BMC Civil Booster New

ESE-CIVIL ENGINEERING.
PAPER-1 CUT OFF

Year UR OBC SC ST OH HH EWS
2011 125 121 107 107
2012 149 146 124 105 87 87
2013 165 153 110 102 113 101
2014 202 186 156 100 90 101
2015 262 228 180 187 91 114
2016 229 214 187 183 83 76
2017 202 177 148 151 102 68
2018 207 194 169 188 114 87
2019 188 185 143 159 88 52
2020 238 238 202 227 160 62 238
2021 249 243 196 213 159 59 246
2022 233 233 197 198 127 77 233
ESE-CIVIL ENGG. PAPERS MAINS CUT OFF
2011 283 239 224 221 125 159
2012 342 296 280 255 126 126
2013 352 301 267 252 159
2014 391 373 315 293 158 158
2015 516 470 376 411 197 225
2016 464 418 387 395 223 143
2017 520 459 415 439 315 145
2018 546 502 467 513 308 161
2019 541 500 453 482 252 145
2020 651 576 486 575 365 180 600
2021 617 582 484 519 264 156 581
2022 551 525 474 476 345 263 534
ESE-CIVIL ENGG. PAPER FINAL CUT OFF

2011 451 427 369 387 216 251
2012 512 484 422 422 274 393
2013 500 475 412 419 299
2014 572 540 467 453 329 263
2015 674 630 539 552 380 323
2016 623 588 538 539 414 217
2017 691 650 564 578 437 311
2018 710 679 609 671 476 423
2019 702 668 596 640 466 241
2020 807 762 688 725 567 371 759
2021 804 762 642 667 553 272 772
2022 756 729 646 698 506 519 711
A
SSC JE PAPER 1 CUT OFF (OUT OF 200)
2012 62.25 52.5 47.75 43.5 30 30
2013 78 70.5 66.25 63.5 60 40
2014 93.75 82 75.75 70 69 40
2015 103.75 91.25 88 87.75 78 30
2016 100 92.5 84.5 58.5 72.5 40
2017 117 110.75 101.75 105 91.5 61.75
2018 127.4 122.91 107.61 107.01 97.45 61.61 118.99
2019 123.52 115.93 101.70 102.61 92.24 55.73 112.28
2020 120.02 114.21 99.15 99.15 78.83 48.86 108.14
2022 110.57 107.99 86.36 86.32 80.28 40 89.08
SSC JE PAPER 2 CUT OFF

2012 84 54 62 40 40 45
2013 83 69 62 56 59 32
2014 136 100 80 79 79 30
2015 131 62 50 50 50 40
2016 220.5 186 164 163.75 139.5 87.5
2017 244.75 244.75 220.75 228 231.25 152
2018 250.49 209.38 193.68 201.54 162.01 132.68
2019 315.55 265.07 235.51 243 169.02 122.79 270.44
2020 257.84 234.28 201.59 188.11 150.23 137.52 229.58
2022 323.40 310.53 290.01 296.86 244.69 186.65 314.32
SSC JE FINAL CUT OFF RANGE
Year UR OBC SC ST EWS

2012 184  276.75 190  258.5 168  238.75 144.25  237.25
2013 199.75  280.75 226  291.5 213.25  245.5 205  232.25
2014 285  353 287.75  334.5 265.25  307.75 250  392.75
2015 235.5  284.75 236.25  276.25 213.5  289.75 236.25  267.75
2016 238.25  264.75 236  252.25 205.25  225 228.25  245
2017 289.75  301.75 283.5  292.0 262.75  272.25 279.0  291.0
2018 295  275 280  250 270  235 270  245 295  265
2019 362.02  319.14 349.50  305.23 320.17  272.13 318.56  267.61 348.99  304.64
2020 306.76  264.13 280.83  261.3 258.75  227.34 248.38  216.32 297.14  252.26
2022 347.37  323.40 345.43  310.53 322.01  290.01 328.88  296.86 339.41  314.32
B
GATE-CIVIL ENGG. CUT OFF
Year UR OBC SC / ST
2011 25 22.5 16.67
2012 33.03 29.73 22.02
2013 27.13 24.42 18.09
2014 26.57 23.91 17.71
2015 27.52 24.77 18.34
2016 25 22.5 16.6
2017 28.7 25.8 19.1
2018 26.9 24.2 17.9
2019 28.2 25.4 18.8
2020 32.9 29.6 21.9
2021 29.20 26.20 19.4
2022 30.4 27.3 20.2
2023 26.6 23.9 17.7
C
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Building Material Construction 1
Important Indian
Standard Codes 1
456 Plain and reinforced concrete
269 Specification of OPC 33 grade
8041 Rapid hardening Portland cement
8042 White Portland cement
8043 Hydrophobic Portland cement
IS:6452 High Alumina cement
IS:1489 Part-I - 2015 Portland Pozzolana cement (fly ash based)
IS:1489 Part-II - 2015 Portland Pozzolana cement (Calcined clay based)
383 : 2016 Coarse & fine aggregates for concrete
516 Strength of concrete tests
650 Specification for standard sand (Ennore) for testing
1642 : 2013 Fire safety of buildings( general ) : Details of construction
2386 Test for Aggregate (1–8 Parts)
2430 Sampling of aggregate for concrete
5816 Splitting tensile strength of concrete
6461 Glossary of terms related to cement concrete (Part 1–12)
7320 Specification of concrete slump test apparatus
10262 Guidelines for concrete mixed design
13311 Part –1 Ultrasonic pulse velocity test Non-Destructive
Part – 2 Rebound hammer testing of concrete
875 Design loads (other than earthquakes) for building & structures
Part I : Dead load. Part II: Live load
Part III (2015) : Wind load, Part IV : Snow load
Part V : Special loads & load combinations
1893 Earthquake resistant design for structures
Note: The new code for all OPC 33, 43 & 53 grade is IS 269:2015
2 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)
Cement 2
 Cement is a material which has cohesive & adhesive properties in the
presence of water.
 Cement was invented by Joseph Aspdin of UK in 1824 & its colour
resembles to stone found in Portland (England). So, it is called Portland
cement.
 John Smeaton is considered as the father of civil engineering.
Basic - Cement has approximately 40 % voids.
Standard density = 1440 kg/m3
Weight of 1 bag of cement = 50 kg
50
 Volume = = 0.0347 m3 = 34.7 litre
1440
The tolerance in measurement of cement, is  2%
Material Unit weight
Brick Masonry 19 – 20 kN/m3
Plain cement concrete 2400 kg/m3
Reinforced cement concrete 2500 kg/m3
Cement mortar 20–21 kN/m3
Steel 7850 kg/m3
Cement 1440 kg/m3
Types of cement
Hydraulic cement Non-hydraulic cement
It sets & hardens quickly in It obtained from calcination

presence of water & of gypsum or limestone
results in water-resistant because their products of
product which is stable hydration are not water resistant
Ex:- Portland cement Ex:- Plaster of Paris
Raw materials in cement manufacture
Argillaceous Calcareous
Blast Furnace slag Lime stone, Marl
Slate Cement Rock,
Shale and Clay Chalk
Chemical Composition of Raw materials
Oxide Composition Avg. Function

(%)
Lime, (CaO) 60–65 62 Control soundness & strength. Deficiency
reduces strength & setting action
Silica, (SiO2) 17–25 22 Excess of it causes slow setting
Alumina, (Al2O3) 3–8 6 Responsible for quick setting, excess of
it lowers strength (No contribution in
strength)
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5–6 3 Gives colour & helps in fusion of
different ingredients of cement
Magnesia, (MgO) 0.1 –4 2 Give colour & hardness
Soda & Potash (Na2O 0.5–1.3 1 If in excess causes efflorescence &
& K2O) cracking
Sulphur trioxide SO3 1–3 1.5 Makes cement sound
CIVIL Ki Goli
Silica Iron oxide
Loss me h A I M S
Sulphur Trioxide
Lime Alumina Magnesia
Cement Storage
 Floor area occupied by a cement bag in warehouse is 0.3 m2 & Height is
0.18 m.
 The length of one bag of cement is 0.70m & width is 0.42m.
 Cement must be kept above from the ground level about 45 cm (but on
site it is 15 cm).
 The distance of cement bags from the wall should be 60 cm
 As per IS 4082 : 1996, the stacking & storage of cement shall be done
as follows:
 Cement shall be stored at the worksite in building or a shed which is dry,
leakproof & moisture proof as possible.
 Cement bags shall be staked off the floor in godown on the wooden piles
in such a way as to keep about 150 mm to 200 mm clear above the floor.
 Do not store cement in open. The storage in the open should be limited to
the minimum possible time ( about 48 hours).
 The height of stack shall not be more than 10 bags to prevent the possibility
of lumping up under pressure.
 The width of stack shall not be more than 4 bags length or 3 meters.
 In stacks more than 8 bags high, the cement bags shall be arranged
alternately lengthwise & crosswise in such a way to tie the stack together
& minimize the danger of toppling over.
 There should be minimum no. of windows in the storage building.
 Cement bags should be stacked in manner to facilitate their removal &
use in order in which they are received, a label showing date of receipt
of cement shall be put on each stack to know the age of cement.
Period of Storage % Strength at 28 days cement
Fresh 100
3 Month 80
6 Month 70
12 Month 60
24 Month 50
Bogue’s Compound
When these raw materials are put in kiln. Then it fuses & following four
major Compounds are formed:-
Principal Mineral Compound Formula Avg. Symbol Function

Tri calcium Silicate 3CaO.SiO2 C3S 40% 7-day strength & Hardness, best
(Alite) cementing material (Resistance to
freezing, thawing)
Dicalcium silicate (Belite) 2CaO.SiO2 C2S 32% Ultimate strength (1 year
strength)
(Resistance to chemical attack)
Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 C3 A 10% Flash–set, initial setting time
(Celite)
Tetra calcium Alumina 4CaO.Al2O3. C4AF 8% Poorest cementing value
Ferrite (Felite) Fe2O3
Exam Point:- Aluminium Sulphate can be used for quick setting of cement.
CIVIL Ki GOLI
Belite Felite
A B C fraud Aadmi h
Alite Celite
Exam Point:- It is found that OPC achieves 70% of its final strength in
28 days & about 90% in one year but for design purpose we take 28 days
strength as 100%.
 Flash set is the stiffening of cement paste without strength development
with heat evolution (called premature hardening). It is cause by (C3A),
high Alkali etc.
 Tri calcium Aluminate (C3A) reacts immediately with water & is
responsible for flash set.
 Gypsum is added to cement to reduce flash setting.
 After flash set, mixing is not allowed because no gain in strength
development after mixing.
 Gypsum retards setting of cement & delay the setting time.
 Gypsum is usually mixed with clinker at the time of final grinding
 Excess gypsum makes cement unsound. So Gypsum added to clinker
should not be greater than 2.5-3%
False set
 Rapid stiffening/Hardening (with no appreciable evolution of heat) in
freshly mixed P.C. paste, mortar or concrete.
Water Requirement for hydration
Hydration of cement is exothermic reaction.
Bound water = 23% by weight of cement.
Gel water = 15% by weight of cement
Total minimum = 38% by weight of cement.
 Rate of hydration C4 AF > C3 A > C3S > C2S
 Rate of Heat evolution C3A > C3S > C4AF > C2S
 Normal range for amount of water use to mix each 50 kg bag of cement
is in the range 20-30 liters. (For OPC it is 27 litre/bag & for PPC it is 25
litre/bag at W/C 0.45).
 The rate of hydration is faster in finer cement due to high surface area.
 The capillary pores in Hydrated cement paste are not inter-connected
but contains some quantity of gel water.
Feed inlet
To air separator
Tube mill
Outer casing
Curved steel
plate
Sieve
Hardened
steel balls
Outer funnel
Ball Mill
Property Dry Process Wet Process

Temperature range 1400-1500ºC 1500-1600ºC
Gypsum amount 2-3% 3%
Economically (in fuel) More Less
Material Dry state Slurry state
Special point: Nowdays we use dry process.
Types of Cement
1. Portland cement: Classified on the basis of manufacturing as 33
grade, 43 grade & 53 grade.
OPC : - It has 63% Lime, 22% Silica and 15% Other Materials.
(i) OPC-33 (IS : 269-2015), (ii) OPC-43 (IS : 8112-1989)
(iii) OPC-53 (IS : 12269-1987)
(IST) – 30 minute & (FST) – 600 minute
 The expansion of Portland Cement is caused by excessive amounts
of free lime (CaO) or magnesia (MgO).

2.Rapid hardening cement (IS:8041): More C3S & less C2S as compared
to OPC. It is 10% more costly as compared to OPC.
 Not-used in mass concrete & it produce Large Shrinkage
 RHC attains same strength in 1 day which an OPC attains in 3
days with same w/c. But its ultimate strength is same as normal
setting cement.
 It is suitable for repair of roads, bridges etc.
3. Extra Rapid hardening cement: Rapid hardening cement + 2%
CaCl2 as accelerator.
 Especially used in cold weather but also give Excessive Shrinkages
4. High alumina cement (IS:6452 - 1989): Bauxite (40%), Lime stone
(40%),Iron Oxide (15%)& strength (N/mm2)- 1 Day (35-40), 3 Day
(50) . IST – Min. 30 minute & FST – Max. 10 hour.
 It is used for refractory concrete, industries & used widely in Pre-
casting.
 Particularly suitable to sea & under-water work
 Very resistance to chemical attack, Expansion  5 mm
5. Portland Slag cement: Mixture of Portland cement, Granulated blast
furnace slag & gypsum. It requires more time for curing & shuttering.
 High Sulphate resistance & it is Used in mass concreting
6. Super Sulphated Portland cement : Mixture of 80–85% Granulated
slag , 10– 15% calcium sulphate & 5% Portland cement clinker.
 It is resistant to chemical attacks particularly to sulphate & highly
resistant to sea water. Use for lining of canal and marine work.
 It should not be used with any admixture
7. Low heat Portland cement: Low C3S & C3A and more contents of
C2S .It is use in mass concrete work & widely use in retaining wall,
abutment, dam.
 Rate of development of strength is low but ultimate strength is same
8. Portland Pozzolana cement (IS:1489 Part-I) : OPC + 10– 30% of
fly ash by mass of PPC. It is use in marine work.
 Free lime is removed. Hence, resistant to chemical attack increases
 Pozzolana increase impermeability & water retaining capacity of
concrete. It is resistance to sulphate attack.
 Pozzolana has no cementing property in itself but when it combines
with lime, it produces a stable lime pozzolana compound which has
cementitious property.
 The addition of pozzolanas to concrete results in.

(a) Improvement in durability by reducing permeability
(b) Increase in workability of concrete.
(c) Reduction in shrinkage. (But in cement, it increases)
(d) Reduction in segregation & bleeding of concrete.
 The optimum amount of Pozzolana, as replacement for cement,
may normally range between (10-30)% & may be as low as (4-
6) % for Natural Pozzolanas.
Fly Ash
 It is residue from the combustion of pulverized coal collected by
Mechanical or electrostatic separaters from the flue gases or power
plants. Fly ash particles are generally spherical in shape and having range
0.5 - 300 m . It consists SiO2 (30 - 60)%, Al2O3 (15 - 30)% & CaO.
 It is about 80% of total ash produced.
 It decrease segregation, bleeding & permeability of concrete.
 It also lowers the early strength of concrete mixture
Special Point:
 Blast furnace slag is a by product obtained while smelting Iron - ore in
Blast furnace.
9. Quick setting cement: Fine grinded OPC with reduced Gypsum
content & a small amount of aluminium sulphate.
 IST = 5 minutes & FST = 30 minutes. It set quickly but not harden.
 It is used in under water concreting.
10. Air Entraining cement: OPC + Vinsol resin or vegetable fats of oils
or fatty acids.
 Small amount (0.1%) by weight of an air entraining agent.
11. White and Coloured Portland cement (IS: 8042) : From Pure
white chalk, china clay & Iron Oxide should not be more than 1%.
 These are used for making Terrazzo flooring, ornamental works &
casting stones, Monuments buildings.
 It is also called Rainbow/ snowcem/ colocrete cement.
 Hunter scale is use for checking the whiteness of cements
 Whiteness should not be less than 70% when use ISI scale.
 5–10% Colouring pigment before grinding for colour cement.
12. Water Repellent or Hydrophobic cement: OPC + fractions of
oleic acid, Stearic acid or pentachlorophenol.
 Suitable for basement & making water tight structures.

Minimum Specified Strength in N/mm2
Type/days 1 day 3days 7 days 28 days
OPC (33 grade) – 16.0 22.0 33.0
Portland Pozzolana – 16.0 22.0 33.0
Low heat Portland – 10.0 16.0 35.0
Testing of cement: It should be taken from 12 different bags or from
12 points from heap .Weight of sample collected should be atleast 5 kg.
Following are field & laboratory tests -
(a) Field test - (i) It should be free from lumps & greyish in colour.
(ii) If hand is inserted in cement, it should feel cool, not warm.
(iii) The thin paste of cement feels sticked between fingers.
(iv) If small quantity of cement thrown in water float initially, then sinks.
(b) Laboratory test - (i) Physical tests - Fineness, Consistency, IST &
FST, Soundness, Specific gravity, Heat of hydration & Strength determination.
(ii) Chemical tests - Total loss on ignition < 5%, wt. of insoluble residue <
5% (as per 2015 amendment) Weight of magnesia < 6%, Weight of chloride < 0.1 %.
1. Fineness Tests: It the measure the mean size of grain in cement.
 With increase in fineness, the early development of strength is enhanced
(it leads to higher shrinkage) but the ultimate strength is not affected.
 Setting time decrease with increase in the fineness.
 Fineness can be measured by following methods -
(a) Sieve method - It measures grain size using 100gm cement & 90
micron ( 9 no.) sieve.
(b) Wanger turbidimeter - It measures specific surface area.
(c) Air permeability method - It also measures specific surface area. In
it, Nurse & Blaine’s apparatus is used. Flow meter for quantity of air
passing and manometer for air pressure are used.
Type of Cement Weight % of residue Min. Specific Surface (m2/kg)
Ordinary portland cement 10 225
Portland pozzolana cement 5 300
Rapid hardning cement 5 325
2. Consistency Test: It is the Amount of water used to make paste of

normal consistency. It is about 30% generally. It is the percentage of water
required for the cement paste, the viscosity of which will be such that Vicat’s
plunger penetrates upto 5 to 7 mm from bottom (33 to 35 mm from top) of
the Vicat’s mould.
Diameter length & shape of Vicat apparatus for different test:
S. Types of test Diameter or size Sha pe

No.
1. Initial setting time 1mm of square needle Square needle

or 1.13 mm circular
2. Final setting time 5 mm Annular ring
3. Consistency 10 mm Solid circular

Length of above apparatus lie in the range 40 to 50 mm.
1 mm sq
50
Air
vent 6.4
0.3
5
10 
Plunger Enlarged view of needle
3. Initial and Final Setting time

Initial Setting Time Final Setting Time
 It is possible to remix cement paste  Annular collar replaces square needle
during this period  It is the time elapsed between moments
 300 gm cement + 0.85 P of water water is added and paste completely loose
 1 mm2 square needle penetrates by 33–35 its plasticity.
mm from top.  Needle makes an impression but collar
 IST for OPC, RHC is 30 minute, fails to do so.
for low Heat Cement - 1 hour,  FST for OPC, RHC, LHC – 10 Hour
for High Alumina Cement – (3.5) hour for High Alumina Cement – (5) Hour
4. Soundness Test: To detect change in volume after setting
Le-Chatelier method Auto clave test
Measure unsoundness (free lime only) Senstive to both lime & magnesia
100gm of cement  0.78P water internal mould dimension (25×25×282) mm
Result is given in "mm" Result is given % (< 0.8%)
The maximum expansion limit for OPC, rapid hardening, low heat, portland,
masonry cement is 10 mm & for super sulphated, high alumina cement is 5
mm.
Test performed Amount of water required

Initial & final setting time test 0.85P
Soundness test 0.78P
Compressive strength test P/4 + 3
Tensile strength test P/5 +2.5
5. Strength determination
Compressive strength Tensile strength
Cube test (size 7.06cm) Briquette test (6.45 cm2 ), 6 no.
Cement (200 gm) + Ennore T.S = (10 – 15)% of compressive strength
sand (600 gm), ratio of 1 : 3 Generally used for RHC
Water = P
4 +3% Cement : sand = 1 : 3
Temperature 27 ± 2ºC P
Water = 5 + 2.5 %
Atleast 3 cube for testing 2
2 Rate of loading:- (1.2 - 2.4)N/mm /min
Rate of loading:- 35 N/mm /min
Special Point:- The size of concrete cube is 150 × 150 × 150 mm.
6. Heat of hydration: Measured by Calorimeter.
7. Specific Gravity Test: Measured by Le-chatelier’s flask.
Specific gravity of OPC = 3.15
Property Lime Cement
Slaking Slaking takes place on Hardening takes place

adding water on adding water
Colour White or greyish white Dark grey or grayish brown
Setting It sets slowly by taking It sets rapidly by reacting
CO2 from air or reacting with water
with water
Compressive Less High
strength
Cost Cheap Costly
Hardening Slow Rapid
Use Suitable for ordinary Suitable for all construction
Special Points: Blast furnace slag has approximately 45% calcium oxide
& about 35% silica.
 Fineness test give an estimate of rate of hydration
 It is experimentally that moderate rate of cooling of clinker in the ro-
tary cooler, will result in higher strength.
1200º C 
15 minutes
 500ºC 
10 minutes
 Ambient temperature.
Concrete 3
 Concrete is a mixture of binding material like as lime or cement, well
graded coarse & fine aggregate, water and some admixture. It is the
most used construction material on the planet.
   Elastic modulus of concrete:
It varies from 14× 103 N/mm2 to 40 × 103 N/mm2 & increases with
density and to some extent with age.
E c  5700 f ck N / mm 2 . , Min. grade = M15 (IS 456:1978)
E c  5000 f ck N / mm 2 . , Min. grade = M20 (IS 456:2000)
 The weight of plain cement concrete is 2400 kg/m3 & for RCC is 2500
kg/m3. The poisson’s ratio for normal concrete of strength design &
serviceability criteria is 0.15 & 0.2 respectively.
 The behaviour of cement concrete under instantous load is elastic.
 The plain cement concrete is impermeable to moisture.
Concrete classification (Based upon)
Cementing Bulk Grade of Perspective Place
material density cement specification of casting
Lime Extra light Low 1:4:8 M7.5 In Situ

concrete <500 kg/m3 strength 1:3:6 M10 concrete
<20 N/mm2 Precast
Gypsum Light 500- 1:2:4 M15
concrete Medium concrete
1800 kg/m3 1 : 1.5 : 3 M20
strength
Cement Dense weight 20-40 1:1:2 M25
concrete 1800-2500 2
N/mm
kg/m3 .
Super heavy High
weight > 2500 strength
kg/m3 > 40 N/mm2
 As per IS : 456 - 1978, The concrete mix are designed into 7 Grades.
(As per IS : 456 - 2000 The concrete mix are designed into 19 Grades).
Stages of manufacturing of concrete
1. Batching 2. Mixing
3. Transporting 4. Placing
5. Compacting 6. Finishing.
7. Curing
1. Batching: ( Batch type concrete mixer - IS : 1791 )
It refers to controlling the quantity of each material required for
making a concrete mix in each batch.
Aggregate, admixture & water measured with accuracy of ± 3% of
batch quantity & cement has  2% of batch quantity as per IS 456.
There are two types of batching :
(a) Weight Batching-
 It is recommended for all important work.
 The cement is always measured by weight ir-respective of method of
batching.
(b) Volume Batching-
 It is recommended for small works.
 The standard box (also called gauge box) is used for measurement.
 The correction of bulking of sand is applied in it.
 Bulking of sand depends on the percentage of moisture present in the
sand and it’s fineness. It is about 20 to 40% at water content of 4 to
6 %.
2. Mixing: Approximate mixing time as per IS – 456 is 2 minutes.
 Concrete mixtures are specified by volume of mixed concrete
discharged after mixing of each batch expressed in m3.
 Generally mixers are specified by two quantities, the total volume
of ingredients added & the volume of concrete produced for eg.
370/310.
 Generally 20 Revolution of concrete in mixture provides sufficient
mixing.
 10% Extra Cement is added in hand mixing.
Types of mixing- (a) Hand Mixing,
(b) Machine Mixing - (i) Batching plant - Manual, semi & fully automatic.
(ii) Mixers - Pan mixer,
 Drum mixers are classified into tilting, non-tilting & reversing mixers.
 Tilting mixers are used for large construction works.

 Non-tilting mixers are used for small works & can not be used
when aggregate size is more than 75 mm.
 Pan type mixer is mostly use in precast concrete factories.
3. Trasportation: A belt conveyer is used when the concrete is to be
transported continuously & to an inaccesible area.
 Concrete pumps is commonly used on Tunnel,bridges works etc.
 Best method for transportation of concrete is pumping
 For pumping method, the compaction factor of concrete should be
0.90 to 0.92
 Diameter of pipe for pumping method is 100 to 200 mm
 By pumping method, concrete can be transported 400 m in horizontal
& 80 m in vertical direction
4. Placing: Delayed placing of concrete results in a gain in ultimate
compressive strength provided the concrete is adequately compacted.
 As per IS : 456, Maximum permissible free fall of concrete may be
taken as 1.5 m.
 Placing of concrete under water is done by tremie pipe. (Slump-
150–200 mm)
5. Compaction: It is the process of removal of entrapped air & of
uniform placement of concrete to form a homogenous dense mass.
 The presence of even 5% & 10% voids in Hardened Concrete left
due to incomplete compaction may result in a decrease in
compressive strength by about 30% & 60% respectively.
 Surface vibrator/ Screedboard vibrators are used for Road surface,
plain concrete floors, pavement etc. It is effective only if the depth
is upto 15-20 cm.
 External (Form) Vibrator: It is used only when the section is thin &
heavily reinforced where penetration of needle vibrator is not
possible.
 Internal (Needle) vibrator: It is very effective for mass concreting.
 By using a mechanical vibrator, a concrete of about 5 cm slump
can be placed & compacted fully in a closely spaced RCC work,
while for hand compaction, much higher consistency say 12 cm
slump may be required.
6. Finishing: Levelling or smoothing of top surface of freshly placed
concrete. It is done by Screeding, Floating & Trowelling.
Screeding: The process of striking off the excess concrete to bring
the top surface upto proper grade.
Floating: It consist of removing the irregularities on the surface of

concrete & it is generally done by wooden float.
Trowelling: It is final operation of finishing & it gives a very smooth finish.
7. Curing: As per IS: 456, it is the process of preventing the loss of
moisture from the concrete while maintaining a satisfactory temperature
regime.
 The test sample should be stored in a place free from vibration, in
moist air of atleast 90% relative humidity & at a Temp. of 27º ± 2ºC
for 24 hour ± (1/2) hour from time of addition of water to dry
ingredients.
 Curing period for rapid hardening cement is 3 to 7 days, seven days
for OPC, low heat cement have most longer curing period.
 Combined water: It is chemically combined with hydration
products and it is non evaporable.
 Capillary water: It is easily evaporated. It partially occupies the
capillary pores which constitute the space in the cement paste remaining
offer accounting for the volumes of cement gel & unhydrated cement.
 Gel water: It held physically or adsorbed on the surface area of
the cement.
Method of curing Suitability
Shading of concrete work/ For large concrete
Stagnating water surfaces such as road slab.
Gunny bags For structural concrete
Sprinkling of water For vertical surfaces
Membrane curing At places of scarcity of water
Steam (accelerated) curing For precast concrete work
Special Points: Steam curing is not suitable for high alumina cement
 Membrane curing is used for hilly areas. It is done by applying
paraffin or resin-based liquids on the surface of the concrete.
 Steam curing increase ultimate strengths & reduced the shear
strength of concrete.
 The Geopolymer concrete is produced by using fly ash and alkali ac-
tivator solutions along with aggregates.
 Concrete heated by steam at 93oC either at low or high pressure.
 More rapid gain of strength can be obtained with the help of Infra-
red radiation than steam curing.
 In lime concrete, the curing should start after 24 hours of its laying
and should be continued for a minimum period of 7 days.
Maturity Concept in Concrete

 The strength of concrete not only depends upon the time, but also it
depend upon the temperature during hydration.
 It is defined as the product of time & temperature.
Maturity of Concrete = Time × Temperature = ºC Hours
 A datum temperature of (–) 11ºC is taken for maturity calculation because
hydration starts at this temperature
 A sample of concrete cured at 18ºC for 28 days is taken as fully matured
concrete.
Maturity at 28 days = 28 × 24 [18 – (–11)] = 19488ºC-hr
Yield of Concrete
If proportion of concrete is a : b :c , then produced concrete will have volume
2
of (a + b + c) , where a is volume of cement, b is volume of sand & c is
3
the volume of coarse aggregate.
Special Point :- If w, a, b. c, are absolute volumes of water, cement,
sand & coarse aggregate respectively, then w + a + b + c = 1.
Methods of Proportioning concrete mixes

1. Fuller’s maximum density method:
d
p  100
D
p = % by weight of matter finer than diameter d
D = maximum size of aggregate
2. Abram’s water-cement law: For any given conditions of the test,
the strength of the workable concrete mix is dependent only on water-
cement ratio.
 The quantity of water used in concrete is 30% of the weight of
cement + 5% of the weight of aggregate
 By the use of compaction vibrator, the quantity of water can be
reduced 20%
 According to the law, the strength of the mix increase with decrease
in water content.
 Strength of concrete increases with age in the following way.

Months Age Factor
1 1.00
3 1.10
6 1.15
12 1.20
3. Minimum Voids method: Voids in coarse aggregate should be filled
by sand & voids in sand should be filled by cement. Generally in actual
practice, quantity of sand used in the mixture is kept 10% more than
the voids in the coarse aggregate & quantity of cement is considered
15% more than the Voids in sand.
Water cement Ratio: It is the mass of ‘free water’ (excluding that
adsorbed by the aggregate) to that of cement in the mix. The ratio generally
lies between 0.35 to 0.65.
 It is mainly responsible for porosity of the hardened cement paste.
 For durable concrete W/C  0.8. If W/C > 0.6, Porosity increase &
strength decrease.
 Due to the presence of 2% oil in water, the strength of concrete is
reduced to 20% .
 Sea water in the world oceans has a salinity of approximately 3.5% or
35 parts per thousand.
 The constituents of sea water reacts chemically with constituents of
cement concrete causing damage to concrete structure.
 Sea water corrodes the reinforcement of R.C.C. Thus, affecting durability
of structure.
 Sea water due to presence of CaCl2 acceelerates the setting time of
cement.
 The sea water reduce the strength of concrete 10 to 20% .
 The seawater can not be used for pre-stressed concrete
 The strength of concrete cube made from normal water should not be
less than 90% of strength of concrete cube made from distilled water
Exposure conditions and requirements for Building Construction
works with normal aggregates of 20 mm nominal size.
Exposure Description N o mi na l Min gradeMin cement Max free
cover (mm) Content (kg/m 3 ) w/c ratio
RCC/P CC RCC/ P CC RC C/ P CC
Mild Normal 20 M20/M15 300/220 0.55/0.60
Moderate Expose to rain 30 M25/M15 300/240 0.50/0.60
Severe Immersed in sea water 45 M30/M20 320/250 0.45/0.50
Very Severe Exposed to sea spray 50 M35/M20 340/260 0.45/0.45
Exterme Tidal zone 75 M40/M25 360/280 0.40/0.40
CIVIL Ki GOLI
Mild Severe Extreme
M M S Very Entertaining
Moderate Very Severe

Strength of Concrete: It is designated in terms of numbers preceded
by the letter ‘M’ where M refer to the ‘Mix’ & number represents the
characteristic strength.
Tensile strength = 10%, of compresive strength
Bending strength = 15%, of compressive strength
Shear Stregnth = 20%, of compressive strength
Days Strength of Concrete

Probablity density
1
3  FC k
2
2
7  FC k
3
14 0.9 FC k
5%
1.65 28 FC k
fck fm  mean
characteristic strength
strength
Characteristic strength is the strength of material below which not more
than 5% of the test result are expected to fall. f m  f ck  1.65 
 Generally samples are tested for 7 days or 28 days but IS code only
suggest 28 days strength only.
 Average of 3 values is taken as compressive strength of concrete,
provided the individual variation is not more than ±15% of the average.
Following are the laboratory test for strength of concrete
(a) Compressive strength test
(b) Flexural tensile strength test
(c) Split tensile strength test
 Quality concrete methods are Inspection, Testing, Sampling.
 For ensuring quality of concrete, we use graded aggregates because if
the different size and shape of aggregate are mixed each other in
concrete, the bonding is become strong.
1. Compressive strength test:

 Size of coarse aggregate upto 38 mm
 Size of concrete cube – 150 × 150 ×150 mm & Size of cylinder – 150
mm dia, 300 mm height
 Cube mould filled in 3 layers, tempered (35 times/layer for 15 cm cube & 25 times/
layer for the 10 cm cube) with tamping rod of 16 mm dia & 600 mm length.
 Rate of loading in compression testing machine = 14 N/mm 2/ minute.
 Stored at temp of 27 ± 2ºC at 90% humidity for 24 ± 1/2 hour.
 Then immersed in water for 7 days or 28 days.
Cube strength = 1.25 × Cylinder strength
(Important facts)
Volume of concrete No. of sample

1-5 1
6 - 15 2
16 - 30 3
31 - 50 4
> 50 (4+1)No. for each
50 m3
(a) Flexural tensile strength: Tensile strength of concrete in flexure
is called flexural strength.
 IS : 516-1959, Specifies two point loading.
 Flexural strength is used to determine the onset of cracking or
the loading at which cracking starts in a structure.
(b) Splitting tensile strength: It is measured by testing cylinders under
diametrical compression.
Because due to difficulty in applying uniaxial tension to a concrete
specimen & hence the tensile strength is determined by indirect
method (by split tensile strength test).
crack
D
concrete cylinder
P 150mm(dia)×300mm length
2P
Splitting tensile strength (fct) =
DL
Special Point:- Since concrete does not take any tensile strength, it is
taken as zero. But, IS code recommends the flexure tensile strength to be
calculated using fcr = 0.7 f ck N/mm2
(c) Direct tensile strength: It is measured by testing rectangular speci-

mens under direct tension.
 In the absence of test results, the code recommends to use an
estimate of the flexural tensile strength from the compressive
strength by the following equation–
fcr = 0.7 f ck
where,
f ck = Characteristic compressive strength of cubes in N/mm2.
fcr = Flexural tensile strength is N/mm2
Special Points: fcr = 0.7 f ck , fct = 0.66 fcr
Bending strength = 0.45 fck
& Direct tensile strength = [0.5 – 0.625]fcr.
where, fcr = Flexural tensile strength
f ct = Splitting tensile strength.
2P
fcr = 0.7 fck ,fct = 0.66fcr =
π DL
(Flexure > Splitting > Direct Tensile strength)
Factors affecting Strength of Concrete
1. Size of specimen: If size decreases then strength increases
2. Age of cement: Strength reduces as it absorbs moisture from
atmosphere.
S.No. Age of testing Compressive strength
1 1 month 1 × Strength at 28 days
2 2 month 1.10 × Strength at 28 days
5 12 month 1.55× Strength at 28 days
3. Moisture in specimen: It reduces the strength.

Strength of dry sample = (1.1 to 1.2) × strength of saturated sample.
4. Rate of loading: Strength increases with increase in rate of loading.
5. Cement aggregate ratio: If cement is increases, then ultimate
strength will increase.
6. Size of aggregate: Larger aggregate size leads to lower strength.
7. Type of aggregate: Angular aggregates provide maximum void but
they provide very good bond & are suitable for high strength concrete.
8. Air Voids: These are formed by evaporation of water used in making
concrete or by entrapped air. They decrease the strength considerably.
9. Degree of compaction: 5% air Void decreases strength by 30%
where as 10% air Void decreases strength by 60%.
Workability: Property of concrete which determines the amount of useful
internal work necessary to produce full compaction.
 Slump test used for In-situ determination of workability.
Special Point: Consistency indicates fluidity or mobility. Concrete with
high consistency may not be workable for a particular job & concrete
having same consistency may vary in workability.
Factors affecting workability

Factor Effect on Workability
Water content As water content (Direct relationship) increases, fluidity of mix
increases, hence workability increases
Aggregate size  Higher the aggregate size,
higher will be the workability
 Big size aggregate, surface area to be wetted is less,
paste required for lubricating the surface will be less.
Shape of aggregate  Angular & flaky aggregate have large surface
area, so they are less workable.
 Rounded cubical shape aggregates have less surface
area. Therefore, less amount of paste is required for lubrication.
Hence they are more workable.
Aggregate/cement  Higher the ratio, leaner will be the concrete.
 Lean concrete means concrete having less paste
available for lubrication of per unit surface area of aggregate.
Surface texture Smoother the surface, higher will be the workability
Grading of aggregates  Well graded aggregates are more workable
 Such type of mix will have least voids. So excess cement paste
will be available as lubricants.
Types of Slump: True slump, Shear slump and Collapse slump

Adjustment in various igredients of concrete, if desired slump is not obtained

- Water-cement ratio - 0.01 , Water -1%, Cementious material - 1%,
Aggregate - 2%.
Measurement of workability
1. Slump test:
 Dimensions of mould (frustum of a cone )
Top diameter = 100mm
Height = 300 mm
Bottom diameter = 200 mm
 As per IS 1199 (Part 2- 2018), three layers, 25 strokes/layer
 Tamping rod: diameter 16 mm, length 600 mm
Special Point: Slump test is performed for maximum size of aggregate
as 38 mm only, if aggregate size > 38 mm, then wet sieving is done through
38 mm sieve.
10 Dia
10
2.5
1.3
0.2
Thick
30
At least
1.6 thick
0.2 Thick
0.6 20 Dia
All dimensions are in cm in above diagram.

Recommended slumps of concrete
No. Type of concrete Slump (mm)

1. Concrete for road construction 20 to 40
2. Beams & slabs 50 to 100
3. Mass concrete,Dam,Bridge,Retaining wall 25 to 50
4. Normal RCC work,Column,Thin wall 80 to 150
5. Concrete to be vibrated 10 to 25
6. Impermeable work 75 to 120
2. Compacting factor test: Degree of workability is measured in terms

of internal energy required to compact the concrete thoroughly.
 Compacting factor test is useful for concrete mixes of medium &
low workabilities.
Mass of Partially Compacted Concrete
C.F. =
Mass of fully Compacted Concrete
CF = 0.85 low workability
CF = 0.92 Medium workability
CF = 0.95 High workability
Hopper clamp
A
Clamp
Conical
hopper B
Cylinder
C
As per CPWD specifications for concrete work:

 Concreting heavily reinforced sections with vibration - slump 25-75 mm
for 20 mm aggregate.
 Concreting lightly reinforced sections with vibration-slump up to 25 mm.
Values of workability for different placing conditions
D egreeof Slum p C om pacting V ee  B ee

C onsistency U ses
W orkab ility (m m ) Factor T im e (Sec.)
E xtrem ely Low M oist Earth  0.65  0.70  20 Precast Paving Slabs
B linding concrete, Shallow S ection s,
V ery Low V ery D ry See 7.1.1 0.75  0.80 1 0  20 Pavem ents usin g pavers, R oad
(Pow er V ibrator)
M ass concrete, Lightly R einforced
Sections in slabs, beam , w alls, colum ns,
Lo w D ry 25  75 08.0.8 5 5  10
Floors, H and Placed P avem ents, canal
lining strip footing
H eavily R einforced Sections in
M edi um Plastic 50  100 0.85  0.92 25
Slabs, beam s, w alls, C olum ns
M edium Plastic 75  100 0.85  0.92 25 Slipform , w ork, Pum p ed concrete
H ig h S em i  Fluid 100  150 0.92  above  T rench fill, In-S itu Piling
V ery h igh Fluid See 7.1.2   T rem ie C oncrete
3.Vee Bee consistometer: It determines the time required for transforming,

by vibration, a concrete specimen in the shape of a conical frustum
into a cylinder.
 It is suitable for concrete having slump less than 50 mm.
 Consistency of the concrete is expressed in VB degree which is
equal to the recorded time in seconds.
 It is a good laboratory method, particularly for very dry mixes.
10
cm
30 cm
20 cm
260 mm
4. Flow table test: It is the laboratory test which gives an indication of

the quality of concrete wrt consistency, cohesiveness & the proneness
to segregation.In it, pour the freshly mixed concrete in the mould
comprising 2 layers; each layer should be tamped with tamping rod for
25times.The flow table is raised at the height of 12.5mm & dropped.
The same is repeated for 15 times in 15secs.
Spread diameter (in cm)  25

Flow % = 100 Range = 0 to 150
25
Special Points: order of suitability of test from low workability to high
workability - Vee bee consistometer < compacting factor test < slump
test < flow table test
Kelly ball test is a field method & give more accurate and quicker result
as compared to slump test.
Mix- Design:
When the proportions of cement, aggregate & water are adopted based
on arbitrary standards, the concrete produced is termed as Nominal Mix
Concrete. It may be adopted for concrete of M20 or lower grade.
When the proportions of the constituents of concrete is accompanied by
use of certain established relationships, the produced concrete is termed as
Design Mix Concrete.
Steps in mix-design (IS: 10262 - 1982 Concrete mix design)
(i) Find target mean strength (fm) f m  f ck  1.65 
(ii) Get water cement ratio based on 28-day strength of cement
Grade of concrete Assumed 
M10 - M15 3.5
M20 - M25 4.0
M30 - M60 5.0
M65 - M80 6.0
(iii) Get water content based on workablity requirement.
(iv) Get cement required from (ii) & (iii)
(v) Calculate mass of fine Mfa & coarse aggregate Mca based on absolute
volume principle
M c M fa M ca
   Vw  Vv  1
c  fa ca
(vi) Determine weight of ingredients per batch, based on capacity of
concrete mixer.
Special point: The maximum permissible size of aggregate for various
works – RCC member (20 mm), cement concrete floor (10 mm), for
massive work like as dams, retaining walls etc. (40 mm).
Permissible limit for solids as per IS 456 : 2000
Sr. No. Tested as per Permisible

1. Organic IS 3025 (Part 18) 200 ppm
2. Suspended matter IS 3025 (Part 17) 2000 ppm
3. Sulphates (as SO3) IS 3025 (Part 24) 400 ppm
4. Chlorides IS 3025 (Part 32) 2000 ppm (for
plain concrete)
500 ppm (for
reinforced
concrete)
5. Inorganic IS 3025 (Part 18) 3000 ppm
Special Point: The pH value of water must not be less than 6.
Defects in concrete
1. Crazing: It is the network of fine random cracks on the surface of
concrete of mortar caused by shrinkage of surface layer.
2. Cracks: Acceptable limits for the surface width of cracks is 0.1 to
0.3 mm
3. Efflorescence: Fluffy white patches on the surface of concrete
members.Different efflorescence deposits are sulphates of calcium.
 Efflorescence is caused by salty water generally.
Following are the types of efflorescence (in Brick) -
(a) Nil - When there is not perceptible deposit of efflorescence.
(b) Slight - Not more than 10 % area of brick covered with a thin deposit of
salt.
(c) Moderate - When covering upto 50 % area of brick.
(d) Heavy - When covering 50 % or more but unaccompanied by powdering
or flacking of the brick surface.
(e) Serious - When there is a heavy deposit of salts accompanied by
powdering or flaking of the exposed surfaces.
Segregation
 The separation of the constituent material of concrete (cement, sand &
aggregate) because they have different specific gravity.
 It is of three types
– Water separating out from rest of the material (Bleeding).
– Coarser aggregate separating out & setting down.
– Paste separating away from coarse aggregae.
 Segregation is seen in badly proportioned mixes or when concrete is
dropped from height more than 1.5m (IS : 456).

Bleeding : In this, water from concrete comes out to the surface of
concrete because of low specific gravity.
 Rich mixes are less prone to bleeding than lean mixes.
 It leads to formation of pores insides & hence, cause decrease in strength.
 It can be reduce by use of uniformly graded aggregate, entraining agent,
finer cement.
 It is seen in highly wet concrete or badly proportional mixes.
 When water comes up with cement particles to the surface it is called
‘Laitance’.
Special Point: Alkali cause alkali aggregate reaction which increase
volume of concrete and cause spalling.
Creep (plastic or yield): Continued deformation with time under a
constant load. In general creep increases when aggregate content & relative
humidity is low or when cement content, Air entrainment, water cement
ratio & temperature are high.
Non-Destructive Testing
1. On Hardened concrete
(a) Maturity Test (b) Pull-out Test (c) Penetration Test
(d) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
(e) Rebound Hammer Test (Schmidt Hammer Test)
 Rebound Hammer test provides useful information for surface layer upto
30 mm depth and is suitable for concrete having compressive strength
20-60 MPa.
Admixture
Chemical Admixture Mineral Admixture

(a) Plasticizers (a) Pozzolanas
(b) Retarders (b) Silica fume
(c) Air entrainers (c) Rice husk
(d) Accelerators (d) Blast furnace slag
(e) Super plasticizer
 IS:9103 describes about admixture
 Mineral admixture are added after grinding of cement clinker. They
replace the cement by 10-70% by mass.
 Chemical admixture are added at the time of mixing of concrete.
 Sugar an admixture (retarding agents) used for delaying the setting time
of concrete without detrimental effect on the ultimate strength.
0.05% by weight of cement No effect
0.15% by weight of cement Reduces early strength & increases 28
day strength
0.2% by weight of cement Final set may not take place even for
72 hours.
Oil contamination
 Mineral oils not mixed with animal or vegetable oils in mixing water have
no adverse effects on the strength of concrete.
 Vegetable & animal oils have bad effect on strength of concrete at later
stages.
 Skimmed milk powder (casein) has a retarding effect mainly due to sugar
content.
 Mineral oils is up to 2% by weight of cement significant increase in
strength.
Admixture Us e Example Re ma rk
Plastisizer Reduce water Dose 0.1 - 0.4% (but < 1%)
content (improve  Hydroxylated of weight of cement
workability for a carboxylic acid
given w/c)  Polyglycol esters
Air entrainers Improved  Wood resin Dose 0.005%-1% of wt. of
resistance to  Vegetable oil cement. Reduce segregation,
damage from  Tallous, soap bleeding, density & strength
freezing &  Stearic acid increase impermeability of
thawing  Aluminium powder concrete
Accelerators Rapid setting &  Calcium chloride Dose 0.1-0.2% by
high early strength  Silicate weight of cement.
Super plastisizers Workability greatly  Sulphonated Finer the cement, higher will
enhanced melamine be dose
formaldehyde Reduced water
 Modified requirement by 20-40%
lignosulphonate Dose < 2%
Retarders Longer setting time  Calcium sulphate Dose < 0.5 % by weight
& slower initial  Sugar cellulose of cement. Delay hydration
strength gain  Tartaric Acid process upto 72 hrs.
Special point : Retarders are also used for hot weathering concrete, to
prevent cold joint, for grouting deep oil wells and In ready mix concrete.
Durability of Concrete : It is defined as its ability to resist weathering

action, chemical attack, abrasion or any other process of deterioration.
 Cinder is a pyroclastic material, they are extrusive igneous rocks. It has
more shrinkage and affecting durability of concrete.
Formwork is a temporary structure
 There are two types of formwork shuttering & centering
 The type of formwork, which is in direct contact of structure is called
shuttering. It support the structure until it becomes self supporting.
 The part of formwork, which is used to support the shuttering is called
centering
 Stripping time may be reduced to 40% in the case of rapid hardening
cement
Shoring: Shoring is the construction of temporary structure to support
temporarily an unsafe structure these render lateral support to walls and are
used under the following circumstances :
(a) When wall cracks due to unequal settlement of foundation
(b) When adjacent structure is to be dismantled
(c) When a wall shows signs of bulging out
(d) When opening are to be made or enlarged in the wall
Shores may be of following type:
(a) Flying Shores: It is also called horizontal shoring. These are used to
give horizontal support to two adjacent parallel party wall which have
become unsafe due to removal or collapse of the intermediate building.
(b) Raking shores: In this method inclined members rackers are used to
give lateral support to the wall rackers should be inclined to the ground
by 45o to make them more effective
(c) Dead or vertical shores: It consist of vertical member known as
dead shores.
 It is used for supporting temporarily wall for rebuilding etc.
 The process of placing a New foundation under an existing one/
strengthening an existing foundation is called underpinning of
foundations.
 Cost of formwork/shuttering may be upto (20 – 25)% of the cost of
structure in the building work.
 Trestle scaffolding is used for painting & repair work inside the room
up to a height of 5 meters
Type of formwork Minimum period before

removing formwork
(a) Vertical formwork to columns, beams, walls 16-24 h

(b) Soffit formwork to slabs (props to be refixed 3 days
just after removal of formwork)
(c) Soffit formwork to beams (Props to be refixed 7days
just after removal of formwork)
(d) Props to slabs
(i) Spanning up to 4.5m 7 days
(ii) Spanning over 4.5m 14 days
(e) Props to beams & arches
(i) Spanning up to 6 m 14 days
(ii) Spanning over 6 m 21 days
 Above specifications are valid for OPC & where ambient temperature
do not fall below 15ºC & adequate curing is done.
 For other cements & lower temperature, the stripping time recommended
above may be suitably modified.
Cellular concrete: It is also called aerated/foamed concrete. It is pre-
pared by mixing aluminum in C.C. It is light in weight & spongy in structure
Trasparent concrete: It is also called as translucent concrete or light
transmitting concrete. It is achieved by replacing aggregate with transpar-
ent alternate material use of optical fibre & fine concrete are also used as
transparent concrete
Lean concrete: It is mix where the amount of cement is lower than the
amount of liquid present in strata
S.No Type of Construction Min. Grade

1. Lean Concrete bases M5, M 7.5
2. P.C.C. , Foundation M 15
3. RCC (general construction) M 20
4. Water tanks, dome M 30
5. In sea water M30(RCC)
M20 (PCC)
6. Post-tensioned PSC M 30
7. Pre - tensioned PSC M40
Shortcrete (Grouted) Concrete:- Also known as spray concrete because

the force of jet impacting on the surface compacts it so as to make itself
supporting. In it, mortar/concrete is pneumatically projected at high velocity
on the back-up surface. The size of aggregate used is less than 10 mm.
Ready mixed concrete: It is a concrete delivered at site in the plastic
condition & do not required any further treatment before being place in a
position in which it is to be set & harden. The first RMC plant was established
in year 1992 in Pune.RMC technology employs retarders for the purpose of
retaining the slump.
Ferrocement: It is use in thin walled structures. It has low cost.
Pumpable concrete: It is a type of concrete which can be pushed through
a pipeline for constructions. Slumps of concrete should be in the range 50–
80 mm & w/c in the range 0.5–0.65. Generally 12.5 cm diameter pipeline is
used.
Light weight concrete: It is manufactured by using air entraining agents,
light weight aggregate (Sawdust, pumice), omitting use of fines etc. Generally
it’s density 300–1850 kg/m3. It is use for heat & sound insulation.
No-Fines Concrete is a lightweight concrete made up of only coarse
aggregate, cement & water by omitting fines (sand or fine aggregates)
from normal concrete.It is useful for higher permeability.
Heavy weight concrete: It is manufactured by using special weight
aggregate (Barites or magnetite). Generally it’s density 2600–3900 kg/m3.
It is suitable for gravity dams, retaining walls & atomic power plants etc.
High-density concrete provides excellent protection from harmful ra-
diation & generated heat like as in nuclear plant. The concrete’s struc-
ture is superior and has higher durability and in relation to composite
lead or steel shields, it is cheaper also.
Vacuum concrete: Cement concrete from which entrained air and excess
water are removed with a vacuum pump, after placing it in position.
Ordinary concrete: Concrete in which no preliminary test are performed
for designing the mix.
Green concrete : It is made from wastes that are ecofriendly.
 Blast furnace slag, iron oxide & fly ash are common ingredients of
Green Concrete.
 Wastes like slag, recycled concrete, power plant wastes, mining and
quarrying wastes, red mud, burnt clay, waste glass, saw dust, etc. are used
to make green concrete.
Timber 4
 Timber applies to the trees measuring not less than 600 mm in
circumference of the trunk.
 Timbers are of three types standing timber, dead timber & converted
timber. Timber is highly anisotropic.
 The tree which is be found in living condition is known as standing timber
 The trunk of tree left after cutting all the branches is known as log
 The art of dressing of edges of timber pieces, so as to make them straight
& square with the face is called shooting
 The timber whose thickness is less than 5cm & the width exceeds 15cm,
is called a board
 Screws for wood work are specified by length
 Best period for cutting of tree is, when sap is in rest condition.
 The best season for felling of trees for timber production in hilly area is
mid summer & for plane area, its mid winter.
 Maximum deflection for timber beam: Span/360.
 Timber beam are Designed as laterally supported beam.
Types of trees
Endogenous tree Exogeneous tree

These grow inward These grow outward
Bamboo, Cane, Palm Deodar, Sal, Teak
Conifers Deciduous
(soft wood) (hard wood)
Needle shape leaves Broad shape leaves
Evergreen tree Open tree
Pine, Chir, Deodar Oak, Teak, Shishum
 For all engineering work we use exogeneous tree.
Exam point: Softwood like Deodar are harder than hardwood like papita.
Comparison of softwood and Hardwood

Property Softwood Hard-wood
Colour Lighter Darker
Growth Faster Slower
Strength Strong along grains Strong along & across grains
Density Low High
Annual rings Distinct Indistinct
Heart-wood Can not be distinguished Can be distinguished
Weight Lighter Heavier
Conversion Easy Difficult
Resinous Material Exist in pores Does not exist
Examples Chir, kali, Pine, fir, deodar Teak, Poplar, Maple, Sal & Shishum
Structure of Timber
Heart Wood
Outer Bark
Pith
Sap Wood Inner Bark
Medullary Rays Cambium Layer
Pith
Sapwood
PH SCale
CIVIL Ki GOLI Cambium layer
Heartwood
1. Pith:It is the innermost central portion consists of cellular tissues &
nourishes plant at young age.
2. Heart (True) wood: It is the Dead portion of the tree, Dark in colour,
Provides rigidity & durability
3. Sap wood: It is light in colour, shows recent growth, sap moves in
upward direction through it & lie in b/w heart wood & cambium layer.
4. Cambium layer: It is sap that has yet not converted into sap wood.
5. Inner bark: Protection of cambium from injury.
6. Outer bark (cortex): It consists of cells of wood fiber.
7. Medullary ray: It hold the annual rings of heart wood & sap wood.
Special Points: Wood added during early part is different from the wood
added during the late part. Because of this difference between the early
wood & late wood, Growth rings (Annual rings) becomes apparent &
use in age of tree.
Properties of Timber:
1. Specific gravity of wood = 1.54 & It is anisotropic elastic , shrinks
least along length & maximum along circumference
2. Tensile strength along the grains is 2–4 times stronger than compressive
strength. The stronger timber has closed grains.
3. The strength of any timber is highest in direction parallel to the grains.
4. Fibre saturation point is % moisture content at which cell walls are
saturated & cell cavity contains no water.
5. Timber has high sound conductivity (nearly 2–17 times greater than
air).
6. Weight of timber should be noted at 12% moisture content
7. Resistance of wood to cutting across the fibers (shear strength) is 3 to
4 times greater than along the fibers
8. Modulus of elasticity is generally (0.5 – 1)× 104 N/mm2 & its ratio of
longitudinal to transverse direction is 1 –2 times.
Sawing of Timber
Saw cuts
Saw cuts
Saw cuts
ORDINARY SAWING QUARTER SAWING TANGENTIAL SAWING RADIAL SAWING
Ordinary Flat/slab sawing: It is very quick & economical method. It is

widely adopted in our country.
Radial (Rift) Sawing Sawing is done parallel to the rays &
perpendicular to the rings. It will produce the strongest timber piece as in it,
medullary rays are not out as the sawing is done parallel to the rays.
Tangential SawingIn it, cutting is tangential to the annual rings & at
right angles to the meduallary rays. It is unsuitable for flooring.It give minimum
strength timber.
Quarter/Rift Sawing These wood wears better & shrink more evenly.
Defects in timber
Conversion Fungi Insects Natural forces Seasoning

1. Conversion defects
(i) Chip mark: These are the marks or signs placed by chips on finished
surface of timber.
(ii) Wane:It is the presence of original rounded surface on the
manufactured timber.
(iii) Diagonal grain: Improper sawing, Indicated by diagonal mark or
straight grained surface of timber.
(iv) Torn grain: It is the small depression on the finished surface due to
falling of tool
2. Defects due to fungi:
(i) Blue stain: Sap of wood is stained to bluish colour
(ii) Sap Stain: Fungi feeds on cell contents of sap wood, then the sap
wood looses its colour
(iii) Dry rot: It occurs due to lack of ventilation/absence of sunlight (in
basements, rooms or in damp situations like kitchen).In it, timber
reduces to powder form.
(iv) White rot: The fungi attacks on lignin of wood & wood assumes the
appearance of white mass consisting of cellulose compounds
(v) Brown rot: Fungi of certain type remove cellulose compounds from
wood & it attains brown colour.
(vi) Heart rot: In it, heart wood is exposed to atmosphere & attacked by
atmospheric agents.
(vii) Wet rot: It is the chemical decompositons of wood due to alternate
dry & wet conditions
3. Defects due to Natural forces:
(i) Burls: Also called as Excresccences, upset growth or irregular
projection in a tree due to shock or injury received in its young age
(ii) Callus: It is the soft tissue or skin which covers the wound of a tree.
(iii) Rind galls: It is the abnormal growth or curved swellings on the
body of tree.
(iv) Knots: These are the bases of branches which are broken or cut-off
from the trees. The deviation of the fibres & discontinuous of wood
is occured in it.
(v) Foxiness: Red or yellow thing or reddish brown stains around the
pith due to lack of ventilation or over maturity of tree.
(vi) Druxiness: White decayed spots concealed by healthy woods
(vii) Check : It is a longitudinal crack which is usually normal to the

annual rings. It adversely affect the durability of timber.
(viii) Shakes: These are longitudinal separations in the wood between the
annual rings. Shakes are most harmful amongest all defects.
(a) Heart Shake:- Occurs in overmatured trees. These are wider at
centre & diminish outward.
Cup shakes Ring shake Star shakes
Heart
Shake
(b) Star shake:- It is opposite to heart shake.

 It is due to frost & fierce heat of sun & in it, wood dries below
fibre saturation point
 Radial splits, wide cracks at circumference
(c) Ring shakes When cup shake cover the entire ring
(d) Radial shakes
 When tree is exposed to sun for seasoning after being fell down
(e) Cup shake :-Excessive frost action on the sap of young trees.
(ix) Upsets: Also known as rupture due to improper felling of a tree.
(x) Twisted fibres: Twisting of young trees by fast blowing winds in one
direction.
4. Defects due to seasoning:
(a) Bow (b) Cup
(c) Twist (d) Wrap.
(e) Case hardening (f) Split
(g) Honey Combing (h) Radial Shakes
(i) Collapse (j) Spring
Preservation of Timber (IS : 401)

It is used to
1. Increase the life of timber & to make the timber durable.
2. Protect the timber structures from the attack of destroying agencies.
Types of Preservatives:
(a) AsCu Treatment: It is developed by forest Research Institute,
Dehradun. This solution is odourless
Solution is made by 6 parts of powder in 100 parts of water by
weight. It gives protection against white ants.
AS2O5.2H2O CuSO4.5H2O (Na or K)2 Cr2 O7

1 Part 3 Parts 4 Parts
Mixed in powdered form
(b) Chemical Salts: These are water borne preservatives, mostly soluble
in water like copper sulphate, Sodium flouride, mercury chloride &
zinc-chloride.
(c) Oil paints: The timber is coated with 2 to 3 coats of oil paints.
They preserve timber from moisture & make it durable.
(d) Creosote oil: The application of Creosote oil on timber is called
creosoting. It is highly toxic in nature. It is obtained by distillations of
tar. It is one of the best antiseptic. It is black or brown liquid weakly
affected by water, neither volatile nor hygroscopic.
 It should not be used for interior surface of dwelling.
(e) Coal tar: Surface is coated with hot coal tar with the help of brush.
This process is called tarring. It is fire resistant.
(f) Solignum paints: It is highly toxic in nature & preserve timber
from white ants. It can be mixed with coloured pigments and applied
in hot state with a brush
Methods of Treatment (IS: 401)
1. Soaking: Timber is debarked completely & submerged in the
preservative solution for a sufficiently long period till the required
absorption is obtained.
2. Hot and cold process: It is effective in giving protection to the sap
wood. It ensure sterlization of timber against fungi & insects. Timber
is submerged in a tank containing solution of preservative which is
heated for some hours at temp of 85ºC–95ºC. Then tank is allowed to
cool down gradually but the timber is still submerged in the tank.
3. Surface Application: It is the simplest method & generally adopted
for seasoned timber. It does not give surface absorption & but it is
limited to treatment at site or for retreatment of cut surface.
4. Charring:
 It can not be used for exterior surface due to black surface.
 The surface to be charred is kept wet for about half an hour & then
burnt to a depth of 15 mm over wood fire. Due to burning, a layer
of coal is formed on the surface. This layer is neither effected by
moisture nor by fungi. But there is loss of strength of timber.
5. Diffusion process: It is use for treatment of poles, planks & plant
material. It can be done as
(i) Momentary dipping of timber in concentrated solution
(ii) Application of a preservative paste all over the surface of the
timber.
(iii) Prolonged immersion in dilute solution.
In it, the inorganic toxic elements diffuse into timber from the place of
application at high concentration to other zones through the medium of
water contained in timber.
6. Boucherie process: This treatment is carried out by attaching the
butt end of a pole to a hose pipe connected to a reservoir of the
preservative at a higher level.
Pressure meter
Hose pipe
Tank containing Log
preservative
7. Pressure or pneumatic process:It is a commercial process for

treating large quantity of timber. In it, large metallic drums are used
into which the charge of timber stacked on trolleys is taken in drum, is
then closed & the process treatment is started
Full cell process Empty cell

or bethel process process
Lawry Rueping
process process
Special Point: Effectiveness of Preservation methods: Pressure
application > Hot & Cold treatment > Dipping > Spraying > Brushing.
Fire Resistance of timber: Timber can not be made fire proof, but it
can be only made fire resistant by the following ways -
Sir Abel’s process-
In it, surface of wood is painted by weak solution of sodium silicate.
Using special chemicals-
(a) Two coats of borax or sodium arsenate having 2% strength.
(b) The antipyrines containing salts of ammonium or phosphoric or boric
acid are considered to be best.
Seasoning of Timber (IS: 1141) :
It is the process of reducing the moisture content (removal of sapwood )
of timber in order to prevent the timber. It is use for
(a) Reduce its weight & Increase strength & durability
(b) Make timber burn readily as a fuel
(c) Make it suitable for painting
(d) Reduce its tendency to split & decay & Reduce shrinkage and
warping
Following are the methods of seasoning -
(a) Natural seasoning
(b) Artificial seasoning
Natural Seasoning: It is carried out by natural air, hence even called air
seasoning & Moisture content can be brought down to 15–20%. The duration
of a timber usually requires for natural seasoning is 6 months (minimum).
Artificial Seasoning: It is adopted for faster drying. It is possible to
provide different drying conditions based on the species of timber. In it, we
can reduced moisture content as per requirement.
Required time for artificial seasoning of wood is 5 to 10 day
(a) Boiling: Timber is immersed in water & it is boiled. It affects the
elasticity & strength of wood. It is costly method
(b) Kiln Seasoning: Drying is carried out in air tight chamber or oven
(c) Electrical Seasoning: High frequency alternating current is used.
It’s most rapid but uneconmical method. It give uniform seasoning.
High quality timber and plywood is obtained from it.
(d) Chemical (Salt seasoning): Timber is immersed in solution of
suitable salt. It is taken out & seasoned in the ordinary way.
(e) Water Seasoning: The log of wood immersed in running water
with their larger ends pointing upstream Therfore sap, sugar & gum
are leached out and are replaced by water. (For 2-4 weeks).
Plywood: It has good & uniform tensile strength both along as well as
across the grains. Useful for furniture, doors, ceiling.
 They are not suitable for applications which involve direct impact.
 It has odd no of layers & specified by thickness. The minimum number
of plies in plywood is 3.
 Plywood is obtained by gluing wooden sheets at a pressure of (1.9 M Pa
or 190 N/cm2) but generally the pressure used is (1.38 Mpa or 138 N/
cm2). This variation is due to the different strength of raw material.
 It can be made from hardwood, softwood or both.
Timber Us es
Babul Agricultural Instruments
Bamboo Scaffolding
Benteak Boat Construction
Special Points: The timber having maximum resistance against white
ant is obtained from teak
 The most valuable timber may be otained from teak
 Strength order of wood product: Battens > Lamin > Plywood > Veener.
 Cellulose in wood is 60%.
 600 × 50 × 50mm is standard size of wood specimen for testing durability..
• The practical moisture content of wood is 15%.
• Wood decay at pH below 4.
• The sal is 30% heavier, 20 - 30% stronger and 50% harder than teak.
 Deodar Wood:- It’s strength & weight is 20% less than teak. It is
yellow in colour but darkens on exposure. It is easy to saw & works to a
smooth finish. It is used for making cheap & rough furniture, railway sleep-
ers.
Name Property Use

Chir  It is moderately hard Used in framing of windows, doors
 It decays easily pattern making etc.
Teak  Moderately hard
 Easily seasoned  For ship building,
& worked furniture railway
· Shrinks less carriages, mallets etc.
 Durable & fire  Limited to superior work only
resistant as it is comparatively very
 Not attacked by costly.
white ants & dry rot.
Sal  Hard & coarse  It has medicinal uses
grained  It is used in Ayurveds
 Light in colour when for thousnad of year
freshly cut to treat variety of
 Resinous& less deseases including
durable. piles, skin disorders etc.
 Not suitable for painting.
Mulberry  Brown in colour  For Sports goods
Shisham  Strong & tough  In sport goods.
 Durable &  In high class furniture
maintains its shape well.  For decorative
 Easily seasoned. works & carvings.
Ques. What is free moisture and bound moisture for a timber ?

Ans. The moisture in timber can be present either in the cell cavities or in
the cell walls. The later is called as the bound moisture & it is closely
associated with the body of timber. The former is called as free
moisture. The major part of moisture in timber is present as free
moisture.
Sr. No. Purpose Nature of tree
1 Houses Sissoo, jiyal, haritaki, teak, babul, walnut.
2 Bridge Babul, red cedar, sal, sissoo
3 Column, beam, door frame Arjun, bamboo, palm, coconut
4 Furniture Teak, sissoo, deodar, walnut
5 Railway sleepers Deodar, sundari, sal
6 Scaffolding Bamboo
Aggregates 5
Aggregates are the inert materials basically used as fillers with binding
material in the production of mortar & concrete. They give body to the
concrete & occupy 70 to 80 % of volume of concrete.
Classification of aggregates -
(a) On the basis of geological origin - Natural & artificial.
(b) On the basis of size - Coarse & fine aggregate.
(c) On the basis of shape - Rounded, Angular, Ir-regular and Flaky.
 Cyclopean aggregates have size more than 75 mm
 Broken bricks, blast furnace slag & synthetic aggregates are artificial
aggregates.
 Natural aggregates are obtained by crushing from quarries of igneous
sedimentary or metamorphic rocks. Mostly these are from igneous rocks.
 Aggregates ranging from 80 mm – 4.75 mm are called coarse aggregates
while those passing from 4.75 mm sieve are fine aggregates.
 Best quality aggregates in concrete is obtained from igneous rock.
 Standard sand for testing is obtained from ennore (Tamilnadu)
 As per IS 456 : 2000 CI 5.3.3
Maximum size of coarse aggregate  1/4th of thickness of member..
 For most work 20 mm size is suitable but, when there is no restriction of
flow of concrete into section, large size may be permitted.
 Irregular aggregates developed good bond & are suitable for making
ordinary concrete (Voids is 35%).
 Angular aggregates provide maximum void (about 40%) but they provide
very good bond & are suitable for high strength concrete.
 Rounded aggregates have minimum ratio of surface area to volume
cement paste required is minimum & produce minimum voids (32%). It
is best for workability.
 Saturated and surface dry aggregates imply that aggregates are 100%
saturated with water with no extra water on their surface.
(a) (b) (c)
Angular
Rounded Flaky
(d) (e)
Elongated
Flaky & elongated
 Elongated aggregates are those whose length is more than 1.8 times its
mean dimension.Flaky aggregates are those whose least lateral dimension
(thickness) is less than 0.6 times the mean dimension. Both makes poor concrete.
S.No. Classifiacation Examples

1. Rounded River or seashore gravels, desert
2. Angular Crushed rocks
3. Flaky Laminated rocks
4. Irregular or partly rounded Pit sands & gravel, land or dug
Grading of aggregates
Grading of aggregates is one which is made up of stones of different sizes,
ranging from small to large so as to have minimum of air voids.
Generally there are three types of aggregate grading:
Uniformly graded
aggregate
100 Well graded
aggregate
80
% finer 
60
Gap graded
40 aggregate
20
0
Particle size
Well graded aggregate:

It is characterized by S-shaped in gradation curve.
It has a gradation of particles size from the finest to the coarsest.
Poor graded
 It is characterized by small variation in size.
 It is also called uniformly graded aggregate or continuously graded
aggregate.
 It contains aggregate particles that are almost of same size. This leaves
large voids in concrete when packed.
Gap graded
 It is characterized by a gradation curve with a straight horizontal line in
between two different size.
 It consists of aggregate particles in which some intermediate particle
size is missing.
Characteristics of Aggregate
1. Strength of aggregate: Following are test for assessment of strength
( a) Aggregate crushing value
(b) Fineness value
(c) Aggregate impact value
(d) Aggregate abrasion value
 Strength order of Aggregates: Cubical > Crushed > Rounded >
flaky
2. Bulk density: It shown how densely the aggregate is packed when
filled in a standard manner. Higher the bulk density, lower is the void
content to be filled by the sand & cement.
3. Stiffness: Modulus of elasticity of concrete is approximately equal to
the weighted average of the modulus of the cement paste & aggregate.
Special Point: The greater specific surface of angular particles should
enable greater adhesive force to be developed, but the angular shape
probably caused more severe concentrations of internal stress.
4. Specific gravity: Specific gravity of most of the natural aggregates
lies between 2.6 to 2.7. Low specific gravity indicate high porosity &
hence, poor durability and low strength.
5. Shape and texture:Rounded & irregular aggregates are highly
workable but yield low strength concrete. While flaky aggregates

required more cement paste, produce maximum voids. So, not useful.
 Workability order of Aggregates: Rounded > Cubical > Crushed
> flaky
Special Points: Crushed & uncrushed aggregates generally give same
strength for the same cement content.
Shape test on aggregates are done by using length gauge and
thickness gauge.
6. Moisture content: Moisture as the percentage of the weight of the
saturated surface dry aggregate.
Total water content = Moisture content + Adsorbed water
Bulking of sand: It is the increase in the volume of given mass of sand
caused by the films of water pushing the sand particles apart is called bulking
of sand. It depends on the percentage of moisture present in the sand & it’s
fineness. It is about 20 to 40% at water content of 4 to 6 %.
40 Fine sand
30
Increased in
volume (%)
Medium sand
20
Coarse sand
10
0 5 10 15 20 Wt. of moisture
added (%)
 If sand is measured by volume & no allowance is made for bulking, then

concrete will be richer.
Final volume  initial volume

% Bulking =  100
Initial volume
Special point: In volume batching we consider bulking of sand effect.

Fineness Modulus: It is an index number which is roughly proportional
to the average size of the particles in the aggregate.
 Fineness modulus is defined as sum of cumulative percentage retained
on the sieves of the standard sizes divided by 100.
 These standard sieves are 150 m, 300 m, 600 m, 1.18 mm, 2.36 mm,
4.75 mm, 10 mm, 12.5 mm, 20 mm, 40 mm & 80 mm.
Aggregate type F.M.

Fine aggregate (sand) Fine sand 2.2-2.6
Medium sand 2.6-2.9
Coarse sand 2.9–3.2
Coarse aggregate 6.5-8.5
All in aggregate 4.7-7.0
 Fineness modulus 4 represent 4th sieve i.e. 1.18 mm is the average size
of particle.
 Higher FM aggregated result in harsh concrete & a lower FM results in
uneconmical mix.
According to fineness modulus of mix design method, the maximum quan-
tity of water added in the first batch is determined by :
W
0.3P  0.1Y  0.01Z  P
C
where P = Quantity of cement by weight

Z=Quantity of coarse aggregate by weight
Y = Quantity of fine aggregate by weight
W
= Water cement ratio
C
The proportion of fine aggregate to coarse aggregate is given by
xz
P  100
zy
where y =Fineness modulus of fine aggregate

x =Fineness modulus of coarse aggregate
z = Fineness modulus of combined aggregate
Soundness: It is the ability of aggregate to resist change in volume as a
result in change of physical conditions. The physical conditions responsible
for the unsoundness are:
(a) Alternate wetting & drying, Freezing and Thawing
(b) Thermal changes at temperature above freezing
Bricks 6
Basic Information-
 Standard size = 19 cm × 9 cm × 9 cm
 Nominal size (with mortar) = 20 cm × 10 cm ×10 cm
 Traditional bricks = 9" × 4.5" × 3" (23 cm × 11.4 cm× 7.6 cm)
 Frog (indent in the brick) = 10 cm × 4 cm × 1cm
 Frog is provided on top surface and it is useful in key joint between
mortar and brick.
 Weight of 1 m3 of brick = 1800 kg
 Avg. weight of the brick = 3 kg to 3.5 kg
 No. of bricks using 1m3 brick work = 500
 The minimum thickness of brick wall is 100mm
 The density of bricks should be 1700 to 1900 kg/m3
Comparison between Bricks and Stone
1. Brick resist more fire than stones & also resist other atomspheric
effects in a better way. Dead load of brick masonary is less.
2. It is easy to construct openings in brick masonary.
3. Brick work is cheaper, requires less skilled labour & no complicated
lifting device.
4. In brick work mortar joint are thin, hence more durable.
5. Brick work is less water tight & absorbs more moisture.
6. Stone work is stronger, gives solid appearance, attractive in texture.
In stone masonary, mortar required is more to fill the voids.
Life of stone masonary is more as compared to brick masonary.
7. Thickness of brick wall is 100 – 200 mm but stone wall has minimum
thickness of 350 mm. Stone masonary do not require external plaster,
so maintenance cost is low.
8. Stone work has higher compressive strength (adopted in piers, docks,
dams) & doesn’t requires any finishing.
Classification of bricks
Unburnt bricks Burnt bricks
Bricks are dried in sun after
moulding. These are used in temporary
or cheap structures & can not be
used at places exposed to First Second Third
heavy rains class class class
Property 1st class 2nd class 3rd class

Compressive  10.5  7.0 5.0
strength (N/mm 2 )
Water Absorption 20%, (12 -15)*% 22%, (16 - 20)*% 25%
Appearance Smooth surface, Small cracks & Soft & reddish
rectangular in shape distortions permitted. yellow in colour.
with parallel, sharp &
straight edges with
square corners.
Making process Table moulded & Ground moulded Ground moulded
burnt in kiln & burnt in kiln & burnt in clamps
Uses Pointing & Important RB work & Hidden Unimportant
work masonry work temporary structure
Speical Points:
1. Fourth class bricks: (Jhama)
 Over burnt badly distorted.
 Used as ballast in foundations & floors in lime concrete.
2. The most common colour of building bricks is red
3. Heavy duty bricks have compressive strength more than 40 N/
mm2, used in structures like as bridges, foundation of industrial buildings
etc. Water absorption is limited to 10% as per IS:2180.
4. Refractory bricks have following qualities :
 These bricks are capable of resisting very high temperature upto
1800ºC without melting or softening.
 The minimum average compressive strength of the brick should
be 3.5 N/mm2.
 The water absorption of refractory bricks varies from 4-10%.
 These bricks are whitish yellow or light brown in colour.
 These bricks are used in furnace lining, hollow tiles & crucibles
etc.
5. The masonry work over the foundation lime concrete should be started
only after 7 days.
In cement concrete, the masonry work over the foundation concrete
may be started after 2 days of its laying.
Constitute Function
(i) Silica (50-60%) Provide strength, hardness,
durability to brick.
(ii) Alumina (20 –30%) Give plasticity to brick
(iii) Lime (10 %) Causes silica to fuse
Act as a flux during burning & binding
particles together
(iv) Iron oxide (5-6%) Provide red colour &
Act as a flux improves impermeability
& durability.
(v) Magnesia (<1%) Give yellow tint
CIVIL Ki Goli
Alumina Iron Oxide
S A L I M
Silica Lime Magnesia
Properties of good brick

1. Bricks should have uniform size, parallel sides & sharp edges.
2. Brick earth should be free from stones, grits, organic matters etc.
3. It should not be too smooth to cause slipping mortar.
4. On scratching a brick by finger nail, no impression should be made.
5. Metallic sound is produced when bricks are struck together.
6. Water absorption  20% of its dry weight.
7. Crushing strength 10 N/mm2
8. Uniform deep red or cherry colour as indicative of uniformity.
Harmful ingredients in brick earth

1. Lime: If in excess, colour of brick becomes yellow from red. Lumps
of lime absorb moisture, swell & cause disintegration of the bricks.
2. Alkalies: Brick may melt & loose shape. Results in Efflorescence.
3. Iron pyrites: Discolourises the bricks. If present in brick earth, it
gets oxidised & decompose during burning which may even split the
brick.
4. Pebbles, Gravels and Grits: Result in non-uniform mixing of clay.
Manufacturing of bricks
Unsoiling Digging Cleaning Weathering Blending Tempering
Moulding
Drying
Burning
Brick
Flowchart: Preparation of Brick Earth
2. Moulding: It is process of giving required shape to the brick earth.
 Classification of Moulding -
(a) Hand moulding - It is used for soft mud. It can be ground or table
moulded.
(b) Machine moulding - It is used for stiff mud. It is of two types - (i)
Plastic clay machines, (ii) Dry clay machines.
 The good clay for making Bricks is weathered clay.
 The tempering of bricks earth is also known as pugging or kneading
 The process of mixing clay, water & other ingredients to make
bricks is known as kneading.The pug mill is used for kneading.
 Blending is the phenomenon in which clay is made loose & any ingre-
dient to be added to it is spread out on top and turned up & down in a
vertical direction.
 Generally wooden moulds are made from shishum
 Pressed bricks has two frogs & Handmade bricks has only one frog.
 Moulds are made (8–12)% larger in size.
 To prevent the moulded bricks from sticking to the side of the mould,
sand is sprinkled on the inner sides of the mould.
3. Drying: If green bricks burnt, it can get cracked & distorted.
Types of Drying - (a) Natural drying
(b) Artificial drying - (i) Hot floor drier, (ii) Tunnel drier.
· In clamp burning process, at 150 angle bricks are to be laid.
 The percentage of moisture in wet bricks is 7 to 30%
 The wet bricks should be dried in an open atmosphere 4 to 5 days
 The process of drying of bricks in an open atmosphere is called
hacking.
 The Bricks after moulding should be dried in air for (3-8) days but not
in sun.
 It is a normal practice to dry moulded bricks to approx moisture content

of (5–7)%. Drying period usually varies from (7–14) days.
Comparison between clamp Burning and Kiln Burning
S.N. Item Clamp burning Kiln burning

1. Capacity About 20000 to 100000 bricks Average 25000 bricks can be
can be prepared at time prepared per day.
2. Structure Temporary structure. Permanent structure
3. Initial cost Very low as no structures are More as permanent structures
to be built are to be constructed.
4. Suitability Suitable when bricks are to be Suitable when bricks are to be
manufactured on a small scale manufactured on a large scale &
& when the demand of brick is when there is continuous demand of
not continuous brick
5. Regulation of It is not possible to control or The fire is under control
fire regulate fire during the process throughout the process of burning
of burning
6. Skilled Not necessary through-out the The continuous skilled supervion is
supervision process of burning necessary
7. Cost of fuel Low, as grass, cow dung litter, Generally high because coal dust is
etc. may be used. to be used.
8. Quality of bricks The percentage of good quality The percentage of good quality
bricks is small about 60% or so. bricks is more.
9. Time of bruning It requires about 2 to 6 months Actual time for burning is about
& cooling for burning & cooling of bricks 24 hours & only about 12 days are
required for cooling of bricks.
10. Wastage of heat There is considerable wastage of The hot fuel gas is used to dry &
heat from top & sides and hot pre heat raw bricks. Hence the
fuel gas is not properly utilized. wastage of heat is the least.
4. Burning: Over burnt bricks become brittle while under burnt bricks
will be soft & hence can not carry loads. Moisture content is brought
down to 2% for burning operation.
Types of Kilns
Intermittent Continuous
(Allahabadi Kiln)
Bull’s trench Hoffman’s Tunnel

(Semi-continuous) (Continuous)
Stages of Dehydration Oxidation Virtification

burning are (400-650ºC) (650-900ºC) (900-1250ºC)
Comparison between Bull's trench Kiln and Hoffman’s Kiln
S.N. Item Bull Trench Killn Hoffman’s Klin

1. Burning capacity About 3 lakhs in 12 days. About 40 Lakhs in one season.
2. Popularity More popular because of less Less popular because of high initial
initial cost. cost.
3. Drying space It requires more space for It requires less space for drying of
drying of bricks bricks.
4. Initial cost Low High
5. Nature It is semicontinuous in It is perfectly Continuous.
loose sense.
6. Cost of fuel High as consumption of fuel Low as consumption of fuel is less.
is more
7. Quality of bricks Percentage of good quality Percentage of good quality bricks
bricks is small is more.
8. Suitability Suitable when demand of bricks Suitable when demand of bricks is
in monsoon is not continuous throughout the year.
Testing of bricks
1. Dimension Test (IS 1077): 20 bricks are randomly selected of
standard size (19 × 9 × 9 ) cm.
Modular Brick
Dimension Tolerance
(mm) (mm)
Length 3800 ±80
Width 1800 ± 40
Height
(i) 9 cm 1800 ± 40
(ii) 4 cm 800 ± 40
2. Compressive Strength test (IS : 3495 –Part I): Bricks are
immersed in water for 24 hours. Then taken out, Frogs filled with 1 : 3
mortar, covered with Gunny bags for 24 hours, Again immersed in
water for 3 days. Now taken out & placed in compression testing
machine at Rate of loading 14 N/mm2 per minute.
3. Water Absorption test: (IS 3495 –Part II)
4. Warpage Test (IS : 3495 –Part IV):
5. Efflorescence test (IS 3495 – Part III): Brick is kept in a glass
disc (diameter 150 mm) with water upto 25 mm till entire water is
absorbed or evaporated. Again water is filled upto 25 mm, & allowed
to be absorbed or evaporated. Then area of white patch is measured.

Special points: IS : 3102: Classification of Burnt clay solid bricks.
IS : 2212 : Indian standard code of practice for brick work
Defects of bricks
1. Over burning: Bricks loose their shape.
2. Efflorescence: Already discuss
3. Bloating: Spongy swollen mass over bricks surface due to excess of
carbonaceous & sulphur matter.
4. Blisters: Formed due to air imprisioned during their moulding.
5. Chuffs: Deformation of shape of the bricks caused by the rain water
falling on hot bricks.
6. Under burning:Higher water absorption & less compressive strength.
Unburnt or sun dried bricks can be used only in the construction of
temporary & cheap structures. These should not be used at the places
exposed to heavy rains.
7. Laminations: It is due to entrapped air in the Voids of clay.
Burnt Clay Perforated Bricks (lS :2222)
 Hollow bricks are also called perforated bricks.
 These are use for sound/heat/damp proof work and sometimes for
thermal insulation as these are light in weight.
 Area of each perforation shall not exceed 500 mm2.
 Area of perforations shall be between 30 to 45% of the area of face
 Direction of perforations can be vertical or horizontal.
 The modular and non modular size available is 19 × 9 × 9 cm and 23 ×
11 × 7 cm respectively.
 Should have minimum compressive strength of 7MPa on gross area.
 For 24-hour cold water test water absorption 20% by weight.
 A maximum of 1.5 m (12-14 layers) high wall can be raised in brick masonry in a
day. By this, the strength of the wall is unaffected. By making a high wall, the lower
wall can not bear the weight of the top wall & it bend laterally.
Bed joint:-These are horizontal mortar joints upon which masonary units
are laid.Hence, the pressure always acts normal to the bed joint.
Cross joints or simple joints:- The joints (other than bed joint) which are
perpendicular to face of wall are termed as cross-joints or simple joints.
Wall joints:- Joints which are parallel to the face of wall are termed as
wall joint.
Brick Masonry 7
(a) Bevelled (b) Queen-closer (c) Queen-closer

closer (half) (quarter)
(d) King closer (e) Full (f) Mitred

brick closer
(g) Half bat (h) Three quarter (i) Bevelled

bat bat
Rules of Bonding
1. Lap should be minimum (1/4) bricks along the length of wall & (1/2)
bricks across the thickness of the wall.
2. Vertical Joints in the alternate courses should be along the same
perpend.
3. The strength of mortar in a masonry wall should be equal to the
masonry units.
4. It is preferable to provide every 6th course as a header course.
Types of bonds
1. Stretcher bond: All the bricks are laid as stretchers on the faces of
the wall. Used for constructing 10 cm thick brick partition wall.
S S S
S S S S
2. Header bond: All the bricks are laid as headers on the faces of the
wall.Commonly used for constructing staining of wells, corbels, footing
etc.
 It is using three-quarter brick bats in each alternate courses as
quoins.
H H H H H H
H H H H H
3. English bond: Alternate courses of headers & stretchers.

 English bond is stronger & costly than flemish Bond.
 Mostly English bond is used in government work.
 Adopted for work where strength is of prime importance.
H H H H H H
S S S S S
H H H H H H
4. Flemish bond: Each course has alternate header & stretcher.
 Flemish bond give better appearance than English bond.
 Construction with flemish bond requires greater skill in comparison
to English bond & bat bricks are use in it.
 Minimum width of wall for single flemish bond is 1½ brick wall.
H S H S H
S H S H S
5. Facing bond : Bricks of different thickness are to be used in the

facing or backing of the wall.
In Raking bond, bricks are kept at an inclination to the direction of the wall.
Slenderness ratio of brick masonry:It is the effective height of the
wall divided by effective thickness or effective length divided by effective
thickness, whichever is less.The slenderness ratio for non load bearing walls
should not be more than 30.
Maximum slenderness ratio for load bearing walls
No. of storeys Using Portland cement Using lime mortar
or pozzolana cement
Not exceeding 2 27 20
exceeding 2 27 13
Special Points:
 In order to check dampness, a narrow hollow space constructed
parallel to the external walls, is known as air drain.
 A curtain wall is designed to carry wind load plus self-weight
• Arris  It is the edge of a brick.
 A cavity wall (Hollow wall) is constructed to resist heat flow & is
designed to carry axial & bending stress. General size (4-10) cm.
Load bearing wall Non load bearing wall

Solid wall Veneered Cavity Solid wall Faced Partion Panel wall Free Curtain Faced
with piers wall wall wall wall standing wall wall
(Pilasters) wall
Frieze: A course of stone provided immediately below cornice is called
frieze. Example of architectural frieze is on facade of a building, the octago-
nal tower of the winds. It is used to improve appearance of wall.
• Bull Nose/ cow nose brick is used for making corner/curve shape in
brick masonary
• The projected course of brick used above opening of door/window in
building construction, is called drip course. It is used to prevent from rain
water to door & window.
Perpend:- It is that vertical joint on face of the wall, which lies directly
above the vertical joints in the alternate courses.
• Prism test is a laboratory test to calculate the compressive strength of
a masonry. A masonry Prism is an assembly of masonry unit & mortar that
is constructed to serve as a test specimen for determining compressive
strength.
 For first-class brickwork, the thickness of mortar joint shall not be less
than 10mm.
Mortar & Lime 8

 Mortar is a mixture containing a binding agent (cement), water &
aggregate (sand). It is used for filling joints as a binder in stone & brick
masonry.
 Lime obtain from relatively pure lime stone (% purity 90% to 95%) is
referred as quick lime or caustic lime or lump lime.
 Slaking:- Quick lime has very high affinity (reactivity) for water, hence
instantly reacts with it & Undergoes slacking leading to the formation of
hydrated lime. Quick lime slack vigrously, but set slowly
CaO  H 2 O 
slaking
 Ca(OH) 2  Heat
Quick lim e / Hydrated lim e /
Causticlim e / Slaked lim e /
Lump lim e milk of lim e
Calcination
It refers to the heating of lime stone to redness in the absence of Air.
Lime is obtained by Calcination of limestone. Moisture & CO2 are
removed from the limestone leaving behind lime.
CaCO3 
calcination
CaO CO2
(lime)
Hydraulicity: Hydraulicity is the property of lime by virtue of it, lime

sets in a damp place with no free circulation of air.
Milk of Lime: A thin fluid pourable suspension of slaked lime is called
milk of lime.
Note: Slaked lime if kept lying, has a tendency to absorb carbonic acid
from the atmosphere (carbon dioxide & water) and hence must be used
quickly without any delay.
Special Points:
(i) Plaster of Paris is obtained by calcining Gypsum.
 Gypsum is a crystalline mineral of hydrated calcium sulphate
(CaSO42H2O)
 It is quick setting, gypsum plaster consisting of a fine white pow-

der which hardens when moistened & allowed to dry.
 When gypsum is heated to 120ºC–180ºC, it gets dehydrated to
1
form plaster of Paris (CaSO4. H O) which have 6.2 % water..
2 2
 It is used to precast & hold parts of ornamental plaster work
placed on ceilings.
(ii) Limestone is a sedimentary rock, its major materials are minerals,
calcite & aragonite (Crystal forms of CaCO3).
(iii) Kankar is a term used in India for masses or layers of calcium
carbonate, found in older arrival or stiff clay.
Classifications of Mortar on various factors -
(a) Type of material - Surkhi, Gauged, Cement, Gypsum, Lime mortar (
Fat lime, Hydraulic lime and Poor lime )
(b) Bulk density based - Light density (  t < 15 kN/m3 ), Heavy density
(  t > 15 kN/m3 )
(c) Special types of mortar - Fire resistants, Sound absorbing, Light weight
etc.
S. No. Description Fat lime Hydraulic lime
1 Slacking action Very rapid [Vigorously] Low
2 Obtained or It is obtained from It is obtained from kankar
manufacture pure lime
3 Setting action In presence of air, low It can be set in damp places
setting takes place. also
4 Colour Perfectly white Not perfectly white
5 Hydraulicity Nil High
6 Strength Not good in strength Good in strength
7 Use Used for plaster work, Used for making of masonary
pointing work, white mortar
washing work
 Surkhi is a pozzolanic material. Surkhi mortar can not be used for

plastering, flooring, pointing etc because surkhi is likely to disintegrate
after some time. Main function of surkhi is to give strength & Hydraulic
properties to mortar.
 Gauged mortar is a lime cement mortar. In lime mortar, cement is

sometimes added to achieve early strength & it’s called gauging.
 Light weight mortar is prepared by adding materials like as saw dust,
wood powder etc. to lime or cement mortar. It is used in sound proof &
heat proof construction.
Selection of mortar
S. No. Nature of work Type of mortar Proportions
1. Water logged areas Hydraulic lime 1: 3
2. Damp proof course & cement Cement mortar 1: 2
concrete roads
3. General RCC works, Water tank Cement mortar 1: 3
4. Brick masonry Cement mortar 1:6
5. Internal walls Lime cinder mortar 1: 3
6. Partition wall of Parapet wall Cement mortar 1:3
7. Plaster work Cement mortar 1: 3 to 1: 4
Lime mortar 1:2
8. Pointing work Cement mortar 1:1 to 1: 2.
9. Stone masonry Lime mortar 1:2
Guniting: It is the application of mortar or concrete under pneumatic

pressure through cement gun. Its ratio of cement mortar is 1:3. It is done in
layers of 40–50 mm. A thin layer of grout builds up & acts like a cushion
reducing the percentage rebound in the successive layers. Average unit weight
of gunite is 2300 kg/m3.
Grout: Cement mortar of fluid consistency used to fill the voids & joints
in masonry and to repair the cracks. Water-cement ratio should be kept as
low as possible to increase strength & reduce shrinkage.
Porting: It is the method of injecting epoxy in the gap or crack for repair.
Special Points: Normal curing period for lime mortar is 7 days.

• Quick lime is measured in quintal.
• For 100 kg slaking, we required 40 kg water.
• Lime calcinated at 800-900°C
• Ball test is carried out to identify class B or class C lime.
• Hydraulic lime has earthy smell, grey colour.
• Density of quick lime = 1050 kg/m3 & slaked lime = 640 kg/m3.
• Lime has initial setting time 2 hour & final setting time 48 hour.
• For lime concrete, Slump = 50 – 75 mm
• Flexural strength at 90 days = 0.2 N/mm2
• Compressive strength at 28 days = 1.2 N/mm2 & 90 days = 1.5 N/mm2
STONE 9
 Lithology is the study of the general physical characteristics of rocks.
 Mineralogy is the systematic study that extensively covers crystallography
physical, chemical, minerals study etc.
 Petrology is the study of rocks & the conditions under which they form.
 Rockology is introduction to geology at basic level.
 A Rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals. Like as Granite is
composed of three minerals Feldspar, Quartz and Mica.
 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical
composition & a crystalline structure formed by geological process.
E.g. Mica, Quartz, Gypsum, Calcite, Diamond, Topaz etc.
 Building stones are obtained from rocks which have distinct planes of
divisions along which stones can be easily split. This plane is known as
natural bed.
 In stone masonry, the stones are placed in position such that the natural
bedding plane is normal to the direction of pressure they carry
Types of work Direction of natural bed
Masonry wall Horizontal direction
Arches Radial direction
Cornice/string course Vertical direction
 For the construction of domes, lighter stones are preferred
S.No. Rubble Masonry Ashlar Masonry

1. Use hard & irregular shape Use smooth shape of
of stone stone
2. These type masonry These type masonry having
having rough dressing smooth dressing & regular
& having wide joint. fine joints of 3 mm thick
Geological classification -
Sedimentary rock - formed by weathering action of existing rock. Ex. Sand-stone, Lime-
stone, Shales, Gravel, Lignite.
Igneous Rock - formed by cooling & solidification of magma & lava. Ex. Trap, Dolerite,
Rhyolite, Pegmatite, Diorite, Basalt,
Meta-morphic Rock - Igeneous & Sedimentary rocks are undergone considerable change
with high pressure & temperature. Ex- Marble (made from lime - stone), Quartzite ( made
from sand-stone), Static.
Physical classification -
Stratified Rock - Rock showed Layered structure. Ex. Sand stone, Lime stone, Slate,
Marble.
Unstratified Rock - Does not showing layered structure, these can not easily split into
thin slabs. Ex. Granite, Trap.
Foliated Rocks - Metaimorphic rocks are generally foliated rocks. They have the
tendency to split along a definite direction. Their direction are not parallel to each other as
in case of stratifie drocks.
Chemical Classification -
Calcareous Rocks - These have calcium carbonate as their main components. Ex.
Marble, Lime stone.
Argillaceous Rocks - These have clay & Alumina as their main components. Ex. Slate,
Clay, Mudstone, Laterite.
Siliceous Rock - These have silica as their main component. Ex. Trap, Quartz, Cranite.
Stone Type of Rock Us e s

1. Granite Igneous (Silicious) Ornamental columns,
sea walls, railway ballast,
building blocks, bridge piers,
in making of artificial stone.
GS=2.6 - 2.9 ( general range )
2. Basalt or Igneous (siliceous) Paving sets, road material,
trap aggregate in concrete
3. Marble Metamorphic rock Carving & decoration
(from limestone or work, steps, table
dolomite) slabs etc. GS=2.72
4. Gneiss Metamorphic rock Street Paving
5. Sand Sedimentary rock Coarse grained for
stone (silicious variety) rubble work for slabs,
tiles & fine grained for
ashlar work, moulding etc.
6. Slate Metamorphic rock Making electrical Switch board,
formed from shale GS=2.8, as DPC, use
in cisterns for urinal partition
7. Laterite Sedimentary rock As building stone, as road material
Rock Types Chemically Physically Geologically

Granite Siliceous Unstratified Igneous
Quartzite Siliceous Stratified* Metamorphic
Marble Calcarious Stratified* Metamorphic
Limestone Calcarious Stratified Sedimentary
Sandstone Siliceous Stratified Sedimentary
Slate Argillacous Stratified* Metamorphic
Laterite Argillacous Stratified Sedimentary.
Tools for Quarrying stones
Jumper:- It is used for making hole in rock.
Scraping Spoon:- It is used to scrap or remove dust of crushed stone from
Blast holes.
Primary Needle:- It is used to maintain the hole when tamping is being
done. It help in connecting fuse with blasting material.
Tamping Bar:- It is used to ram or tamp the material while refilling blast
holes.
Dipper:- It is used to drill a hole to the required depth.
 Cross cut saw is used for cutting hard stone.
 Spalling hammer is used for rough dressing of stones.
 Metamorphic rocks are highly compact & solid. They carry no fissures
or cracks & are difficult to quarry with hand tools. So, the quarry of
these types rock is done by blasting in which drill holes are put down to
the depth to which the rock is to split & the requisite amont of dynamite
is put with sand & fired by a fuse.
Dressing of stones: Dressing of stones is performed to achieve
following objectives
(a) To obtained desired appearance
(b) To increase the properties of stone such as durability & strength.
(c) To suit the requirements of stone masonary.
(d) To reduce the transportation & handling cost of stones
• Wedging Method is used for sedimentary Rock, Generally using Ham-
mer. This method used for quarrying of soft, stratified rock. It is costly.
• Blasting method is generally used for Igneous & metamarphic rocks.
• Rough dressing of stone should be done at time of quarring because
stone is in soft state at that time.
Some Points about stone:

 Crushing strength of good building stone should be more than
100 MPa.
 Flush pointing is extensively used in brick masonary work & stone
masonry face work
 Weight test is to be conducted on a stone used in docks & Harbours.
 The stones which can be polished easily are marble & granite.
 Sandstone is used in normal work of building construction and it also
have highest fire resistance capacity.
 The best stone for Ashlar stone masonry is sandstone
 The samples are tested in saturated condition. hence they are placed
in water for about 72 hours prior to test.
 Load bearing surface of sample is covered with plywood of about
5mm thickness.
 Load is applied axially at a rate of 14 MPa/min
 Crushing strength of the stone is load at which sample crushes divided
by the area of bearing surface of the specimen.
loss in wt
 Coefficient of hardness = 20 –
3
 If hardness coefficient >17, very hard (Generally used in road work),
hardness coefficient- (14-17), Medium Hard
hardness coefficient < 14, very poor hard
 If toughness coefficient <13, Poor Tough, toughness coefficient - (13-
19) Moderate Tough,toughness coefficient >19, Very Tough.
 Stone samples are cut into cubes of size 40 × 40 × 40 mm.
 Average of atleast 3 sample is reported as crushing strength of stone.
 Shingle are widely used as roof covering on residential buildings &
they are made up of asphalt, roof, slate and murrum laterite. They are
attached in overlapping courses.
 Shingle is produced from washing ballast & is on of the graded gravels.
They are perfect for paths, driveways, flower beds, & a variety of
other landscaping purposes.
 Generally seasoning period of stone is 6-12 months
 A good building stone water absorption capacity should not exceed
5% of the self weight.Specific gravity should be atleast 2.7.
 A stone should rejected/not use for masonry work if water absorption
is 0.1 of the self weight.
 A good building stone has rate of wear < 3% & Deval attriation testing
machine is used for attrition test.
Test Purpose
Smith test For presence of soluble matter
Brad’s test For frost resistance (durability)
Acid test To check weather resistance
Mohs scale For hardness
Rock Classification Rock after

Metamorphism
Granite Igneous Gneiss
Basalt Igneous Schist
Limestone/Marl Sedimentary Marble
Mudstone/Shale Sedimentary Slate
Sandstone Sedimentary Quartzite
 Blasting powder contains 75% saltpetre, 10% sulphur & 15% charcoal.
It is used in ordinary quarrying.It is cheap in cost and have weak
destrusive power as compare to dynamite.
 Cordite: Powerful, smokeless explosive in which Nitroglycerine is used.
 Dynamite contains 75% nitroglycerine, absorbed in 25% of sandy earth,
forming a thick paste, can be use in water. It is used in tunneling work.
 Nitrocellulose or Gun cotton: Made by saturating cotton with nitric
acid.
 Explosive material is measured in kilograms.
 Uses of stones:
(a) Abutment & Pier- Granite
(b) Damp proof course/roofing material- Slate
(c) Ornamental/carving work-Marble, sand stone
(d) Flooring work: Limestone, Marble, sand stone
(e) Facing work: Granite, Marble, sandstone
(f) Retaining wall: Quartzite
(g) Rubble masonry & foundation work: Basalt, Trap
(h) Manufacturing of cement/Putty: Chalk
Special Point: Quartzite is a metamorphic rock consist of mostly quartz.
Mica & Gypsum are the name of minerals found in the rock.
• Bearing capacity of rocks are as follows:
Igneous rocks > Metamorphic rock > Sedimentary rock.
• The amount of calcium carbonate in lime stone is determined acid test
Door, Window,
&Roof 10
1
Window Width = [Width of room  Height of Room]
8
Lintel:
Lintel
Window opening
Lintels are the beams provided over the openings in walls for doors &
windows.
Bearing of lintel should be minimum of following:
(a) 10 cm (b) Height of lintel (c) (1/10 ) to (1/12) of the span of lintel
Particulars Arch Lintels

Shape Curved Horizontal and straight
Bed Joint Joints are radial except in Joints are horizontal
monolithic construction
Lateral thrust Exert on vertical support Do not exert
Rise Provided Not provided
Appearance Good architectural Simple appearance
appearance
Strength Quite strong vertical uniform Equally strong for uniform &
loading but weak under point loading
point loading
Rafter:
er Ridge piece
r aft roof of truss
al
in cip purlins
Pr
king post Supporting

wall
Tie beam (tension beam)
Strut beam (compressive beam)
Cross section of a roof truss
It is one of a series of sloped structural members that extend from the

ridge to the wall plate supporting down slope perimeter load in truss that are
designed to support the roof.
 In residential building, The sill of a window ( height 1-1.1m) should be
located about (70 – 90) cm above floor level of the room. It should be
properly weathered (slope 1:6) to drain off rain water & minimum
projection is 50 mm.
 Generally Height of a Door should not be less than (1.8 – 2) m
 Commonly Width height relation used in India:
(i) Width = (0.4 – 0.6) Height (ii) Height = (Width + 1.2) m
Head
Top rail Horn
Holdfast
Panel Style
Frieze
rail
Frame
Bottom
Rail
Floor level
Door
1. Shutters. It is an assembly of styles, panels & rails. Shutters are the

openable parts of a door or window.
2. Frame. It is an assembly of horizontal & vertical members, forming
and enclosure, to which the shutters are fixed.
3. Jamb- This is the vertical wall face of an opening which supports the
frame.
4. Sill- These are normally not provided in door frames. It is the lower-
most or bottom horizontal part of a window frame.
5. Reveal- It is the external jamb of a door or window opening at right
angles door or to the wall face.

6. Horn- The length of horns is kept about 10 to 15 cm. These are the
horizontal projections of the head & sill of a frame to facilitate the fixing of
the frame on the wall opening.
7. Transom- It is a horizontal member of a frame, which is employed to
sub-divide as window opening horizontally.
8. Mullion-It is a vertical member of a frame, which is employed to sub-
divide a window opening vertically.
9. Sash- It is type of frame made of light section and designed to carrying
glass.
10. Hold fasts- The horizontal length of hold fast is kept about 20 cm & is
embedded in the masonry.These are mild steel flats (section 30 mm × 6
mm), generally bent-up into Z-shape, to fix or hold the frame to the opening.
11. Rebate- It is depression or recess made inside the door frame, to re-
ceive the door shutter.
 Location - The door should be preferable be located near the corner of
a room at a distance of about 20 cm from the corner.
 Doors of residential Buildings:
(a) External Door – (1 × 2) to (1.1 × 2) m
(b) Internal Door – (0.9 × 2) to (1 × 2) m
(c) Doors for bathrooms & Water closets:– (0.7 × 2) to (0.8 × 2) m
 Public Buildings (School, Hospital, library)
(a) (1.2 × 2) m (b) (1.2 × 2.1) m (c) ( 1.2 × 2.25) m
 Revolving Doors are provided in only public Buildings (Store, Banks, Ho-
tels etc) & AC buildings where continuous use of doors is necessary.
 Sliding doors have shutter slides on the sides.For this purpose runners &
guide rails are provided.These are used in banks, offices,garrage &
workshop etc.
 Glazed and panelled door - It is extensively used in residential & public
buildings like hospital, colleges, offices etc.
 Rolling steel shutter Door are also used for Garrages, Godowns etc.
Swinging door used for residential building in laudry,kitchen etc. and
folding door for covering the large opening, preferable when the
additional width is not available for installing a sliding door.
 Designation of Door = Width × Type of Door × Height
 8 DS 20 – A door opening Having width (8 × 100 mm) × Height (20 ×
100 mm) with S (Single Shutter) D (Door)
 10 DT 21 – A door opening Having width (10 × 100 mm) & Height (21
× 100 mm). With T – (Double Shutter ) D(Door)
 The window in a room should be located on Northen side from point of
view of max-day light.
 Orientation of building means fixing the direction of building for
maximum benefit from nature
 In a residential building, kitchen is most preferred on the corner of the
building in S-E direction
 Bedroms are recommended in north-west and south-west direction
while planning a residential building because of to get plentiful of breeze
during summer
1
 Minimum window area in any habitable rooms will be 10% or of
8
the total room area
 The total area of window openings should normally vary from (10 –
20)% of the floor area of room.
 In Public Buildings, the minimum area of window should be 20% of floor
area.
 The area of window openings should be atleast 1 m2 for every (30 – 40)
m3 of Inside content (Volume) of room.
 For sufficient Natural light, the area of glazed planes should atleast be (8
– 10%) of the floor area.
 6 WS 10 – Single shutter window with Width (6 × 100) mm & height (10
× 100) mm
 Generally in W.C., kitchens & bathrooms the type of door used is ledged
& braced type
 As compared to the floor area of a room, the glass area in a window
should not be less than 15%
Types of Window
1. fixed 2. Pivoted 3. Sliding 4. Bay 5. Corner 6. Cable (7) Dormer (8)
Skylights (9) Louvered (10) Lantern (11) Gable
1. The window, which projects outside the external wall of the room, is
called bay window
2. Louvered windows are provided for the aim of ventilation & They do
not permit Any outside vision.
3. Casement windows are common types of windows provided in
Buildings, which open like shutter doors.
Main
sloping
roof
Dormer
window
G
ab
le
an
d
Gable
window
DORMER WINDOW AND GABLE WINDOW
4. A dormer window is a vertical window provided on the sloping roof .

Such a window provides ventilation & lighting to the enclosed space
below the roof & at the same time, very much improve the appearance
of the building.
5. Gable Window is a vertical window provided in the global end of a
pitched roof.
Types of roofs:
 Gable roof is a common type of sloping roof which slopes in two
directions. It looks like an inverted/upside down V. These are not
ideal for the areas with high wind.
 Gambrel roof slopes in two direction but there is break in each slope.
It is most commonly use on barns. It has the benefit of providing a
good amount of space in the attic.
 Flat roofs are common in commercial building.
 Pitched roofs are use in areas of heavy rain falls and snow fall. The
slope of roof shall be more than 10°. They may have slopes upto 45-
60°. These are preferred in large span structure like as workshops,
warehouses, factory buildings etc.
 Mansard roof is a french design & it is more difficult to construct than
the hip or gable roof. It slopes in the four directions but each slope has
a break.
 Butterfly roofs is provide plenty of light & ventilation but not the
effective when it comes to water drainage.
Vertical Ridge
triangle Ridge
Lean-to-Roof
Gable Roof
Mansard Roof
Ridge
Stopped Hip
Triangle Ridge Hip Deck
Hip Roof Gambrel Roof

Deck Roof
Weathering
Joist Parapet wall
Weathering
Wall Cornice
plate
Throating Throating
Wall
Wall
Corbel Cornice Coping
Corbel: A corbel is a projecting stone which is usually provided to serve as

support for roof truss, beam, weather sheds.
Cornice: A cornice is a course of stone provided at the top of wall. It is weathered
and throated to dispose off rain water.
Coping: A coping is a coarse of stone which laid at the top wall so as to protect
the wall from rain water.
Throating:-It is a groove provided on underside of the projecting elements
such as sills, coping, cornices etc. so that rain water can be discharged clear off the
wall surface.
 Purposes of building ventilation are provide a continuous supply of fresh
outside air,maintain temperature and humidity at comfortable levels.For the effective
working of the ventilation system, the desired value of rate of air changes 5 m3/
hour.
 Ventilaters are small windows, fixed at a greater height than the window (Gener-
ally (30 - 50) cm below roof level.
 Air changes per hour is a measure of the air volume added to or removed from
a space divided by the volume of the space. Classrooms needs maximum number of
air changes per hour.
Stair Case 11
Pitch line Minimum

head room
Landing Atleast 2.05 m
Flight Riser (4 inch-7 inch)
Tread (11 inch minimum)
Head room: It is the minimum clear vertical distance between the tread &
overhead structure.
Scotia: It is a moulding provided under the nosing to improve the elevation
of the step & to provide strength to nosing.
Soffit: It is the underside of a stair.
Newel Post: It is vertical member which is placed at end of flights to con-
nects the ends of strings & hand rail.
Balustrade: It consist of a row of Balusters surmounted by a hand rail, to
provide protection for the users of the stair.
 For making spiral staircase, ideal material is cast iron
 Width of stair in Domestic building 90 cm & in public Building, (1.5-
1.8)m.
 No. of steps are not more than 12 & not less than 3 in a flight.
 Angle of Inclination (Pitch) – (25° – 40°) & Maximum pitch or slope in
staircase for public building = 330
 Clear head room must not be less than 2.10 m.
 The width of landing should not be less than width of stair.
 Minimum width of stairs in residential building – 85 cm & in commercial
building is 1 m.
 In a public building, the stairs should be located near the entrance of
building
 In public buildings the maximum riser is limited to 15 cm

 The height of hand railing above the tread should be generally in between
75 cm to 80 cm
 For residential building : The size of step widely adopted 25  16cm.
 For public building : Generally length of steps are increased and
width reduced slightly common step size for public buildings are
27 cm  15 cm or 30 cm  13 cm.
Some Thumb Rule:
(a) (2R + T) = 60, (b) (R + T) = (40 – 45), (c) R × T = (400 – 450).
where, R – Rise in cm, T – Tread in cm.
 In case of straight staircase,
No. of Tread = (No. of Riser – 1)
Total height between floor & roof
No. of Riser =
Height of one riser
Landing Landing
 Types of Stairs: (1) Straight stairs
STRAIGHT STAIRS
Newels
Up Quarter
A Space A
landing
Elevation
Plan
Bifurcated Stair Quarter Turn Stairs
(2) Turning Stairs.

(a) Quarter Turn, (b) Half Turn Stair (Dog-legged & Open well stairs)
(c) Three-Quarter, (d) Bifurcated stairs.
 As per IS : 875 Part-2; the recommended imposed load on staircase-
Residential Building - 3kN/m2, , Educational Building - 4kN/m2
Merchantile Building -5kN/m2 , Industrial Building - 5 kN/m2
Floors 12
 Ground floor is that floor which is constructed just above the ground
level & basement level
 The joints provided in wooden floor are tongue & groove
 The common size of a floor tile is 200 × 200 × 20mm
 Polishing: It is the mechanical process to grind the concrete floor
surface to a high glass finish.
 In multistoried government buildings, the floor height is usually restricted
to 3.4 metres
Mud/Muram flooring: It is cheap, Hard, fairly Impervious, easy to
maintain & Construct. It has good thermal Insulation property due to which
it remains cool in summer & fairly warm in winter. Commonly use in vil-
lages. This floor is washed with dilute oxalic acid.
Terazzo flooring: It is laid in thin layer over concrete topping. It is very
decorative & has good wearing properties. It is mostly used in residential
buildings, Hospitals, offices, schools & other public buildings
 In it, marble chips size is 3 to 6 mm.
 The flooring in which base concrete of lime, cement & concrete of mix
1:5:10 is laid over well compacted sub base is called terrazao flooring
Cork flooring: It is perfectly Noiseless & is used in libraries, Theatres,
Art Galleries, Broadcasting stations etc. where noiseless floor covering is
desired. It is available in the form of coloured tiles/sheets.
Glass flooring: It is used for entrance of light at basement from the
upper floors
Mosaic flooring: In it, we use chips of marble in coloured cement. Its
thickness is 4 cm generally.
 For cleaning mosaic floors, we use oxalic acid.
 Precast concrete tiles with marble chips on the surface are known as
mosaic tiles.
Steel & Glass 13

Some Special Varieties of Glass
Bullet proof glass: It is made up of several alternate layers of plate glass
& vinyl resin plastic. The thickness of outer layers is small as compared
to inner layers .
It is made of thick glass steel & a sandwiched layer of high strength
plastic
Float glass: It is extensively used in residential & commercial build-
ings. It is superior to ordinary glasss in terms of energy consumption, cost
effectiveness, appearance & strength.
Fibre glass : fibre glass consists of minute glass roads(fibres) made
up of the parent material itself. It is soft & flexible.It is used for Thermal
Insulation.
Safety glass : It is also called shatter proof glass. It is extensively
used in automobile glass. the glass does not actually breaks but cracks
therefore preventing damage from flying splinters, pieces of glass.
Ultra violet ray glass : This glass effectively transmits almost all of
the ultra-violet rays incident on the glass irrespective of the angle of
incidence.Other types of glasses made for specific purposes are Heat
excluding glass, Shielding glass, Perforated glass, Structural glass.
Exam Points: Glass typically has a tensile strength of 7 MPa.
 The common house hold glass is soda lime glass.
 Foam glass is recommended while making a building air - conditioned.
 The glass used for display windows of jewellery shop is laminated glass.
 Glass used in railways coaches is wire glass.
 Wired Glass: Used in outside window to resist fire & Breakage.
 Ground Glass: Used where light is to be admitted, but vision is to be
obscured.
Steel
 Vanadium steel is normally used in the manufacture of Axles & springs.
 Manganese steel is used in manufacture of rails.
Physical properties of steel

Various physical properties of structural steel are given below.
Unit mass of steel,  = 7850 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity, E = 2 × 105 N/mm2
modulus of rigidity, G = 0.769 × 105 N/mm2
Poisson ratio,  = 0.3
Coefficient of thermal expansion,  = 12 × 10–6/ºC
Metals can be grouped in the following two categories.
1. Ferrous metals: Ferrous metals contain Iron (ferrous) as their main
constituent.
Main constituents of ferrous materials are Pig iron, wrought iron, cast
iron, steel & alloys
2. Non ferrous metals: Commonly used non ferrous metals are
aluminium, copper etc. These metals are obtained by processing the
iron ores mined from the earth. Important varieties of iron ores are
(1) Haematite - Fe2O3 (65-70 % of iron)
(2) Pyrite - FeS2 (45% of iron)
(3) Magnetite - Fe3O4 (70-73% of iron)
(4) Limonite - 2Fe2O3.3H2O (60% of iron)
(5) Siderite - FeCO3 (40% of iron)
The crude iron extracted from iron ores is called pig iron, which forms
the basic material for manufacturing of cast iron, wrought iron & steel.
Manufacturing of steel
The process commonly used for manufacturing of steel are
(1) Bessemer Process - Cast iron is made from cupola furnace.
(2) Open hearth process - Wrought iron
(3) Crucible steel process
(4) Duplex process (5) Cementation process
(6) Electric process - Pig iron
(7) Lintz & Dona witz (L.D.) process
Treatment of steel
(a) Mechanical treatment : Mechanical treatment are introduced to give
desired shape to the steel so as to fit the purpose.
(i) Drawing : It refers to the reduction of cross section & to increase it
length proportionately. The metal is drawn through dies or specially
shaped tools. This is essentially used for making wires & rods.
(ii) Rolling : This operation is carried out in specially prepared rolling
mills. Angles, channels, joists, rails etc are obtained by rolling.
(iii) Pressing : The steel metal is pressed between a die & punch of an
equipment known as press. The main advantage of this process is the
absence of shock (unlike forging)
(iv) Forging : This process refers to the repeated blowing of the steel
using a power hammer or a press. The metal is heated above the
critical temperature before the blows. The process is implied to increase
the density & improve the grain strength of steel.
Exam points:
Annealing : This process refers to making the steel soft so as to increase
its workability upon machines. Tensile strength is reduced but ductility is
increased. Toughness of steel is also enhanced against sudden stresses.
Annealing temperature range depends upon the carbon content. As the carbon
content increases the required temperature for annealing decrease.
Purification
• Purification of iron is done by magnetic rollers.
• In which magnetic ore (Iron) is attached by magnetic roller.Therefore,
non-magnetic part of ore (such as dust, clay, glass etc.) will left & removed
easily.
Refining: In metallurgy, refining consists of purifying an impure metal &
in this method, the final material obtained is generally similar to the origi-
nal one (process doesn’t involve any chemical reaction of material), only it
is pure.
Dressing: In the field of extractive metallurgy, mineral processing, it is
the process of separating commercially valuable minerals from their ores.
Calcination: Calcination is the process of heating any material in the lim-
ited supply of air or absence of air. It is used in metallurgy ores & other
solid materials to bring about a thermal decomposition by calcination. This
process is performed to remove CO2,moisture, impurities of sulphur, ar-
senic etc.
• CRS TMT bars are produced with an addition of corrosion resistance
elements such as copper, chromium, and phosphorus.
Commercial forms of steel

The following are the shape in which steel is available in the market.
(i) T sections (ii) Round bars
(iii) Flat bars (iv) Channel section
(v) Plates (vi) Angle setions
(vii) I section (viii) Expanded metal
(ix) Corrugated sheets (sheets) (x) Square bars
Property Hard steel Mild steel
Melting Point (0C) 1300 1400
Specific gravity 7.9 7.8
Tensile strength 11-12 t/cm2 6-9 t/cm2
Compressive strength 14-20 t/cm2 8-12 t/cm2
Uses Slab, R/f, Mechanical R/f,Pipes, Building
Shop Equipment Construction Work
Material Percentage carbon

Wrought iron (purest < 0.1%
from of Iron)
Steel 0.10–0. 25%
High carbon steel 0.55–0.95%
Cast Iron 2.00–4.00%
Pig iron: The crude impure iron (3-4% carbon) is known as Pig-iron.
It forms the basic material for the manufacture of cast-iron, wrought
iron & steel. It is used for making base plattes, column, door brackets etc.Pig
iron is obtained after smelting of calcined ore in a blast furnace.
Cast iron: Cast iron is manufactured by remelting pig iron with coke &
limestone. It is used for making ornamental castings, like as lamp post,
bathroom fittings, wall brackets etc.
Wrought iron: It is almost pure & it hardly contains carbon more than
0.10 percent. It is used for making roof covering, rivets, chimney gates etc.
Special Points: As the carbon content in steel increases, the Brittleness
property of steel increases (steel becomes less ductile). Hence, cast iron
(having higher carbon content) is less ductile than mild steel (having low
carbon content).
 As compared to mild steel, cast Iron has High compressive strength &
low tensile strength.
Impurities in steel are Phosphorous (0.12%), Sulphur (0.1%), Manganese
(1.5%), Silicon (0.2 - 0.4)%.
Paint & Varnish 14

 Distemper are available in various colours, made with base as white
chalk & thinner as water.
 Distemper is cheaper than paints.
 Distempers are the cheaper variety of paints in which chalk is used as
base & water as carrier & glue as emulsifying agent. Available in powder
or paste form.
 They are most suitable for plastered surfaces as well as white washed
surface of interior walls.
 Distempers are workable & easy in application but less durable
 This is used as interior paint for homes.
 It is not used for surfaces exposed to weather.
 Distempers are washed away when used in exposed surfaces.
Varnish
 Varnish is a nearly homogenous solution of resin in oil, alcohol or
turpentine.
 The surface looks after the varnish glossy. Varnish provides a protective
coating without substantially changing the color of the surface.
 The type of solvent depends upon the type of resin used.
 The oil dries with time & other solvents evaporate leaving behind a solid
transparent resin film over the surface.
• Drier in varnish is litharge.
Types of varnish
(a) Spirit Varnish: It uses resin of soft variety such as lac or shellac
dissolved in spirit. It dries very quickly.
 These are not durable & easily affected by weathering action.
 Spirit varnish is made from spirit & Wax
(b) Water varnish: It is shellac resin dissolved in hot water to which
enough quantity of either borax, ammonia, soda is added.
 These are used for varnishing maps & pictures.
(c) Oil varnish: It uses linseed oil & takes about 24 hours to dry.
 It is suitable for interior & exterior surfaces.
 Hard resin such as amber, copal etc are used which makes this
type of varnish most durable.
(d) Spar varnish: It derives its name from its use on spars & other parts
of ship.
(e) Flat varnish: Materials such as wax, metallic soap on finely divided
silica when added to varnish produce a dull appearance on drying.
(f) Asphalt varnish: It is made by dissolving melted hard asphalt in linseed
oil with a thinner such as petroleum or turpentine spirit.
 It is used over shop fabricated steel works.
Cement paint is a water based paint is used to preventing water
penetrating redemption of dirt collection prevent fungal & algal growth
on interior and exterior walls.
 It usually contain hydrated lime, 5% to 10% colour pigments & are pre-
pared with white cement. No oil is used in it.
 It is durable & water resistant.
 It’s covering capacity is about 4m2/ kg per coat. It is standard.
 I.S. code recommendation for cement paint is IS:5410
Aluminium paint: It has shining & visible in dark. It is corrosion &
weather resistance, water proof etc. It is used for wood & metal work.
Bronze paint: It has high reflective property. It is used as radiator.
Cellulose paint is a normally used by enthusiast, first timer or trade
professionals when an original finish is required. This paint can produce
any flat colour & needs only thinners added to it prior to painting.
 Duco paints are cellulose paints. It is used for painting, motor car,
aeroplane, etc.
Asbestos paints: Asbestos was very inexpensive and was used as
filler in many different products in different industries.
 Asbestos was widely used in ‘fireproof’ paints.
Fluorescent paint: It gives illumination during nights.
Emulsion paint :-It contain vehicles (Binding Material) like as styrene,
polyvinyl acetate, alkyd resin etc. It dries quickly (1.5 to 2) hour.
Caesin Paints:- It can be applied on walls, wall board, ceilings etc. to
improve appearance. Caesin (a protein substance extracted from milk curd),
is mixed with a base consisting of white pigments, to form pasty/powder
form paint.
Defects in Painting
(a) Blistering: It is the defect caused due to the fomation of bubbles
under film of water paint. The bubbles are formed by water vapours
trapped behind the painted surface.
(b) Running: This defect occur when the surface to be painted is too
smooth due to this the paint runs back & leaves small area of the
surface uncovered.
(c) Craling or sagging: This defect occurs due to the application of too
thick paint.
(d) Bloom: In this defect dull patches are formed on finished polished
surface. This may be either due to defect in paints or due to bad ven-
tilation.
(e) Fading: This is the gradual loss of color of paints due to effect of
sunlight on pigments of paints.
(f) Flashing: It is the formation of glossy patches on the painted surface
resulting from bad workmanship cheap paint or weather action.
(g) Flaking: Flaking is the dislocation or lossening of some portion of the
painted surface resulting from a poor adhesion.
(h) Grinning: This defect is caused when the surface final coat does not
have sufficient opacity so that background is clearly seen.
(i) Saponification: This is the formation of soap patches on the painted
surface due to chemical action of alkalis.
Various constituents of an oil paint are:
(a) Base: It is metallic oxide which is the principal constituent of a paint.
Most common base used for timber painting is white lead & for iron &
steel surface is red lead
It makes the paint film opaque & possesses binding properties which
reduces the shrinkage cracks in the film on drying.
(b) Vehicle: It is also known as binder or carrier or drying oil
 It is an oil to which base is mixed. It holds the constituents of paints
in suspension & helps spread it over the surface to be painted.
 It gives durability, toughness & water proofness & resistance to
weathering.
 Linseed oil, poppy oil, tung oil, animal oils are examples of vehicle.
(c) Solvents: These are oils used to thin the paints, increase the spread.
Also called thinner. Ex. Naptha, Spirit, Petroleum, Turpentine oil.
(d) Drier (e) Adultrants (f) Extenders
(g) Pigments: It is used to hide the surface imperfections & to impart
the desired colour.
Name of pigment Colour

Zinc oxide, White lead lithophone White
Copper sulphate, Chromium oxide Green
Burnt siena Brown
Indigo, Prussian blue Blue
Ivory black, Lamp black Black
Red lead, Vermillion Red
Exam Points:
 The drier in an oil paint should not be more than 10% (by volume).
 Gypsum is an insulating material & used as sound proof material.
 Gypsum is composed of calcium sulphate & di-hydrate.
 Density of gypsum is 2960 kg/cum.
 Galvanized iron pipe is used for making drinking water pipes.
 Sewer pipes are made of stoneware.
 The amount of water used for one kg of distemper is 0.6 litre.
 Putty is traditionally made by mixing a base of whiting (fine pow-
dered chalk) with the linseed oil in the various parts. It has similar
texture to clay. It is used for filling holes, microcracks etc. It is used
in domestic construction & repair as a sealant & filler due to it’s high
plasticity characteristics.
 Resin is a natural or synthetic organic compound having a non-crystal-
line or viscous liquid substance.Natural resins are yellowish to brown
in colour. These are typically fusible & flammable organic substances
that are transparent or translucent.They are formed in plant secretions
& are soluble in various organic liquids like as spirit but not soluble in
water. They are used as varnishes & left behind on evaporation of oil.
 Terpentine oil are also used to clean brushes & other tools.
 Peeling is the complete dislocation of some portion of plastered
surface, resulting in the formation of a patch.
Thermocol is a very light, cellular plastic.
• The compressive strength of thermocol varies from 117 - 144 kg/cm2 .
• It resist dampness.It is light, strong and durable.
• It is used in acoustic treatment and lining of ceiling and walls.
• It is an excellent insulating material of heat, sound and electricity.
Building Maintenance
Engineering 15
 The process of making the back ground rough, before plastering, is hacking
 Area of openings for buildings of large permeability is more than 20%
of wall area
 In residential buildings the height of bathroom should not be less than
2.4m
 The most important tool in brick laying for lifting & spreading mortar &
for forming joints is trowel
 The surface to which the first coat of plaster is applied is called background
surface
 The function of cleats in a roof truss is to prevent the purlin from tilting.
 The function of king post in a king post roof truss is to prevent the tie
beam from sagging at its centre.
 Complete dislocation of plastered surface, resulting in formation of a
patch is known as peeling
 The skirting finish applied to the bottom most part of the interior wall.
Requirement of Part of Building
 Plinth: The height of plinth shall not be less than 30 cm from
surroundings ground level.
Store room:
 Area of store room shall not be less than 3 m2.
 Height of store room shall not be less than 2.2 m.
Stairway (Minimum Width)
 Residential building (dwelling) upto 3 story – 0.9 m
 Other residential building like flat, hotel etc. = 1.25 m
 Residential hotel building,Educational building like school & college,
Assembly building like auditorium, theatre etc.= 1.5 m
 Institutional building like hospital = 2 m  All other buildings = 1.5
For plot size greater than 50 m2 -
Part of building Minimum area Minimum width

2
One habitable room 9.50 m 2.40 m
2
One Room 9.5 m other One Room 2.40 m &
Two habitable room
room 7.5 m 2 other room 2.40 m
Kitchen with store 5.5 m 2 1.8 m
2
Kitchen only 4.50 m 1.8 m
2
Kitchen cum dinning room 9.5 m 2.4 m
2
W.C. 1.1 m 0.9 m
2
Bathroom 1.8 m (1.5 m  1.2 m) 1.20 m
2
Bath  W.C 2.8 m 1.2 m
 Size of door for kitchen is 0.9 m × 2.1 m
 The height of habitable room shall not be less than 2.75 m.
 The minimum clear head room under a beam folded plate or eave
shall be 2.4 m.
Depth of exploration
The term significant depth is used to indicate the depth upto which the
increase in pressure due to structural loading is likely to cause perceptible
settlement or shear failure of foundations.
Depth of exploration
 1.50 times the length 1.50 times the width.
 1.50 times the base width of 1.50 times the exposed height of face of
wall whichever is greater.
Depth of construction
 1.50 m in general & 3.50 m in black cotton soil.
 Methods of site exploration.
1. Test pits, 2. Sub-surface sounding, 3. Boring, 4. Probing
5. Geo-physical method
Is 1647-1960: Covers code of practice for fire safety of building (general)
non electric equipment, oil, gas, and heater
Is 1646-1960: Code of practice for fire safety of buildings (general) elec-
trical installation.
Is 1645-1960: Code of practice for fire safety of buildings (general) chim-
ney, flues, and hearths
Is 1256-1967: Code of practice for building by laws.
Types of fire - Extinguisher

(a) Water type (b) Dry chemical powder
(c) Carbon - dioxide type (d) Foam Type (e) Wet chemical type
There are six types of fire:
Class A - (Combustible material fire)
Class B - (fire due to flammable liquid)
Class C - (fire due to flammable gases)
Class D - (fire due to metals)
Class E - (fire due to electrical equipments)
Class F - (fire due to cooking oils)
Various Locations of a room
(a) Kitchen - East or SE (b) Living - SE/ South
(c) Window - Northern side of a room (d) Bedroom - West
(e) Puja room - NE (North East)
 Septic Tank
(a) Floor slope 1:20
(b) Cleaning must be done within 3 years
(c) Baffle wall divide the septic tank in two equal parts & its minimum
width is 4 cm
(d) Septic tank shall have minimum width of 750 mm, minimum depth of
1m below water level & a minimum liquid capacity of 1000 litres.
(e) Minimum Height of free Board should not less than 30 cm
Special points :
 Dado tiles are provided to prevent water seepage in wall.
 As per national building code of India it recommends a minimum front
of 6 m on any road.
 The chemical formula of asbestos is Mg 3Si 2O 5(OH) 4. So it is
inorganic.Asbestos refers to naturally occurring fibrous minerals that have
the ability to resist heat fire and electricity.
 Unvented heaters shall not be installed in sleeping rooms, bathrooms
& toilet rooms, storage closets and surgical rooms because they cause
asphyxiation, carbon monoxidepoisoning and may lead to death.
 Asbestos is best known for causing mesothelioma, a rare and deadly
cancer.
Building Laws 16
• In Rural areas, these bye-Laws are directed by Revenue authorities
1. Building Lines:
(a) Set back or front building line: The line upto which the plinth of a
building adjoining a street or an extension of street or on a future
street may lawfully extened.
• This line is laid parellel to the plot boundries by the authority beyond
which nothing can be constructed.
(b) General building line: Sometime a line is fixed called general building
line & no building or its portion should project beyond this building
line.
(c) Control line: Certain buildings like as cinemas, business. centre
factories etc which attract large number of vehicles should be further
setback a further distance apart from building line. This line which
accounts for extra-margin is called as control line.
Distances of Building line & Control line

Type of road In open & River develop- Actual limit in
Agricultural ment along urban area.
country approach
Building control Building Control Building Control
Line Line Line Line Line Line
1. National & State
Highways 30 m 56 m 18 m 30 m 30 m 45 m
2. Major District
Roads 24 m 45 m 9m 15 m 15 m 24 m
3. Other District
Roads 15 m 24 m 6m 9m 9m 25 m
4. Village Roads 12 m 18 m 6m 9m 9m 25 m
Special point:
(i) Generally in urban areas, the distance of control line is considered
as 1.5 times that of building line.
(ii) These distances are measured from centre of Roadway.
(iii) National building code specifies a minimum frontage of 6m on any
street
(iv) National building code published in 1970, current version (2005)
(V) In 1966, the national safety council was setup in India.
2. Built- up (or covered Area) Limitation:

Total covered Area of all Floors
Floor Area Ratio (F.A.R) =  100
Plot Area
Floor Space Index (F.S.I)/Plan Efficiency/FAR
• FAR is used in classifying type of construction.
• The covered area is governed by F.A.R or F.S.I.
• FAR values are specified in Natinal Building code for different
occupancies and types of construction.
• Following limitations for bult-up area have been Recommended
(i) In an industrial area the built - up area or covered area shall not
exceed 60% of the site areas.
(ii) In a buisness area, the covered area shall not exceed 75% of the area
of site. provided sufficient space for parking, etc is available on the
same site.
(iii) In Residential areas, the covered areas are indicated as below.
Area of the plot Maximum permissible

built-up area
Less than 200 m2 66% with two-storeyed structure
200 - 500 m2 50% of the site
500 - 1,000 m2 40% of the site
More than 1,000 m2 33.33% of site.
3. Open space Requirement around building:
• These are required for lighting & ventilation requirements of the rooms.
• The national building code recommends the following open space
requirements for varying heights of building.
(i) For buildings height less than 10m, the following values for front, rear
& side yards are recommended as integral part of site:
(a) Front yard or open space width = 3m, when building fronting a
street.
In no case less than 1.8 m, when building fronting two or more
sides.
(b) Side yard or open space width = 3m, minimum for every semi
detached or detached building.
(c) Rear yard or open space width = 3m, average & is no case less
than 1.8 m, subject to condition of free ventilation.
(d) The minimum distance for construction of any Building from the
centre line of any street shall not be less than 7.5 m as determined
by authority.
(ii) For buildings with height more than 10m & less than 25 m, the values
of minimum open spaces, requied for height of 10m, are increased at
the Rate of 1m for every 3m or fraction the roof, for heights above 10
m.
(iii) For building with heights more than 25 m But less than 30m, there
shall be a minimum open space of 10 m.
(iv) For building with heights above 30m , the minimum open space of 10
m required for heights of 30m, shall be increased at the rate of 1m for
every additional height of 5m or fraction, subjected to a maximum of
16 m.
(v) The one side of one or more rooms intended for human habitation on
interior open space having width not less than 3m.
4. Provision to size, height and ventilation of rooms & appartments:
(A) Size : From the view of heat and ventilation, certain absolute minimum
areas for individual rooms & appartments have been laid by national building
code as follows: (some are already discussed in previous chapter )
(a) Mezzanine floor : It is an intermediate floor in a building which is
partly open to the Double-height ceiling floor below or which does not
extend over the which floor space of a building.
(i) The minimum area of mezzanine floor, which to be used as a
living room = 9.5 m2
(ii) The total area of such mezzanine floor, in a building should not
exceed 1/3 rd of plinth area of a building.
(b) Height of building & rooms.
• Height of the building is decided by two factors.
(i) Either by the width of street on which it fronts
(ii) The minimum width of rear space.
Maximum height limits of building
Width of street Height of the building
Say W-m Height =1.5 W + front open space
(In general)
upto 8 m 1.5 times the width of street
8m to 12 m Not more than 12 m
Above 12m Not more than width of street in
no case more than 24 m
Note: No plinth or building portion or out house shall be less than 30 cm
above any portion of around within 3 m distance of such type of building.
• Minimum heights of individual rooms as specified by national building
code of India are as followed:
(a) For habitable rooms = 2.75m, (b) For kitchen = 2.75m
(c) For habitable room under low housing schemes = 2.6m
(d) For bathroom & water closet=2.2m.
(e) In multi-storeyed government buildings, the height is usually restricted
to 3.4 metres.
Note: The height of the building is measured upto the the room in case
of pitched roof & up to the surface of the roof in case of flat roof. In case
of pitch roof , the pitch is not expected in exceed 450 or the height of
parapet by 3 ft in case of flat roof.
• The height at the building wrt rent space is fixed by the Imaginary lines
i) Horizontal line ii) diagonal line.
• The Horizontal line is draw in the direction of the building at 63.50 from
where horizontal line meets the rear boundry.

• No part of the building is allowed to project beyond the diagonal line
except that for minor port like as smoke chimney etc.
(c) Lighting & ventilation : Area of window opening exclusive of doors &
inclusive of frames is as specified below:
(i) 1/6th of the floor area for wet hot climate &
(ii) 1/10th of the floor area for dry hot climate.
• The average area of door & window shall not be less than 1/7th of the
floor area.
• For ventilating the spaces for w.c and bathrooms if not opening on the
front side, rear and interior open spaces, shall open onto ventilating shaft.
• The minimum size of such shaft are as given below:
Height of Building Minimum area of Minimum side
(in m) ventilating shaft(m ) of shaft (in m)
2
upto 12m 3 1.5

18 m 4.5 1.8
20m 6 1.8
• No portion of the room should be assumed as lighted, if it is more than
7.5m away from the opening assumed for lighting that portion.
5. Water supply & sanitary conveniences:
(A) Residences:
(i) Dwelling with individual conveniences should have atleast.
(I) One bathroom with lap
(II) One water closet and one sink
• When only one w.c is provided in a dwelling the bathroom and the
water closet should be separataly accommodated.
(ii) Dwellings without individual - for conveniences should have atleast
following:
(I) One tap with draining arrangement in each terement.
(II) One w.c and one bathroom for crazy two terements
(III) Water taps in common bathrooms & commom water closet
(B) Building other than residence:
(i) For public building like as offices, schools, colleges etc. should be
provided is determined on the basis of one person for each 5 m2 of
floor area of each room.
• For every 25 persons , there should be one water closet
• For every 100 persons there should be one urinal.

• The sanitory unit for either 6 should be separate.
(ii) For buildings such as cinemas, theaters and public assembly halls
one water closet for every 200 males or females there should be
provided urinals ,should be provided at the rate of one for 100
parsons.
(iii) For factory & workshop buildings there should be an absolute
minimum one water closet for either 6 & total number of water
closet and urinals are provided at following rate.
• One water closet for every 40 persons &
• One urinal for every 100 persons
Note: The number of persons in factory are decided on the basis of one
person/m2 of gross floor area
6. Structural design or sizes & sections
(A) Depth of foundation should be taken as Below:
(i) For single- storeyed building =0.75 - 1.0m below finished G.L
(ii) For Double- storeyed building = 1.0m - 1.30m below finished G.L
(B) Width of foundation -The thickness of the wall in spread foundation
or stepped footings is extended by an offset on each side equal to half
brick width ( 5 cm ).
• The thickness of concrete in foundation should nearly be equal to
5/6 of the thickness of wall in superstructure .
• The thumb rule to deternine the width of foundation is to Double
the thickness of wall in superstructure (just above plinth) and add
30cm
(C) Plinth : This portion of the building is in between the surface of the
overounding ground level.
• The plinth level of the building is generally kept higher (generally
30 cm or more) than the surounding ground level such that proper
drainage of site is assured.
• In case that the plinth is 20cm or less, then there is no need to
provide any step.
(D) Damp- proof course: D.P.C is provided to prevent moisture rising up
the wall.
• The horizontal D.P.C is usually 4.0cm thick of cement concrete
(1:2:4) is provided about 10 to 20 cm above final ground level.

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ESE-CIVIL ENGINEERING.

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There are many books available in the market for

For Test Series visit Civil Ki Goli App or website

Duao Me Yaad Rakhna..........

It sets & hardens quickly in It obtained from calcination

Raw materials in cement manufacture

Oxide Composition Avg. Function

Principal Mineral Compound Formula Avg. Symbol Function

Property Dry Process Wet Process

of free lime (CaO) or magnesia (MgO).

 The addition of pozzolanas to concrete results in.

 Suitable for basement & making water tight structures.

2. Consistency Test: It is the Amount of water used to make paste of

Diameter length & shape of Vicat apparatus for different test:

S. Types of test Diameter or size Sha pe

1. Initial setting time 1mm of square needle Square needle

2. Final setting time 5 mm Annular ring

3. Consistency 10 mm Solid circular

3. Initial and Final Setting time

Test performed Amount of water required

Slaking Slaking takes place on Hardening takes place

E c  5700 f ck N / mm 2 . , Min. grade = M15 (IS 456:1978)

E c  5000 f ck N / mm 2 . , Min. grade = M20 (IS 456:2000)

Lime Extra light Low 1:4:8 M7.5 In Situ

 Tilting mixers are used for large construction works.

Floating: It consist of removing the irregularities on the surface of

Maturity Concept in Concrete

Methods of Proportioning concrete mixes

 Strength of concrete increases with age in the following way.

Moderate Very Severe

Days Strength of Concrete

1. Compressive strength test:

Volume of concrete No. of sample

(c) Direct tensile strength: It is measured by testing rectangular speci-

3. Moisture in specimen: It reduces the strength.

Factors affecting workability

Types of Slump: True slump, Shear slump and Collapse slump

Adjustment in various igredients of concrete, if desired slump is not obtained

All dimensions are in cm in above diagram.

No. Type of concrete Slump (mm)

2. Compacting factor test: Degree of workability is measured in terms

As per CPWD specifications for concrete work:

D egreeof Slum p C om pacting V ee  B ee

3.Vee Bee consistometer: It determines the time required for transforming,

4. Flow table test: It is the laboratory test which gives an indication of

Spread diameter (in cm)  25

Sr. No. Tested as per Permisible

dropped from height more than 1.5m (IS : 456).

Chemical Admixture Mineral Admixture

Durability of Concrete : It is defined as its ability to resist weathering

Type of formwork Minimum period before