory,
Baldwin influence on, 292 on cognitive development Bayesian approach to,
26 Index

30 psychology Test ratio scale, 101–2 rational choice

interdisciplinary approaches to, 21 sociology and American behavior, EV and, 220 rational construction,
social psychology, in methodology, 30
321–4 subjective experiences study in, 5 Rational Emotive Behavior Theory, 386,
varieties of, 20–1 483–4 rational mechanics, of Newton,
psychometrics, 30–47 13 rational model of decision making, 223
birth of, 46–50 factor analysis controversy, 47–9 factor rationality, 223–4
analysis methodological legacy in, 49 measurement Rayner, Rosalie, 147–8 RCT. See
influence on clinical randomized controlled trial reaction time
psychology, 49–50 (RT), 115, 123 recapitulation, of Haeckel,
Psychoneurotic Inventory, Woodworth, 420 Psychonomic 307
Society, 76 psychopathic personalities, Schneider on, 459–60 Piaget rejection of, 307 recency effect, 186–7
psychopathy recoding, Miller, G., on, 179, 183 Reducing the
abnormality and, 458–61 asylums and, Risk (RTR) program, 240 reflection effect, in
470–1 Cleckley, on, 460 criminals and, decision making, 228–45 regression coefficients,
459 54, 56–7 regression line, in Galton’s correlation,
DSM on, 461 41 rehearsing, in short-term store, 186
executive attention deficits in, 128 ICD on, 461– Reid, P. T., 364 Reid, Thomas,
2 Koch, J., on, 459 von Feuchtersleben on, 459 100 reinforcement operant
Werlinder on, 461 psychophysics, 35–6 psychosexual theory and, 395–6
theory, Money critique of Freud, Rotter on, 397 relational/cultural
355 psychosomatics, 78–80, 498, 500 approaches, to gender,
Cannon on ANS and, 79 Charcot and, 360–1 critics of, 361 Miller, J.,
78 disorders of, 79–80 on, 360–1 moral decision making,
EDRs and, 78–9 361 REM. See Rapid Eye Movement
psychotherapy, 468–9 American developments of, remembering as activity, Bartlett on, 175
473–5 asylums and, 490 behavior therapy and, reminiscence bump, 196
480–1 from behavioral to cognitive, 483–6 Dubois Remote Associates Test (RAT), of Mednick,
on, 472 253–4
effectiveness of, 486–7 evidence-supported, 487–8 Renaissance creativity and, 250
functional nervous disorders and, 470–1 personality interest in, 415–17
power of mind and, 471–2 scientific revolution and, 165
professional rivalry over, 481–2 Rescorla, Robert, 150–1
psychoanalysis, 472–3, 475 Quimby Mind Rescorla–Wagner model, for animal learning,
Cure, 474 recent developments in, 488–9 in 151–3 resource-allocation, in
society, 490–1 genetics, 297–8 responding, attention and,
talk therapy effectiveness, 479–80 Worcester Emmanuel 115 response competition, 178
movement, 474 between World War I and II, 475–8 response mapping, 115 reticular model, of brain,
World War II and Freudian Age, 478–9 public health 66 retrieval characteristics, of short-term store, 187
psychology, 506–7 public opinion, study of, 328–9 retrieval cues, 194 retroactive interference (RI),
177 rewards, learning in animals and, 148–9
qualitative methodology, 31–2, 58–9 Reyna, Valerie F., 235–6, 244
case study as, 32 of Freud, Wundt, James and Darwin, 32 Rhodes, Mel, 257
of humanistic or existential psychology, 32 RI. See retroactive interference risk avoidance for
quantification rewards, FTT and, 239–40
in experimental psychology, 33–4 of uncertainty, in Robbers Cave Studies, 334
clinical psychology, Rogers, Carl, 456, 477–8
50–2 Romanes, George, 135–6
quantitative methodology, 31–2, 58, 486 Rorschach, Herman, 421–2
Boring on, 58–9 Fechner and, 32 Rorschach Inkblot tests, 421–2, 429, 431–2
of Galton, 32 Rorschach Performance Assessment System
questionnaires, 46, 50 Quimby, Phineas, 474, (R-PAS), 432–3
496 Ross, Edward A., 324
Rotter, Julian, 1, 397
race R-PAS. See Rorschach Performance Assessment
Hall on, 347–8 study of, 329–30 System
randomized controlled trial (RCT), 488 Rapid Eye RT. See reaction time
Movement (REM) sleep, 78 RAT. See Remote Associates
 Index 27
RTR. See Reducing the Risk Rubin, David, 195–6,
355
Russell, J. A., 384
Ryan, Richard, 402–3 Ryle, Anthony,
485–6

satisficing, in decision making, 223–4, 243–4,

394 scatterplot, of correlation coefficient, 38–9
schema, Bartlett on, 174–5 Schema Therapy, 489
schizophrenia, executive attention deficit of, 129–30
Schofield, William, 503 schools of psychology, 4. See also
behaviorism; Gestalt psychology; introspectionism;
psychoanalysis
functionalism, 6–7 importance of, 11–12
Psychological Review on, 11
Woodworth on, 11 science
Kuhn and history of, 19 paradigms of, 4–5,
12–13 Piaget and history of, 19
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM),
female underrepresentation in, 359
scientific method, 30–1 scientific revolution, in
Renaissance, 165 Scott, Joan, 362
SCT. See social cognitive theory SDT. See self-determination
theory self-actualization theory, of Maslow, 478 self-
determination theory (SDT), of Deci and
Ryan, 402–3