CHAPTER THREE

Formulating a research Method and design

Social research needs a design or a structure before data collection or analysis can commence.
The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables us to answer the
initial question as unambiguously as possible. Obtaining relevant evidence entails specifying the
type of evidence needed to answer the research question, to test a theory, to evaluate a program or
to accurately describe some phenomenon. In other words, when designing research, we need to
ask: given this research question (or theory), what type of evidence is needed to answer the
question (or test the theory) in a convincing way? Research design deals with a logical problem
and not a logistical problem (Yin, 1989: 29).

Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and
analyzing the needed information. The objectives of the study determined during the early stages
of the research are included in the design to ensure that the information collected is appropriate
for solving the problem. The researcher must specify the sources of information, and the research
method or technique to be followed in the study.

The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the preparation
of the design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”. Decisions
regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research
study constitute a research design. A research design is the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure. In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which
research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data. Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time, and money.

After identifying the problem there should a need to opretionalize the research problem by
choosing the suitable design or methodology. Research Design is a “blueprint” for empirical
research aimed at answering specific research questions or testing specific hypotheses, and must
specify at least three processes:

1. The sampling process

2. The instrument development process, and
3. The data collection process,

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KEY ATTRIBUTES OF A RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Internal validity, also called causality, examines whether the observed change in
dependent variable is indeed caused by a corresponding change in hypothesized
independent variable, and not by variables extraneous to the research context.

2. External validity refers to whether the observed associations can be generalized from the
sample to the population (population validity)

3. Statistical conclusion validity examines the extent to which conclusions derived using a
statistical procedure is valid.

A research design has two main functions. The first relates to the identification and/or
development of procedures and logistical arrangements required to undertake a study, and the
second emphasizes the importance of quality in these procedures to ensure their validity,
objectivity, and accuracy.

There are three types of research design (Approaches) qualitative research, quantitative research,
and mixed research.

I. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Involves studies that do not attempt to quantify their results through statistical summary or
analysis. The focus in qualitative research is to understand, explain, explore, discover and clarify
situations, feelings, perceptions, attitudes, values, beliefs and experiences of a group of people.
The study designs are therefore often based on deductive rather than inductive logic, are flexible
and emergent in nature, and are often non-linear and non-sequential in their operationalization.
The study designs mainly entail the selection of people from whom the information, through an
open frame of enquiry, is explored and gathered. The parameters of the scope of a study, and
information gathering methods and processes, are often flexible and evolving; hence, most
qualitative designs are not as structured and sequential as quantitative ones.

Qualitative research explores attitudes, behavior and experiences through such methods as
interviews or focus groups. It attempts to get an in-depth opinion from participants. As it is
attitudes, behavior and experiences which are important, fewer people take part in the research,
but the contact with these people tends to last a lot longer.

Qualitative research is a broad term that encompasses a variety of approaches to interpretative

research. It can be historical, sociological, education and much more. Qualitative research style in
social research is not much related to the scientific logic of research, but more close to the world
around. Quantitative research focuses upon human behavior for better understandings about the
world around them. So the emphasis given by quantitative researchers in their studies involves an

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examination of the perspectives of the people or groups; e.g. their ideas, attitudes, motives, and
intensions.

In qualitative research, the researcher’s primary goals are an understanding of social

processes rather than obtaining a representative sample.

Introduction to Some Qualitative Design

1. A grounded theory design is a systematic, qualitative procedure used to generate a
theory that explains a process, an action, or an interaction about a substantive topic.
Grounded theory generates a theory when existing theories do not address your problem

2. Ethnographic designs are qualitative research procedures for describing, analyzing, and
interpreting a culture-sharing group’s shared patterns of behavior, beliefs, and language
that develop over time.

3. Case study: in which the researcher explores in depth a program, an event, an activity, a
process, or one or more individuals. The case(s) are bounded by time and activity, and
researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over
a sustained period of time. Topics often examined in case studies include individuals,
events, or groups. Through case studies, researchers hope to gain in-depth understanding
of situations and meaning for those involved.
4. Phenomenological studies are one type of qualitative research. These studies explore the
meaning of several people’s lived experiences around a specific issue or phenomenon. The
assumption is that there is an essence or central meaning of an experience shared by
individuals that can be investigated and explained through research. In phenomenological
studies, the experiences of different people are analyzed to describe the essence of a
phenomenon, such as the essence of having cancer or of being a minority in a majority
setting.

5. Narrative research designs: a research that describe the lives of individuals, collect, and
tell stories about people’s lives, and write narratives of individual experiences. As a
distinct form of qualitative research, a narrative typically focuses on studying a single
person, gathering data through the collection of stories, reporting individual experiences,
and discussing the meaning of those experiences for the individual.

II. QUANTITATIVE DESIGN

Quantitative research generates statistics through the use of large-scale survey research, using
methods such as questionnaires or structured interviews. This type of research reaches many more
people, but the contact with those people is much quicker than it is in qualitative research.

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Quantitative research involves studies that make use of statistical analyses to obtain their
findings. Key features include formal and systematic measurement and the use of statistics.

A quantitative approach is one in which the investigator primarily uses postpositive claims for
developing knowledge, employs strategies of inquiry such as experiments and surveys, and
collect data on predetermined instruments that yield statistics data.

Quantitative approaches are typically associated with positivist perspectives in social

research. Hammersly (1993) provides a useful definition of this approach.

“The term quantitative method refers in large part to the adoption of the natural science
experiment as the model for scientific research, its key features being quantitative
measurement of the phenomena studied and systematic control of the theoretical variables
influencing those phenomena”.

The sample survey and experimental method are the most typical example of quantitative
research. Sample survey is the most used technique with specific tools and methods to gather
information about a particular question Quantitative approaches differ from qualitative approach
in several ways.

Introduction to Some Quantitative Design

1. Experimental Research

In an experiment, you test an idea (or practice or procedure) to determine whether it influences
an outcome or dependent variable. You use an experiment when you want to establish possible
cause and effect between your independent and dependent variables.

2. Co-relational study

In co relational research designs, investigators use the correlation statistical test to describe and
measure the degree of association (or relationship) between two or more variables or sets of
scores. In this design, the researchers do not attempt to control or manipulate the variables as in
an experiment; instead, they relate, using the correlation statistic, two or more scores for each
person.

3. Survey

Survey research designs are procedures in quantitative research in which investigators administer
a survey to a sample or to the entire population of people to describe the attitudes, opinions,
behaviors, or characteristics of the population. In this procedure, survey researchers collect
quantitative, numbered data using questionnaires (e.g., mailed questionnaires) or interviews (e.g.,

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one-on-one interviews) and statistically analyze the data to describe trends about responses to
questions and to test research questions or hypotheses.

Field surveys are non-experimental designs that do not control for or manipulate
independent variables or treatments but measure these variables and test their effects using
statistical methods. Field surveys capture snapshots of practices, beliefs, or situations from a
random sample of subjects in field settings through a survey questionnaire or less frequently,
through a structured interview. Surveys include cross-sectional and longitudinal studies using
questionnaires or structured interviews for data collection, with the intent of generalizing from a
sample to a population.

In cross-sectional field surveys, independent and dependent variables are measured at the same
point in time (e.g., using a single questionnaire), while in longitudinal field surveys, dependent
variables are measured at a later point in time than the independent variables. The strengths of
field surveys are their external validity (since data is collected in field settings), their ability to
capture and control for many variables, and their ability to study a problem from multiple
perspectives or using multiple theories. However, because of their non-temporal nature, internal
validity (cause-effect relationships) is difficult to infer, and surveys may be subject to respondent
biases (e.g., subjects may provide a “socially desirable” response rather than their true response)
which further hurts internal validity.

Social Survey Method: Social survey technique is very popular in sociology. Survey research is
the systematic gathering of information about individuals and collectivities. The purpose of
surveying may be description or casual analysis. Large scale descriptive surveys have long history
in social research. National census is the biggest form of social survey in which surveys, the
whole nation regarding its population, their economic condition including their earning, birth,
death etc.

III. Mixed Research Approach

Mixed methods approach is one in which the researcher tends to base knowledge claims on
pragmatic grounds (e.g., consequence-oriented, problem-centered, and pluralistic). It employs
strategies of inquiry that involve collecting data either simultaneously or sequentially to best
understand research problem. The data collection also involves gathering both numeric
information (e.g., on instruments) as well as text information (e.g., on interviews) so that the final
database represents both quantitative and qualitative information.

Strategies of mixed research: Sequential procedures, in which the researcher seeks to elaborate
on or expand the findings of one method with another method. This may involve beginning with a
qualitative method for exploratory purposes and following up with a quantitative method with a
large sample so that the researcher can generalize results to a population. Alternatively, the study

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may begin with a quantitative method in which theories or concepts are tested, to be followed by a
qualitative method involving detailed exploration with a few cases or individuals.

Concurrent procedures, in which the researcher converges quantitative and qualitative data to
provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem. In this design, the investigator collects
both forms of data at the same time during the study and then integrates the information in the
interpretation of the overall results. Also, in this design, the researcher nests one form of data
within another, larger data collection procedure in order to analyze different questions or levels of
units in an organization.

Transformative procedures, in which the researcher uses a theoretical lens as an overarching

perspective within a design that contains both quantitative and qualitative data. This lens provides
a framework for topics of interest, methods for collecting data, and outcomes or changes
anticipated by the study. Within this lens could be a data collection method that involves a
sequential or a concurrent approach.

INTRODUCTION TO SAMPLING AND SAMPLING STRATEGY

 Sampling is the statistical process of selecting a subset (called a “sample”) of a population
of interest for purposes of making observations and statistical inferences about that
population. Particularly there are six main reasons for conducting sampling: Economy,
Timeliness, The large size of the populations, Inaccessibility of some of the population,
Destructiveness of the observation

Representativeness of samples

 A representative sample is a subset of a statistical population that precisely reflects the

members of the entire population. When a sample is not representative, the result is known
as a sampling error. Sampling error comprises the differences between the sample and
the target population to which the research conclusion is to be generalized.

The Sampling Process

1) Defining the target population: A population can be defined as all people or items with
the characteristics that one wishes to study (person, group, organization, country, object,
or any other entity about which you wish to draw scientific inferences).

2) Choosing a sampling frame: This is an accessible section of the target population (usually
a list with contact information) from where a sample can be drawn.

3) Choosing a sample from the sampling frame

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Sampling technique

 Sampling techniques can be grouped into two broad categories:

 Probability sampling and

 Non-probability sampling

Probability Sampling
 Probability sampling is a technique in which every unit in the population has a chance
(non-zero probability) of being selected in the sample, and this chance can be accurately
determined. All probability sampling have two attributes in common:
A. Every unit in the population has a known non-zero probability of being sampled,
B. The sampling procedure involves random selection at some point.

I. Simple random sampling

 Simple random sampling involves randomly selecting respondents from a sampling frame,
but with large sampling frames, usually a table of random numbers or a computerized
random number generator is used. This is the simplest of all probability sampling
techniques; the sample is unbiased and the inferences are most generalizable

II. Systematic sampling

 In this technique, the sampling frame is ordered according to some criteria and elements
are selected at regular intervals through that ordered list. Systematic sampling involves a
random start and then proceeds with the selection of every kth element from that point
onwards, where k = N/n, where k is the ratio of sampling frame size N and the desired
sample size n, and is formally called the sampling ratio.
III. Stratified sampling
 In stratified sampling, the sampling frame is divided into homogeneous and non-
overlapping subgroups (called “strata”), and a simple random sample is drawn within each
subgroup.
IV. Cluster sampling
 Cluster sampling is used when there exist a population dispersed over a wide geographic
region and the population is divided into “clusters” (usually along geographic boundaries),
randomly sample a few clusters, and measure all units within that cluster.
V. Matched pairs sampling

 Sometimes, researchers may want to compare two subgroups within one population based
on a specific criterion. Matched-pairs sampling technique is often an ideal way of
understanding bipolar differences between different subgroups within a given population.

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VI. Multi-stage sampling

 Multi stage sampling is the combination of different sampling techniques.

Non-Probability Sampling

 Non probability sampling is a sampling technique in which some units of the population
have zero chance of selection or where the probability of selection cannot be accurately
determined. Typically, units are selected based on certain non-random criteria, such as
quota or convenience.

I. Convenience sampling

 Also called accidental or opportunity sampling, this is a technique in which a sample is

drawn from that part of the population that is close to hand, readily available, or
convenient. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing, where the goal is
instrument testing or measurement validation rather than obtaining generalizable
inferences.

II. Quota sampling

 In this technique, the population is segmented into mutually exclusive subgroups (just as
in stratified sampling), and then a non-random set of observations is chosen from each
subgroup to meet a predefined quota.

A. Proportional quota sampling: the proportion of respondents in each subgroup should

match that of the population.

B. Non-proportional quota sampling: no need of proportional representation, but perhaps

meet a minimum size in each subgroup.

III. Expert sampling

 This is a technique where respondents are chosen in a non-random manner based on their
expertise on the phenomenon being studied.

IV. Snowball sampling

 In snowball sampling, you start by identifying a few respondents that match the criteria for
inclusion in your study, and then ask them to recommend others they know who also meet
your selection criteria.

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DEVELOPING INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various
steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them.

Researchers not only need to know how to apply research techniques, but they also need to know
which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean
and indicate and why.

Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and they need
to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be
applicable to certain problems and others will not.

Research methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of the
research methodology. The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods.
Thus, when we talk of research methodology, we not only talk of the research methods but also
consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain
why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that
research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design/
plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the
researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary.
The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be
original in character. Secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been
collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
1. Collection of Primary Data
Primary data are information collected by a researcher specifically for a research assignment.
Primary data are those which are collected for the first time and are always given in the form of
raw materials and originals in character. They are data that were previously unknown, and which
have been obtained directly by the researcher for a particular research project.
The need for primary information
 The primary data are original and relevant

 The degree of accuracy is very high.

 primary data is current and it can better give a realistic view to the researcher

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The tools for primary data collection

 Observation

 Interview

 Questionnaire

 Focus Group Discussion

I. Observation
Observation is way of gathering data by watching behavior, events, or physical characteristics.
Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent.

The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done
accurately. Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently
happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.
Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is
relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the
case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in studies
which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their
feelings for one reason or the other.

It is also appropriate in situations where full and/or accurate information cannot be elicited by
questioning because respondents either are not co-operative or are unaware of the answers
because it is difficult for them to detach themselves from the interaction. Generally, when you are
more interested in the behavior than in the perceptions of individuals, or when subjects are so
involved in the interaction that they are unable to provide objective information about it,
observation is the best approach to collect the required information.

a) Participant Observation

The observer takes part in the situation being studied while carrying out the research. is when the
researcher, participate in the activities of the group being observed in the same manner as its
members, with or without their knowing that they are being observed.

Merit Demerit
 you are living in the experience with  Difficult to record data
them  Time consuming
 Avoids researcher bias  Risk of losing objectivity
 A holistic approach

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 b) Non-Participant Observation

On the other hand, is when the researcher, do not get involved in the activities of the group but
remain a passive observer, watching and listening to its activities and drawing conclusions from
this.
 It is a situation where the observer is not part of the situation being studied.
 Not usually in a natural setting…the situation could be set up by the researcher.
Merit Demerit
 Objective  Reactivity
 Easy to record data  Ethical concerns
 Researcher does not interfere with  looking from the outside
behavior

c) Overt Observation

 The observed group is aware of the presence of the researcher and that their behavior is
being observed.

Merit Demerit
 Informed consent is obtained.  Reactivity

d) Covert Observation

 The participants are unaware of the presence of the researcher and they are NOT made
aware that their behavior is being observed.

Merit Demerit
 Prevents reactivity!!!!  Deceived participants
 Allows study of behaviors that  Consent is not obtained
otherwise might not be studied.  Violates trust
 Difficult to record data
 Can often be dangerous to researchers

II. Interviews
 The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and
reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal
interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.

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  Interviews are necessary when researchers feel the need to meet face-to-face with
individuals to interact and generate ideas in a discourse that borders on mutual interest.

Types of interviews

Based on the nature of Questions

The process of asking questions can be either very flexible, where you as the interviewer have the
freedom to think about and formulate questions as they come to your mind around the issue being
investigated, or inflexible, where you have to keep strictly to the questions decided beforehand –
including their wording, sequence and the manner in which they are asked. Interviews are
classified into different categories according to their degree of flexibility.

1. Structured or directive interview:

In structured interview, the interviewer follows a set pattern usually adhering as much as possible
to the order of questions on the interview questionnaire whilst posing the questions in a formal
manner. This is an interview made with a detailed standardized schedule. The same questions are
put to all the respondents and in the same order. This type of interview is used for large-scale
formalized surveys.

2. Unstructured or non-directive interview:

The Unstructured Interview is the less formal type in which although sets of questions may be
used, the interviewer freely modifies the sequence of questions, changes the wording, and
sometimes explains them or adds to them during the interaction. In this type of interview, a
detailed pre-planned schedule is used. Only a broad interview guide is used. Questions are not
standardized and not ordered in a particular way. This technique is more useful in case studies
rather than large surveys.

3. Semi-structured or focused interview:

The investigator attempts to focus the discussion on the actual effects of a given experience to
which the respondents have been exposed.

Based on the nature of the interview

Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer
asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.

Telephone interviews: It is a non-personal method of data collection. It may be used as a major

method or supplementary method.

Stages of Interview Investigation

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  Thematizing-the why and what of the investigation.

 Designing -plan the design of the interview.

 Interviewing -conduct the interview based on a guide.

 Transcribing -prepare the interview material for analysis.

 Analyzing -decide on the purpose, the topic, the nature and methods of analysis that are
appropriate.

 Verifying -ascertain the validity of the interview findings.

 Reporting -communicate findings of the study based on scientific criteria.

Procedure of the Interview

 Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.

 Ask one question at a time.

 Attempt to remain as neutral as possible.

 Encourage responses.

 Be careful about the appearance when note taking.

 Provide transition between major topics.

 Don’t lose control of the interview.

IV. Questionnaire
This is systematically prepared form or document with a set of questions deliberately designed to
elicit responses from respondents or research informants for the purpose of collecting data or
information. In other terms, a questionnaire is sent to the persons concerned with a request to
answer the questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of
questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is given
to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in
the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents must answer the
questions on their own.

Based on the structure of the questions Questionnaires can be classified as open ended and close
ended questions.

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 Questionnaires may be designed as:

 Structured or closed form

 unstructured, open ended form

Specific conditions to use questioner

 To collect factual information

 To gather straightforward information relating to people’s behavior

 To look at the basic attitudes/opinions of a group of people relating to a particular issue

 To collect ‘baseline’ information which can then be tracked over time to examine changes.

Types of question

 There are many different types of question you can use to get the information you need.
Generally, the questions will either be open or closed. An open question allows the
respondent to use their own words to answer whilst a closed question gives pre-defined
options.

Comparing close ended and open ended questions

Open questions Closed questions

 Elicits “rich” qualitative data  Elicits quantitative data

 Encourages thought and freedom of  Does not require intensive and
expression thoughtful replies
 May discourage responses from less  Are easy for all literacy levels
literate respondents to respond to
 Takes longer to answer  Are quick to answer and may
 Are more difficult to analyze; improve your response rate
 responses can be easily misinterpreted  Are easy to ‘code’ and analyze

Points to be considered while preparing questions:

The wording and tone of your questions are important because the information and its quality
largely depend upon these factors. It is therefore important to be careful about the way you
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formulate questions. The following are some considerations to keep in mind when formulating
questions.

 Avoid leading questions.

 Be specific.

 Avoid jargon and colloquialisms

 Avoid double-barreled questions.

 Avoid double negatives.

 Minimize bias

 Handling difficult or embarrassing questions.

 Ensure options are mutually exclusive.

 Put the most important items in first half of questionnaire.

 Don’t start with awkward or embarrassing questions

 Start with easy and non-threatening questions

 Go from the general to the particular.

 Go from factual to abstract questions.

 Go from closed to open questions.

The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:

 There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.
 It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
 Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
 Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.

The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:

 Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often
indeterminate.
 It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
 The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
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  There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been dispatched.
 There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to
certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
 It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
V. Focus Group Discussion
A focus group discussion (FGD) is a good way to gather together people from similar
backgrounds or experiences to discuss a specific topic of interest. The group of participants is
guided by a moderator (or group facilitator) who introduces topics for discussion and helps the
group to participate in a lively and natural discussion amongst them.

In other terms, focus groups are a form of strategy in qualitative research in which attitudes,
opinions or perceptions towards an issue, product, service, or program are explored through a free
and open discussion between members of a group and the researcher. Both focus groups and
group interviews are facilitated group discussions in which a researcher raises issues or asks
questions that stimulate discussion among members of the group.

It should be neither too large nor too small as this can impede upon the extent and quality of the
discussion. Approximately eight to ten people are the optimal number for such discussion groups.
You also need to carefully identify the issues for discussion providing every opportunity for
additional relevant ones to emerge. The main difference between a focus group and a group
interview is in the degree of specificity with respect to the issues to be discussed. The issues
discussed in focus groups are more specific and focused than in group interviews and they are
largely predetermined by the researcher. In a group interview you let the group members discuss
whatever they want. However, your role as a researcher is to bring them back to the issues of
interest as identified by the group.

Planning for focus group discussion

1. Develop the focus group guide: The focus group guide is a series a questions and prompts
for the facilitator to use. Typically, the facilitator will ask questions of the group and allow
time for participants to respond to each other’s comments.

2. Select the number and type of participants for each focus group: Each individual focus
group should be made up of similar individuals, so the number of focus groups will
depend on how many different types of groups from which you want to gather
information.

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Conducting focus group discussion

 You will need a facilitator, note taker, and technician

 Focus groups can be conducted in person or via teleconference

 Focus groups typically last about 60 to 90 minutes

 The focus group needs to be appropriate for the type of participants in the group.

Merit Demerit
 Quick and relatively easy to set up.  Susceptible to facilitator bias.
 The group dynamic can provide useful  The discussion can be dominated or
information that individual data sidetracked by a few individuals.
collection does not provide.  Data analysis is time consuming and
 Is useful in gaining insight into a topic needs to be well planned in advance.
that may be more difficult to gather  Does not provide valid information at
through other data collection methods. the individual level.
 The information is not representative of
other groups.

2. Collection of Secondary Data

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analyzed by someone else.

Secondary data can be used to compare with primary data you have collected, in order to
triangulate the findings and put your data into a larger context. Researcher must be very careful
in using secondary data. He must make a minute scrutiny because it is just possible that the
secondary data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in the context of the problem which the
researcher wants to study.

Any researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they possess following characteristics:

1. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data:
(a) Who collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they collected by using
proper methods (d) At what time were they collected? (e) Was there any bias of the compiler? (t)
What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved?

2. Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found
suitable in another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should
not be used by the researcher. Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must
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also be studied. If the researcher finds differences in these, the data will remain unsuitable for the
present enquiry and should not be used.

3. Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the
purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by
the researcher. The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which
may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.

From all this we can say that it is very risky to use the already available data. The already
available data should be used by the researcher only when he finds them reliable, suitable and
adequate. But he should not blindly discard the use of such data if they are readily available from
authentic sources and are also suitable and adequate for in that case it will not be economical to
spend time and energy in field for collecting information.

Types and Sources of Secondary Data

There are numerous types of secondary data, the main being documentary sources in the form of
written and non-written materials, and survey data in the form of statistical information.

Written materials – organizational records such as internal reports, annual reports, production
records, personnel data, committee reports and minutes of meetings; communications such as
emails, letters, notes; publications, such as books, journals, newspapers, government publications
of all kinds etc. and unpublished materials.

Non-written materials – television programs, radio programs, tape recordings, video tapes, films
of all types, including documentary, live reporting, interviews, etc. works of art etc.

Survey data – government census of population, employment, household surveys, economic

data, organizational surveys of markets, sales, economic forecasts, employee attitudes. These may
be carried out on a periodic basis, with frequent regularity or continuously, or ad hoc or one-off
occasions. They may also be limited to sector, time, area.

Sources of secondary data

1. Personal sources: autobiography, life history, diaries, letters, memoirs

2. Public source:
A. published source – books, journals, reports, newspapers etc.
B. Unpublished source

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