Microscope Notes

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YOUR NOTES
AS Biology OCR 
2.1 Cell Structure
CONTENTS
2.1.1 Studying Cells
2.1.2 Using a Microscope
2.1.3 Drawing Cells
2.1.4 Magnification & Resolution
2.1.5 Eukaryotic Cells
2.1.6 Eukaryotic Cells Under the Microscope
2.1.7 Organelles & the Production of Proteins
2.1.8 The Cytoskeleton
2.1.9 Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells
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2.1.1 Studying Cells YOUR NOTES

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Use of Microscopy
Microscopes can be used to analyse cell components and observe organelles
Magnification and resolution are two scientific terms that are very important to
understand and distinguish between when answering questions about microscopy (the
use of microscopes):
Magnification tells you how many times bigger the image produced by the
microscope is than the real-life object you are viewing
Resolution is the ability to distinguish between objects that are close together (i.e.
the ability to see two structures that are very close together as two separate
structures)
There are different types of microscopes:
Optical microscopes (sometimes known as light microscopes)
Electron microscopes
Laser scanning confocal microscopes
Optical (light) microscopes
Optical microscopes use light to form an image
This limits the resolution of optical microscopes
Using light, it is impossible to resolve (distinguish between) two objects that are closer
than half the wavelength of light
The wavelength of visible light is between 500-650 nanometres (nm), so an optical
microscope cannot be used to distinguish between objects closer than half of this
value
Optical microscopes have a maximum resolution of around 0.2 micrometres (µm) or 200
nm
Therefore optical microscopes can be used to observe eukaryotic cells, their nuclei
and possibly mitochondria and chloroplasts
Optical microscopes cannot be used to observe smaller organelles such as
ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum or lysosomes
The maximum useful magnification of optical microscopes is about ×1500
Electron microscopes
Electron microscopes use electrons to form an image
This greatly increases the resolution of electron microscopes compared to optical
microscopes, giving a more detailed image
A beam of electrons has a much smaller wavelength than light, so an electron
microscope can resolve (distinguish between) two objects that are extremely close
together
Electron microscopes have a maximum resolution of around 0.0002 µm or 0.2 nm (i.e.
around 1000 times greater than that of optical microscopes)
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This means electron microscopes can be used to observe small organelles such as YOUR NOTES
ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum or lysosomes 
The maximum useful magnification of electron microscopes is about ×1,500,000
There are two types of electron microscopes:
Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs)
Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs)
Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs)
TEMs use electromagnets to focus a beam of electrons
This beam of electrons is transmitted through the specimen
Denser parts of the specimen absorb more electrons
This makes these denser parts appear darker on the final image produced (produces
contrast between different parts of the object being observed)
Advantages of TEMs:
They give high-resolution images (more detail)
This allows the internal structures within cells (or even within organelles) to be seen
Disadvantages of TEMs:
They can only be used with very thin specimens or thin sections of the object being
observed
They cannot be used to observe live specimens (as there is a vacuum inside a TEM, all
the water must be removed from the specimen and so living cells cannot be observed,
meaning that specimens must be dead, unlike optical microscopes that can be used
to observe live specimens)
The lengthy treatment required to prepare specimens means that artefacts can be
introduced (artefacts look like real structures but are actually the results of preserving
and staining)
They do not produce a colour image (unlike optical microscopes that produce a
colour image)
Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs)
SEMs scan a beam of electrons across the specimen
This beam bounces off the surface of the specimen and the electrons are detected,
forming an image
This means SEMs can produce three-dimensional images that show the surface of
specimens
Advantages of SEMs:
They can be used on thick or 3-D specimens
They allow the external, 3-D structure of specimens to be observed
Disadvantages of SEMs:
They give lower resolution images (less detail) than TEMs
They cannot be used to observe live specimens (unlike optical microscopes that can
be used to observe live specimens)
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They do not produce a colour image (unlike optical microscopes that produce a YOUR NOTES
colour image) 
Laser scanning confocal microscopes
These microscopes are relatively new technology
The cells being viewed must be stained with fluorescent dyes
A thick section of tissue or small living organisms are scanned with a laser beam
The laser beam is reflected by the fluorescent dyes
Multiple depths of the tissue section/organisms are scanned to produce an image
Think of it like the laser beam is building up the image layer by layer
Advantages:
They can be used on thick or 3-D specimens
They allow the external, 3-D structure of specimens to be observed
Very clear images are produced. The high resolution is due to the fact that the laser
beam can be focused at a very specific depth
You can even see the structure of the cytoskeleton in cells
Disadvantages:
It is a slow process and takes a long time to obtain an image
The laser has the potential to cause photodamage to the cells
 Exam Tip
This is a lot of information to learn! First, make sure you know the basics of how each
type of microscope works. Then learn the advantages and disadvantages of each
type of microscope. In particular, make sure you can compare and contrast the
different microscopes in terms of their relative advantages and disadvantages. In
an exam question, you could be given a situation and then asked which type of
electron microscope would be most suitable to use and why. A good revision idea is
to make a table of the advantages and disadvantages of each type of
microscope...then learn them!
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2.1.2 Using a Microscope YOUR NOTES

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Preparation of Microscope Slides
Many biological structures are too small to be seen by the naked eye
Optical microscopes are an invaluable tool for scientists as they allow for tissues, cells and
organelles to be seen and studied
For example, the movement of chromosomes during mitosis can be observed using a
microscope
How optical microscopes work
Light is directed through the thin layer of biological material that is supported on a glass
slide
This light is focused through several lenses so that an image is visible through the eyepiece
The magnifying power of the microscope can be increased by rotating the higher power
objective lens into place
Apparatus
The key components of an optical microscope are:
The eyepiece lens
The objective lenses
The stage
The light source
The coarse and fine focus
Other tools used:
Forceps
Scissors
Scalpel
Coverslip
Slides
Pipette
Staining solution
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YOUR NOTES
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Image showing all the components of an optical microscope

Method
Preparing a slide using a liquid specimen:
Add a few drops of the sample to the slide using a pipette
Cover the liquid/smear with a coverslip and gently press down to remove air bubbles
Wear gloves to ensure there is no cross-contamination of foreign cells
Methods of preparing a microscope slide using a solid specimen:
Take care when using sharp objects and wear gloves to prevent the stain from dying
your skin
Use scissors to cut a small sample of the tissue
Peel away or cut a very thin layer of cells from the tissue sample to be placed on the
slide (using a scalpel or forceps)
The tissue needs to be thin so that the light from the microscope can pass
through
Apply a stain
Gently place a coverslip on top and press down to remove any air bubbles
Or
Some tissue samples need to be treated with chemicals to kill/make the tissue rigid
This involves fixing the specimen using formaldehyde (preservative), dehydrating it
using a series of ethanol solutions, impregnating it in paraffin/resin for support then
cutting thin slices from the specimen using a microtome
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The paraffin is removed from the slices/specimen, a stain is applied and the specimen YOUR NOTES
is mounted using a resin and a coverslip is applied 
Or
Freeze the specimen in carbon dioxide or liquid nitrogen
Cut the specimen into thin slices using a cryostat
Place the specimen on the slide and add a stain
Gently place a coverslip on top and press down to remove any air bubbles
When using an optical microscope always start with the low power objective lens:
It is easier to find what you are looking for in the field of view
This helps to prevent damage to the lens or coverslip in case the stage has been
raised too high
Preventing the dehydration of tissue:
The thin layers of material placed on slides can dry up rapidly
Adding a drop of water to the specimen (beneath the coverslip) can prevent the cells
from being damaged by dehydration
Unclear or blurry images:
Switch to the lower power objective lens and try using the coarse focus to get a clearer
image
Consider whether the specimen sample is thin enough for light to pass through to see
the structures clearly
There could be cross-contamination with foreign cells or bodies
Using a graticule to take measurements of cells:
A graticule is a small disc that has an engraved ruler
It can be placed into the eyepiece of a microscope to act as a ruler in the field of view
As a graticule has no fixed units it must be calibrated for the objective lens that is in
use. This is done by using a scale engraved on a microscope slide (a stage
micrometer)
By using the two scales together the number of micrometers each graticule unit is
worth can be worked out
After this is known the graticule can be used as a ruler in the field of view
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YOUR NOTES

The stage micrometer scale is used to find out how many micrometers each graticule unit
represents
Limitations
The size of cells or structures of tissues may appear inconsistent in different specimen
slides
Cell structures are 3D and the different tissue samples will have been cut at different
planes resulting in this inconsistencies when viewed on a 2D slide
Optical microscopes do not have the same magnification power as other types of
microscopes and so there are some structures that can not be seen
The treatment of specimens when preparing slides could alter the structure of cells
 Exam Tip
Remember the importance of calibration when using a graticule. If it is not
calibrated then the measurements taken will be completely arbitrary!
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Staining in Light Microscopy YOUR NOTES

Many tissues that are used in microscopy are naturally transparent, they let both light and 
electrons pass through them
This makes it very difficult to see any detail in the tissue when using a microscope
Stains are often used to make the tissue coloured/visible
Staining for light microscopy
Coloured dyes are used when staining specimens
The dyes used absorb specific colours of light while reflecting others; this makes the
structures within the specimen that have absorbed the dye visible
Certain tissues absorb certain dyes, which dye they absorb depends on their chemical
nature
Specimens or sections are sometimes stained with multiple dyes to ensure the different
tissues within the specimen show up - this is known as differential staining
It is important to remember that most of the colours seen in photomicrographs (image
taken using a light microscope) are not natural
Chloroplasts don't need stains as they show up green, which is their natural colour
Toluidine blue and phloroglucinol are common stains used
Toluidine blue turns cells blue
Phloroglucinol turns cells red/pink
Toluidine blue and phloroglucinol have been used to stain this tissue specimen taken from a
leaf
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Staining for electron microscopy YOUR NOTES

When using Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) the specimen must be stained in 
order to absorb the electrons
Unlike light, electrons have no colour
The dyes used for staining cause the tissues to show up black or different shades of
grey
Heavy-metal compounds are commonly used as dyes because they absorb electrons
well
Osmium tetroxide and ruthenium tetroxide are examples
Any of the colour present in electron micrographs is not natural and it is also not a result of
the staining
Colours are added to the image using an image-processing software
The internal structure of the mitochondrion can be seen using a TEM and staining
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YOUR NOTES
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A spiracle found on the exoskeleton of an insect. No colours have been added to this image
using image-processing software.
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2.1.3 Drawing Cells YOUR NOTES

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Drawing Cells
To record the observations seen under the microscope (or from photomicrographs taken)
a labelled biological drawing is often made
Biological drawings are line pictures which show specific features that have been
observed when the specimen was viewed
There are a number of rules/conventions that are followed when making a biological
drawing
Guidelines for microscope drawings
The conventions are:
The drawing must have a title
The magnification under which the observations shown by the drawing are made must
be recorded
A sharp HB pencil should be used (and a good eraser!)
Drawings should be on plain white paper
Lines should be clear, single lines (no thick shading)
No shading
The drawing should take up as much of the space on the page as possible
Well-defined structures should be drawn
The drawing should be made with proper proportions
Label lines should not cross or have arrowheads and should connect directly to the
part of the drawing being labelled
Label lines should be kept to one side of the drawing (in parallel to the top of the page)
and drawn with a ruler
Drawings of cells are typically made when visualizing cells at a higher magnification power,
whereas plan drawings are typically made of tissues viewed under lower magnifications
(individual cells are never drawn in a plan diagram)
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An example of a tissue plan drawn from a low-power image of a transverse section of a root. YOUR NOTES
There is no cell detail present. 
An example of a cellular drawing taken from a high-power image of phloem tissue.
 Exam Tip
When producing a biological drawing, it is vital that you only ever draw what you see
and not what you think you see.To accurately reflect the size and proportions of
structures you see under the microscope, you should get used to using the
eyepiece graticule.You should be able to describe and interpret photomicrographs,
electron micrographs and drawings of typical animal cells.
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2.1.4 Magnification & Resolution YOUR NOTES

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Magnification Formula
Magnification is how many times bigger the image of a specimen observed is in
comparison to the actual (real-life) size of the specimen
The magnification (M) of an object can be calculated if both the size of the image (I), and
the actual size of the specimen (A), is known
An equation triangle for calculating magnification
 Worked Example
An image of an animal cell is 30 mm in size and it has been magnified by a factor of X
3000.
What is the actual size of the cell?
To find the actual size of the cell:
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The size of cells is typically measured using the micrometre (μm) scale, with cellular YOUR NOTES
structures measured in either micrometers (μm) or nanometers (nm) 
When doing calculations all measurements must be in the same units. It is best to use the
smallest unit of measurement shown in the question
To convert units, multiply or divide depending if the units are increasing or decreasing
Magnification does not have units
Converting units of measurement
There are 1000 nanometers (nm) in a micrometre (µm)

There are 1000 micrometres (µm) in a millimetre (mm)
There are 1000 millimetres (mm) in a metre (m)
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Step 1: Check that units in magnification questions are the same

Remember that 1mm = 1000µm
2000 / 1000 = 2, so the actual thickness of the leaf is 2 mm and the drawing thickness is 50 mm
Step 2: Calculate Magnification
Magnification = image size / actual size = 50 / 2 = 25
So the magnification is x 25
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Magnification & Resolution YOUR NOTES

Magnification 
Magnification is how many times bigger the image of a specimen observed is in compared
to the actual (real-life) size of the specimen
A light microscope has two types of lens:
An eyepiece lens, which often has a magnification of x10
A series of (usually 3) objective lenses, each with a different magnification
To calculate the total magnification the magnification of the eyepiece lens and the
objective lens are multiplied together:
eyepiece lens magnification x objective lens magnification
= total magnification
Resolution
Resolution is the ability to distinguish between two separate points
If two separate points cannot be resolved, they will be observed as one point
The resolution of a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of light
As light passes through the specimen, it will be diffracted
The longer the wavelength of light, the more it is diffracted and the more that this
diffraction will overlap as the points get closer together
Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution and magnification than a light
microscope as electrons have a much smaller wavelength than visible light
This means that they can be much closer before the diffracted beams overlap
The concept of resolution is why the phospholipid bilayer structure of the cell membrane
cannot be observed under a light microscope
The width of the phospholipid bilayer is about 10nm
The maximum resolution of a light microscope is 200nm (half the smallest wavelength
of visible light, 400nm)
Any points that are separated by a distance less than 200nm (such as the 10nm
phospholipid bilayer) cannot be resolved by a light microscope and therefore will not
be distinguishable as “separate”
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YOUR NOTES
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The resolving power of an electron microscope is much greater than that of the light
microscope, as structures much smaller than the wavelength of light will interfere with a
beam of electrons
Comparison of the electron microscope & light microscope
Light microscopes are used for specimens above 200 nm
Light microscopes shine light through the specimen, this light is then passed through
an objective lens (which can be changed) and an eyepiece lens (x10) which magnify
the specimen to give an image that can be seen by the naked eye
The specimens can be living (and therefore can be moving), or dead
Light microscopes are useful for looking at whole cells, small plant and animal
organisms, tissues within organs such as in leaves or skin
Electron microscopes, both scanning and transmission, are used for specimens above
0.5 nm
Electron microscopes fire a beam of electrons at the specimen either a broad static
beam (transmission) or a small beam that moves across the specimen (scanning)
The electrons are picked up by an electromagnetic lens which then shows the image
Due to the higher frequency of electron waves (a much shorter wavelength)
compared to visible light, the magnification and resolution of an electron microscope
is much better than a light microscope
Electron microscopes are useful for looking at organelles, viruses and DNA as well as
looking at whole cells in more detail
Electron microscopy requires the specimen to be dead however this can provide a
snapshot in time of what is occurring in a cell eg. DNA can be seen replicating and
chromosome position within the stages of mitosis are visible
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Light v Electron Microscope Table YOUR NOTES


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2.1.5 Eukaryotic Cells YOUR NOTES

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Eukaryotic Cell Structure
Cell surface membrane
The structure of the cell surface membrane – although the structure looks static the
phospholipids and proteins forming the bilayer are constantly in motion
All cells are surrounded by a cell surface membrane which controls the exchange of
materials between the internal cell environment and the external environment
The membrane is described as being ‘partially permeable’
The cell membrane is formed from a phospholipid bilayer of phospholipids spanning a
diameter of around 10 nm
Cell wall
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YOUR NOTES

The cell wall is freely permeable to most substances (unlike the plasma membrane)
Found in plant cells but not in animal cells
Cell walls are formed outside of the cell membrane and offer structural support to cell
Structural support is provided by the polysaccharide cellulose in plants, and peptidoglycan
in most bacterial cells
Narrow threads of cytoplasm (surrounded by a cell membrane) called plasmodesmata
connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring plant cells
Nucleus
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The nucleus of a cell contains chromatin (a complex of DNA and histone proteins) which is YOUR NOTES
the genetic material of the cell 
Present in all eukaryotic cells (except red blood cells), the nucleus is relatively large and
separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane (the nuclear envelope) which has
many pores
Nuclear pores are important channels for allowing mRNA and ribosomes to travel out of the
nucleus, as well as allowing enzymes (eg. DNA polymerases) and signalling molecules to
travel in
The nucleus contains chromatin (the material from which chromosomes are made)
Chromosomes are made of sections of linear DNA tightly wound around proteins
called histones
Usually, at least one or more darkly stained regions can be observed – these regions are
individually termed ‘nucleolus’ (plural: nucleoli) and are the sites of ribosome production
Mitochondria
A single mitochondrion is shown – the inner membrane has protein complexes vital for the
later stages of aerobic respiration embedded within it
The site of aerobic respiration within all eukaryotic cells, mitochondria are just visible with a
light microscope
Surrounded by double-membrane with the inner membrane folded to form cristae
The matrix formed by the cristae contains enzymes needed for aerobic respiration,
producing ATP
Small circular pieces of DNA (mitochondrial DNA) and ribosomes are also found in the
matrix (needed for replication)
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Chloroplasts YOUR NOTES

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Chloroplasts are found in the green parts of a plant – the green colour a result of the
photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll
Found in plant cells
Larger than mitochondria, also surrounded by a double-membrane
Membrane-bound compartments called thylakoids containing chlorophyll stack to form
structures called grana
Grana are joined together by lamellae (thin and flat thylakoid membranes)
Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis:
The light-dependent stage takes place in the thylakoids
The light-independent stage (Calvin Cycle) takes place in the stroma
Also contain small circular pieces of DNA and ribosomes used to synthesise proteins
needed in chloroplast replication and photosynthesis
Ribosomes
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Ribosomes are formed in the nucleolus and are composed of almost equal amounts of RNA YOUR NOTES
and protein 
Found in all cells
Found freely in the cytoplasm of all cells or as part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum in
eukaryotic cells
Each ribosome is a complex of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins
80S ribosomes (composed of 60S and 40S subunits) are found in eukaryotic cells
70S ribosomes (composed of 50S and 30S subunits) in prokaryotes, mitochondria and
chloroplasts
Site of translation (protein synthesis)
Endoplasmic reticulum
The RER and ER are visible under the electron microscope - the presence or absence of
ribosomes helps to distinguish between them
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
Found in plant and animal cells
Surface covered in ribosomes
Formed from continuous folds of membrane continuous with the nuclear envelope
Processes proteins made by the ribosomes
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Does not have ribosomes on the surface, its function is distinct to the RER
Involved in the production, processing and storage of lipids, carbohydrates and steroids
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Golgi apparatus (golgi complex) YOUR NOTES


The structure of the Golgi apparatus

Flattened sacs of membrane similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Modifies proteins and lipids before packaging them into Golgi vesicles
The vesicles then transport the proteins and lipids to their required destination
Proteins that go through the Golgi apparatus are usually exported (e.g. hormones such
as insulin), put into lysosomes (such as hydrolytic enzymes) or delivered to membrane-
bound organelles
Large permanent vacuoles
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YOUR NOTES

The structure of the vacuole

A sac in plant cells surrounded by the tonoplast, selectively permeable membrane
Vacuoles in animal cells are not permanent and small
Vesicles
The structure of the vesicle

A membrane-bound sac for transport and storage
Lysosomes
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YOUR NOTES

The structure of the lysosome

Specialist forms of vesicles which contain hydrolytic enzymes (enzymes that break
biological molecules down)
Break down waste materials such as worn-out organelles
Used extensively by cells of the immune system and in apoptosis (programmed cell death)
Centrioles
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YOUR NOTES

The structure of the centriole

Hollow fibres made of microtubules
Two centrioles at right angles to each other form a centrosome, which organises the
spindle fibres during cell division
Not found in flowering plants and fungi
Microtubules
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YOUR NOTES

The structure of the microtubule

Found in all eukaryotic cells
Makes up the cytoskeleton of the cell about 25 nm in diameter
Made of α and β tubulin combined to form dimers, the dimers are then joined into
protofilaments
Thirteen protofilaments in a cylinder make a microtubule
The cytoskeleton is used to provide support and movement of the cell
Microvilli
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YOUR NOTES

The structure of the microvilli

Found in specialised animal cells
Cell membrane projections
Used to increase the surface area of the cell surface membrane in order to increase the
rate of exchange of substances
Cilia
The structure of the cilia

Hair-like projections made from microtubules
Allows the movement of substances over the cell surface
Flagella
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YOUR NOTES

The structure of the flagella

Found in specialised cells
Similar in structure to cilia, made of longer microtubules
Contract to provide cell movement for example in sperm cells
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2.1.6 Eukaryotic Cells Under the Microscope YOUR NOTES


Photomicrographs of Eukaryotic Cells
There are some features or structures that can help to identify whether a cell shown in an
image is a plant cell or animal cell
Structures found only in animal cells: centrioles and microvilli
Structures found only in plant cells: the cellulose cell wall, large permanent vacuoles
and chloroplasts
The ultrastructure of an animal cell shows a densely packed cell – the ER and RER and
ribosomes form extensive networks throughout the cell in reality.
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YOUR NOTES

Plant cells have a larger, more regular structure in comparison to animal cells.
Describing and interpreting photomicrographs, electron micrographs and drawings of
typical animal/plant cells is an important skill
The organelles and structures within cells have a characteristic shape and size which can be
helpful when having to identify and label them in an exam
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YOUR NOTES

TEM electron micrograph of an animal cell showing key features. Notice the lack of a cell
wall.
TEM electron micrograph of a plant cell showing key features. Notice the presence of a cell
wall and vacuole.
More detailed structures can be seen and identified in electron micrographs compared to
photomicrographs
This is because electron microscopes have greater maximum magnification and resolution
than light (optical) microscopes
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YOUR NOTES

Mucus producing goblet cells (found in the lining of trachea, bronchi and larger bronchioles)
are shown in a photomicrograph
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YOUR NOTES

Details of the structures inside the goblet cell can be seen in an electron micrograph
 Exam Tip
Make sure to learn the key identifying features of animal cells vs plant cells! It might
also help to familiarise yourself with the shapes and sizes of important structures
and organelles found in cells by finding some more photomicrographs and electron
micrographs.
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2.1.7 Organelles & the Production of Proteins YOUR NOTES


Organelles & the Production of Proteins
Inside cells many organelles are involved in the production and secretion of proteins
Organelles are specialised parts of a cell that carry out a particular function
Some organelles are membrane-bound
The organelles involved in protein synthesis include
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Golgi apparatus
Cell surface membrane
The nucleus stores the DNA (that codes for the production of proteins) and also contains
the nucleolus, which manufactures ribosomes (required for protein synthesis)
The process of protein synthesis involves the following stages
The DNA from the nucleus is copied into a molecule of mRNA via a process known as
transcription
The mRNA strand leaves the nucleus through a nuclear pore and attaches to a
ribosome on the rough endoplasmic reticulum
The ribosome 'reads' the genetic instructions contained within the mRNA and uses this
code to synthesise a protein via a process known as translation
This protein then passes into the lumen (the inside space) of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum to be folded and processed
Cells that produce a large number of proteins, e.g. enzyme- or hormone-
producing cells have an extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum
The processed proteins are then transported to the Golgi apparatus (also known as
the Golgi body or Golgi complex) in vesicles which fuse with the Golgi apparatus,
releasing the proteins
The Golgi apparatus modifies the proteins, preparing them for secretion
Proteins that go through the Golgi apparatus are usually exported (e.g. hormones
such as insulin), put into lysosomes (e.g. hydrolytic enzymes) or delivered to other
organelles
The modified proteins then leave the Golgi apparatus in vesicles
Finally, these vesicles (containing the final proteins) fuse with the cell surface
membrane, releasing the proteins by the process of exocytosis
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YOUR NOTES

Many organelles are involved in the production and secretion of proteins
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2.1.8 The Cytoskeleton YOUR NOTES


The Cytoskeleton
Within the cytoplasm of cells, there is an extensive network of protein fibres
This is known as the cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is made up of two main types of protein fibres: microfilaments and
microtubules
Microfilaments are solid strands that are mostly made of the protein actin. These
fibres can cause some cell movement and the movement of some organelles within
cells by moving against each other
Microtubules are tubular (hollow) strands that are mostly made of the protein tubulin.
Organelles and other cell contents are moved along these fibres using ATP to drive this
movement
Intermediate filaments (a third type of fibre) are also found within the cytoskeleton
The importance of the cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is important as it has several different functions, including:
Strengthening and support:
The cytoskeleton provides the cell with mechanical strength, forming a kind of
'scaffolding' that helps to maintain the shape of the cell
It also supports the organelles, keeping them in position
Intracellular (within cell) movement:
The cytoskeleton aids transport within cells by forming 'tracks' along which
organelles can move
Examples of this include the movement of vesicles and the movement of
chromosomes to opposite ends of a cell during cell division
Cellular movement:
The cytoskeleton enables cell movement via cilia and flagella
These structures are both hair-like extensions that protrude from the cell surface and
contain microtubules that are responsible for moving them
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YOUR NOTES

The cytoskeleton provides mechanical strength to cells, aids transport within cells and
enables cell movement
 Exam Tip
For the exam, you only need to be aware of the two main types of protein fibres
within the cytoskeleton: microfilaments and microtubules. The third type
(intermediate filaments) are shown here to give extra detail on the composition of
the cytoskeleton.
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2.1.9 Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells YOUR NOTES


Comparison of Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells
Animal and plant cells are types of eukaryotic cells, whereas bacteria are a type of
prokaryote
Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells (between 100 - 1000 times
smaller)
Prokaryotic cells also differ from eukaryotic cells in having:
A cytoplasm that lacks membrane-bound organelles
Their ribosomes are structurally smaller (70 S) in comparison to those found in
eukaryotic cells (80 S)
No nucleus (instead they have a single circular DNA molecule that is free in the
cytoplasm and is not associated with proteins)
A cell wall that contains murein (a glycoprotein)
In addition, many prokaryotic cells have a few other structures that differentiate them from
others and act as a selective advantage, examples of these are:
Plasmids
Capsules
Flagellum
Plasmids are small loops of DNA that are separate from the main circular DNA molecule
Plasmids contain genes that can be passed between prokaryotes (e.g. genes for
antibiotic resistance)
Some prokaryotes (e.g. bacteria) are surrounded by a final outer layer known as a capsule.
This is sometimes called the slime capsule
It helps to protect bacteria from drying out and from attack by cells of the immune
system of the host organism
Flagellum (plural = flagella) are long, tail-like structure that rotate, enabling the
prokaryote to move (a bit like a propeller)
Some prokaryotes have more than one
Structures unique to prokaryotic cells
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YOUR NOTES

Page 42 of 44
YOUR NOTES

Prokaryotic cells are often described as being ‘simpler’ than eukaryotic cells, and they are
believed to have emerged as the first living organisms on Earth.
There are a number of important structural and physiological differences between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
These differences affect their metabolic processes and how they reproduce
Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells Comparison Table
Page 43 of 44
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
You will need to know all the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Remember - the features in the table above are not present in all prokaryotes so
keep this in mind when answering exam questions. Also, size is not a structural
feature so if you are asked for a structural difference between a prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cell don't include size in your answer.
Page 44 of 44

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2.1 Cell Structure

2.1.1 Studying Cells YOUR NOTES

2.1.2 Using a Microscope YOUR NOTES

Image showing all the components of an optical microscope

Staining in Light Microscopy YOUR NOTES

Staining for electron microscopy YOUR NOTES

2.1.3 Drawing Cells YOUR NOTES

An example of a cellular drawing taken from a high-power image of phloem tissue.

2.1.4 Magnification & Resolution YOUR NOTES

An equation triangle for calculating magnification

To find the actual size of the cell:

Converting units of measurement

There are 1000 nanometers (nm) in a micrometre (µm)

Step 1: Check that units in magnification questions are the same

Magnification & Resolution YOUR NOTES

Light v Electron Microscope Table YOUR NOTES

2.1.5 Eukaryotic Cells YOUR NOTES

Chloroplasts YOUR NOTES

Golgi apparatus (golgi complex) YOUR NOTES

The structure of the Golgi apparatus

The structure of the vacuole

The structure of the vesicle

The structure of the lysosome

The structure of the centriole

The structure of the microtubule

The structure of the microvilli

The structure of the cilia

The structure of the flagella

2.1.6 Eukaryotic Cells Under the Microscope YOUR NOTES

2.1.7 Organelles & the Production of Proteins YOUR NOTES

Many organelles are involved in the production and secretion of proteins

2.1.8 The Cytoskeleton YOUR NOTES

2.1.9 Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells YOUR NOTES

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