MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(An Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt.of India)
Recognizes under 2(f) and 12(B) of UGC ACT 1956
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE –Accredited by NBA & NAAC-“A” Grade-ISO 9001:2015
Certified)

Numerical Methods and

Complex Variables

B.Tech – II Year – I Semester

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND SCIENCES
 CONTENTS

Unit –I Numerical Methods 1-12

Unit –II Laplace Transforms 13-61

Unit – III Analytic Functions 62-91

Unit-IV Singularities and Residues 92-117

Unit-V Conformal Mappings 118-136

 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
B. TECH- II- YEAR- I-SEM L T/P/D C

3 -/ - /- 4

Numerical Methods and Complex Variables

(Common to ECE & EEE)

Objectives: To learn

 Numerical methods for solving ordinary differential equations.

 The properties of Laplace Transform, Inverse Laplace Transform and Convolution
theorem.
 Differentiation and integration of complex valued functions. Evaluation of integrals
using Cauchy’s integral formula.
 Taylor’s series, and Laurent’s series expansions of complex functions, evaluation of
integrals using residue theorem.
 Transform a given function from z - plane to w – plane. Identify the transformations
like translation, magnification, rotation, reflection, inversion, and Properties of
bilinear transformations.

UNIT – I: Numerical Methods

Definition of Interpolation,Finding root by Iterative method, Solving first order ODE by
Picards method,Taylors series method for solving second order ODE,Runge-Kutta method
for solving second order ODE and Numerical Differentiation.
UNIT -II: Laplace Transforms
Definition of Laplace transform, domain of the function and Kernel for the Laplace
transforms, Existence of Laplace transform, Laplace transform of standard functions, first
shifting Theorem, Laplace transform of functions when they are multiplied or divided by “t”,
Laplace transforms of derivatives and integrals of functions, Unit step function, Periodic
function.

Inverse Laplace transform by Partial fractions, Inverse Laplace transforms of functions when
they are multiplied or divided by ”s”, Inverse Laplace Transforms of derivatives and integrals
of functions, Convolution theorem.Solving ordinary differential equations by Laplace
transforms.

UNIT – III: Analytic functions

Complex functions and its representation on Argand plane, Concepts of limit,continuity,

differentiability, Analyticity, and Cauchy-Riemann conditions, Harmonic functions – Milne –
Thompson method. Line integral – Evaluation along a path and by indefinite integration –
Cauchy’s integral theorem (singly and multiply connected regions) – Cauchy’s integral
formula – Generalized integral formula.
UNIT – IV: Singularities and Residues

Radius of convergence – Expansion in Taylor’s series, Laurent series. Singular point –

Isolated singular point – pole of order m – essential singularity. Residue – Evaluation of
residue by formula and by Laurent series – Residue theorem. Evaluation of integrals of the
type

(a) Improper real integrals (b)

UNIT – V: Conformal Mappings

Conformal mapping: Transformation of z-plane to w-plane by a function, Conformal

transformation. Standard transformations- Translation; Magnification and rotation; inversion
and reflection, Transformations like ez , log z, z2, and Bilinear transformation. Properties of
Bilinear transformation, determination of bilinear transformation when mappings of 3 points
are given (cross ratio).

TEXT BOOKS:

i) Higher Engineering Mathematics by B.S. Grewal, Khanna Publishers.

ii) Higher Engineering Mathematics by Ramana B.V, Tata McGraw Hill.
iii) Complex Variables : Theory and Applications by H.S Kasana.

REFERENCES:

i) Complex Variables by Murray Spiegel,Seymour Lipschutz, et al. by Schaum’s outlines

series.

iii) Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Kreyszig, John Wiley & Sons.

iii) Advnced Engineering Mathematics by Michael Greenberg –Pearson publishers.

Course Outcomes: After going through this course the students will be able to
1. Understand the Numerical differentiation and able to solve the second order ODE by
Numerical methods.
2. Solve differential equations with initial conditions using Laplace Transformation.
3. Analyze the complex functions with reference to their analyticity and integration
using Cauchy’s integral theorem.
4. Find the Taylor’s and Laurent series expansion of complex functions and solution of
improper integrals can be obtained by Cauchy’s-Residue theorem.
5. Understand the conformal transformations of complex functions can be dealt with
ease.
 UNIT-I
NUMERICAL METHODS

1
INTRODUCTION-INTERPOLATION

Using mathematical modeling, most of the problems in engg and physical and
economical sciences can be formulated in terms of systems of linear or non linear
equations, ordinary or partial differential equations or Integra equations. In majority of
the cases, the solutions to these problems in analytical form are non-existent or difficult
or not amenable for direct interpretation. In all such problems, numerical analysis
provides approximate solutions practical and amenable for analysis. Numerical analysis
does not strive for exaxtness.instaed.it yields approximations with specified degree of
accuracy. The early disadvantages of the several numbers of computations involved has
been removed through high speed computation using computers, giving results which are
accurate, reliable and fast. Numerical is not only a science but also an ‘art’ because the
choice of ‘appropriate’ procedure which ‘best’ suits to a given problem yields ‘good’
solutions.

Approximations curve is the graph of data obtained through measurement of

observation. Curve fitting is the process of finding the “best fit” curve since different
approximation curves can be obtained for the same data. Least squares method is the best
curve fitting by a sum of exponentials, linear weighted and non-linear weighted least
squares approximation.

Definition:

If we consider the statement y  f  x  ; x0  x  xn we understand that we can find the

value of 𝑦, corresponding to every value of 𝑥 in the range x0  x  xn . If the function f  x  is

single valued and continuous and is known explicitly then the values of f  x  for certain values

of 𝑥 like x0 , x1 ,.........xn can be calculated. The problem now is if we are given the set of tabular
values

𝑥∶ 𝑥0 𝑥1 𝑥2 …………… 𝑥𝑛
𝑦∶ 𝑦0 𝑦1 𝑦2 ……………. 𝑦𝑛

2
 Satisfying the relation y  f  x  and the explicit definition of f  x  is not known, it is

possible to find a simple function say 𝜙(𝑥 ) such that f  x  and   x  agree at the set of

tabulated points. This process to finding   x  is called interpolation. If   x  is a polynomial

then the process is called polynomial interpolation and   x  is called interpolating polynomial.

In our study we are concerned with polynomial interpolation

OR

Let x0 , x1     xn be the values 𝑥 and y0 , y1 , y2 ,   , yn be the values of 𝑦 and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

be a unknown function .The process to find the value of the unknown function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) when
the given value of 𝑥 and the value of 𝑥 lies within the limits x0 to xn is called interpolation

ITERATION METHOD:

Consider an equation f(x)=0 , which can taken in the form x =φ(x) ,where φ(x) satisfies the
following conditions:

(i) for two real numbers a and b ,a ≤ x ≤ b and

(ii) for all x’ and x” lying in the interval (a,b),we have |φ’(x) < 1| ,for all x.
procedure:

put x1 =φ(x0 ) and take x1 as the first approximation of α .where α has a unique root in
the interval (a,b).

next we put x2 =φ(x2) and take x2 as the second approximation of α. Continuing the process
,we get the third approximation x3 ,the fourth approximation x4 and so on.

The nth approximation is given by xn =φ(xn-1) ,n≥1. Is called an iterative formula.

In this process of finding successive approximations of the root α ,an approximation of α is

obtained by substituting the preceding approximation in the function φ(x) which is known .such
a process is called an iteration process.the nth approximation xn is called the nth iterate.

A formula xn =φ(xn-1),n≥1 is called an iterative formula.

3
Example:1

By the fixed point iteration process, find the root correct to 3-decial places, of the equation
x=cosx, near x=π/4.

Sol:The given equation is of the form x=φ(x),where φ(x)=cosx. |𝜑′(𝑥)| = |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥| < 1 ,for all x.

Hence,the iteration process xn =φ(xn-1) is convergent in every interval .since the root is required
near π/4 ,we take the initial approximation of the root as x0=π/4 =0.7853.

Then ,by iteration formula xn=φ(xn-1),

x1=φ(x0)=cos(π/4)=0.7071 ,

x2=φ(x1)=cos(x1) =0.7602 ,

x3=cosx2=0.7246 ,

x4 =cosx3=0.7487 ,

x5=cosx4 =0.7325 ,

x6=cosx5=0.7434 ,

x7=cosx6=0.7361 .

by observing these iterations ,we conclude the approximation as 0.739 for the required root .

Example:2

By the single point iteration method, find the root of the equation x3-2x—5=0 which lies near
x=2.

Sol: Given equation is x3-2x-5=0, x3=2x+5, x=(2x+5)1/3

2
This is of the form x=φ(x), φ’(x)=3(2𝑥+5)2/3

We observe that |φ’(x)|<1 for 2<x<3.

Hence the iteration for φ(x) near x=2 converges.LetS us take the initial approximation for the
root as x0=2.

X1=φ(x0)=(2*2+5)1/3=91/3=2.08008, x2=2.09235,

X3=2.09422, x4=2.09450, x5=2.09454, x6=2.09455, x7=2.09455

4
Since x6 and x7 are identical upto 5 decimal places,we take x7=2.09455 as the required root,
correct to 5 places of decimals.

Example:3

Find the positive root of x4-x-10=0 by iteration.

Sol: Given equation can be written as x=φ(x) in many ways such as

X=x4-10, x=10/x3-1, x=(x+10)1/4, only x=(x+10)1/4 satisfies the converge criteria

|φ’(x)<1|.

So we take iteration formula as xi+1=(xi+10)1/4,i=0,1,2….

We observe f(1)<0, f(2)>0 from the given equation.

Hence the root lies between 1 and2.

1+2
Choosing x0= =1.5, we get x1=(1.5+10)1/4=1.8415, x2=1.8550, x3=1.8556,X4=1.8556
2

Hence the root is 1.8556 correct to four decimal places.

PICARDS METHOD OF SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS

Picard method is an iterative method. An iterative method gives a sequence of approximations

𝑦 (1) (𝑥), 𝑦 (2 )(𝑥) − − − − − 𝑦 (𝑛) (𝑥), to the solution of differential equations such that the nth
approximation is obtained from one or more previous approximations.
𝑑𝑦
Consider the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) with initial condition 𝑦(𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0 then Picards

Approximation is given by the following formulae

𝑥
𝑦 𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑦0 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦𝑛−1 )𝑑𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,2,3
𝑥0

𝑑𝑦
Prob1 : Find the value of y fo x=0.4 by Picards method, given that =, 𝑦(0) = 0
𝑑𝑥

Sol: Given (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ,𝑥0 = 0, 𝑦0 = 0

From Picards method we have

5
 𝑥
𝑦 (𝑛) (𝑥) = 𝑦0 + ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦𝑛−1 )𝑑𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … ..
𝑥0

𝑥 𝑥3
Now first approximation given by 𝑦 (1 )(𝑥 ) = ∫0 (𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 = 3

𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥3 𝑥7
Second approximation is given by 𝑦 (2) (𝑥) = ∫0 (𝑥 2 + ( 3 )2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = + 63
3

Hence we take 𝑦 (2) (𝑥) is approximation for 𝑦(𝑥)

𝑥
(2) (
𝑥3 2 2
𝑥3 𝑥7
∴ 𝑦(𝑥) ≈ 𝑦 𝑥) = ∫ (𝑥 + ( ) ) 𝑑𝑥 = +
0 3 3 63

0.43 0.47
∴ 𝑦(0.4) = + = 0.0214
3 63

TAYLOR SERIES METHOD FOR SECOND ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:

Consider a second order differential equation

𝑑2 𝑦
𝑦 ˈˈ = 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑦 ˈ ), 𝑦(𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0 , 𝑦 1 (𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0 1 ----------------------------- (1)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
Put 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑧 1 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)-------------------------------------- (2)

with𝑦(𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0 ----------------------(3)

𝑧(𝑥0 ) = 𝑧0 = 𝑦0 1 -------------------- (4)

By Taylors series method

ℎ2
𝑧1 = 𝑧0 + ℎ𝑧0 1 + 𝑧011 + − − − − −, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧1 = 𝑧(𝑥1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥1 − 𝑥0 = ℎ---(5)
2!

1
ℎ2 11
𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + ℎ𝑦0 + 𝑦0 + − − − − −,
2!
ℎ2
𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + ℎ𝑧0 + 𝑧0 1 + − − − − −,----------------- (6)
2!

Equation (2) gives 𝑧 ˈ and differentiating it, we get 𝑧 ˈˈ , 𝑧 ˈˈˈ, … … … Hence 𝑧0 ˈ , 𝑧0 ˈˈ , …. Can be
obtained and using (6) and (5) we can get 𝑦1 and 𝑧1 . From 𝑦1 and 𝑧1 , get 𝑧1 ˈ , 𝑧1 ˈˈ , …. At (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ).

6
 ℎ2
Again using 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 + ℎ𝑧11 + 𝑧1 11 + − − − − −, we get 𝑧2 and using
2!

ℎ2
𝑦2 = 𝑦1 + ℎ𝑦1 1 + 𝑦1 11 + − − − − −,we get 𝑦2 .
2!

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
Example1: Evaluate 𝒚(𝟏. 𝟏) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚(𝟏. 𝟐) from𝒅𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑 , 𝒚(𝟏) = 𝟏, 𝒚ˈ (𝟏) = 𝟏, by
using Taylor series method.

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
Solution: Given 𝒅𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑 ----------------------------------(1)

Put 𝑦 ˈ = 𝑧, (1) becomes 𝑧 ˈ + 𝑦 2 𝑧 = 𝑥 3 ⇒ 𝑧 ˈ = 𝑥 3 − 𝑦 2 𝑧 ------- (2)

𝑦0 = 𝑦(1) = 1and𝑧0 = 1 and 𝑥0 = 1 − − − −----------------- (3)

ℎ2
Here 𝑧1 = 𝑧0 + ℎ𝑧01 + 𝑧011 + − − − − −----------------------- (4)
2!

From (2), we have 𝑧 ˈˈ = 3𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑧 ˈ − 2𝑦𝑦 ˈ 𝑧 and 𝑦 11 = 𝑧 1

2
𝑧 111 = 6𝑥 − 𝑦 2 𝑧 11 − 2𝑦𝑦 1 𝑧 1 − 2 [𝑦𝑧𝑦 11 + 𝑦 1 𝑧 + 𝑦𝑦 1 𝑧 1 ]and𝑦 111 = 𝑧 11

𝑧0 1 = 1 − 1 = 0, 𝑧011 = 3𝑥0 2 − 𝑦0 2 𝑧0 ˈ − 2𝑦0 𝑦0 ˈ 𝑧0 = 3 − 0 − 2 = 1

2
𝑧 111 = 6𝑥 − 𝑦 2 𝑧 11 − 2𝑦𝑦 1 𝑧 1 − 2 [𝑦𝑧𝑦 11 + 𝑦 1 𝑧 + 𝑦𝑦 1 𝑧 1 ]=6-0-1-2(1+0+0)=3.

(0.1) 2
Substituting in (4) we get 𝑧1 = 1 + (0.1)1 + (1) ± − − −= 1.1005
2!

By Taylor series for 𝑦1 ,

ℎ2 11 0.01 1
𝑦1 = 𝑦(0.1) = 𝑦0 + ℎ𝑦0 1 + 𝑦0 + − − − − −= 1 + (0.1)𝑧0 + (𝑧0 ) ± − −
2! 2!
𝑦1 = 𝑦(0.1) = 1.1002
ℎ2
Similarly 𝑦2 = 𝑦(𝑥2 ) = 𝑦1 + ℎ𝑦11 + 𝑦111 + − − − − −
2!

(0.1)2
𝑦2 = 𝑦(𝑥2 ) = 1.1002 + (0.1)𝑧1 + 𝑧1 1 + − − − − − ---------- (5)
2!

𝑧11 = −1.3311𝑧011 = 3𝑥1 2 − 𝑦1 2 𝑧1 ˈ − 2𝑦1 𝑦1 ˈ 𝑧1 = −1.0244

Using (5),

𝑦1 = 𝑦(1.1) = 1.1002and 𝑦2 = 𝑦(1.2) = 1.2034.

7
RUNGE-KUTTA METHOD FOR SOLVING SECOND ORDER ODE

Any differential equation of second or Higher order differential equations are best treated by
transforming the given equation into a system of first order simultaneous differential equations
which can be solved as usual.

Consider, for example the second order differential equation:

𝑦 ′′ = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑦 ′ ), 𝑦(𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0 , 𝑦 ′ (𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0′

𝑑𝑦
Substituting 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑧 …………..(1)

𝑑𝑧 𝑑2 𝑦
We get 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), using (1) ……..(2)

Given 𝑦(𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ′ (𝑥0 ) = 𝑧(𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0′

Equations (1) and (2) constitute the equivalent system of simultaneous equations where
𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑧, 𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) given. Also 𝑦(0) and 𝑧(0) ae given.

Example: Solve 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑥(𝑦 ′ )2 + 𝑦 2 = 0 using R-K method for 𝑥 = 0.2 given 𝑦(0) = 1, 𝑦 ′ (0) = 0
taking ℎ = 0.2.

Solution: Given 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑥(𝑦 ′ )2 + 𝑦 2 = 0

𝑑𝑦
Substituting 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑧 …………..(1)

The given equation reduces to

𝑑𝑧
= 𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) … … … . (2)
𝑑𝑥

Given 𝑥0 = 0, 𝑦0 = 1, 𝑧0 = 𝑦0′ = 0. Also ℎ = 0.2

By R-K algorithm,

𝑘1 = ℎ𝑓1 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) = (0.2)𝑓1 (0,1,0) = 0

𝑙1 = ℎ𝑓2 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) = (0.2)𝑓2 (0,1,0) = −0.2

ℎ 𝑘1 𝑙1
𝑘2 = ℎ𝑓1 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + , 𝑧0 + ) = (0.2)𝑓1 (0.1,1, −0.1) = −0.02
2 2 2

8
 ℎ 𝑘1 𝑙1
𝑙2 = ℎ𝑓2 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + , 𝑧0 + ) = (0.2)𝑓2 (0.1,1, −0.1) = −0.1998
2 2 2
ℎ 𝑘2 𝑙2
𝑘3 = ℎ𝑓1 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + , 𝑧0 + ) = (0.2)𝑓1 (0.1,0.99, −0.0999) = −0.01998
2 2 2
ℎ 𝑘2 𝑙2
𝑙3 = ℎ𝑓2 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 + , 𝑧0 + ) = (0.2)𝑓1 (0.1,0.99, −0.0999) = −0.1958
2 2 2

𝑘4 = ℎ𝑓1 (𝑥0 + ℎ, 𝑦0 + 𝑘3 , 𝑧0 + 𝑙3 ) = (0.2)𝑓1 (0.2,0.98, −0.1958) = −0.0392

𝑙4 = ℎ𝑓2 (𝑥0 + ℎ, 𝑦0 + 𝑘3 , 𝑧0 + 𝑙3 ) = (0.2)𝑓2 (0.2,0.98, −0.1958) = −0.1905

1
∴ 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + (𝑘1 + 2𝑘2 + 2𝑘3 + 𝑘4 )
6
1
i.e., 𝑦(0.2) = 1 + 6 [0 + 2(−0.02 − 0.01998) − 0.0392] = 0.98014

NUMERICAL DIFFERENTIATION: The numerical differentiation techniques can be used in

the following two situations.

1. The function values corresponding to distinct values of the argument are known but the
function is unknown. For example we may know values of f(x) at various values of x,say
𝑥𝑖 ,𝑖 = 1,2, … … … … 𝑛 in a tabulated form.

2. The function to be differentiated is complicated and therefore it is difficult to

differentiate by usual procedures.

Derivatives using finite differences:

1. Derivatives using Newton’s forward difference formula:

Suppose that we are given at a set of values (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) , 𝑖 = 1,2, … … … … 𝑛

We want to find the derivative of y=f(x) passing through the (n+1) points, at a nearer to
the staring value 𝑥 = 𝑥0
Newton’s forward difference interpolation formula is
𝑝(𝑝−1) 𝑝(𝑝−1)(𝑝−2)
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑝∆𝑦0 + ∆2 𝑦0 + ∆3 𝑦0 + ⋯ … … ….(1)
2! 3!
(𝑥−𝑥0 )
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝 = ℎ

Differentating, eq(1)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 1 1 1
( ) =( ) = [∆𝑦0 − ∆2 𝑦0 + ∆3 𝑦0 − ∆4 𝑦0 + ⋯ … … … . ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥0 𝑑𝑥 𝑝=0 ℎ 2 3 4

9
 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 1 11 4
( 2) = ( 2) = 2 [∆2 𝑦0 − ∆3 𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ⋯ … … … . ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑝=0 ℎ 12
0

Newton’s Backward difference interpolation formula is

𝑝(𝑝+1) 𝑝(𝑝+1)(𝑝+2)
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑝∇𝑦𝑛 + ∇2 𝑦𝑛 + ∇3 𝑦𝑛 + ⋯ … … ….(1)
2! 3!
(𝑥−𝑥0 )
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝 = ℎ

Differentating,eq(1)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 1 1 1
( ) =( ) = [∇𝑦𝑛 + ∇2 𝑦𝑛 + ∇3 𝑦𝑛 + ∇4 𝑦𝑛 + ⋯ … … … . ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥0 𝑑𝑥 𝑝=0 ℎ 2 3 4

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 1 11 2
( 2) = ( 2) = 2 [∇2 𝑦𝑛 + ∇3 𝑦𝑛 + ∇ 𝑦𝑛 + ⋯ … … … . ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑝=0 ℎ 12
0

1. Find the first and second derivatives of the function tabulated below at the point x=1891

Year x 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931

Population in
46 66 81 93 101
thousands

Solution: The Forward difference table is

x y

1891 46

20

1901 66 -5

15 2

1911 81 -3 -3

12 -1

1921 93 -4

10
 1931 101

Given ℎ = 10, 𝑥0 = 1891, 𝑦0 = 46 By Newton’s forward interpolation formula

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 1 1 1
( ) =( ) = [∆𝑦0 − ∆2 𝑦0 + ∆3 𝑦0 − ∆4 𝑦0 + ⋯ … … … . ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥0 𝑑𝑥 𝑝=0 ℎ 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
= 10 [20 − 2 (−5) + 3 (2) − 4 (−3) + ⋯ … … … . ]
=2.1616

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 1 11 4
( 2
) = ( 2
) = 2 [∆2 𝑦0 − ∆3 𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ⋯ … … … . ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑝=0 ℎ 12
0

1 11
= 102 [(−5) − (2) + 12 (−3) + ⋯ … … … . ]

=-0.0975

2. Find the first and second derivatives of the function tabulated below at the point x=1931

Year x 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931

Population in
46 66 81 93 101
thousands

Solution: The Backward difference table is

x y ∇𝑦𝑛 ∇2 𝑦𝑛 ∇3 𝑦𝑛 ∇4 𝑦𝑛

1891 46

20

1901 66 -5

15 2

1911 81 -3 -3

12 -1

1921 93 -4

11
 8

1931 101

Given ℎ = 10, 𝑥𝑛 = 1931, 𝑦𝑛 = 101 By Newton’s backward interpolation formula

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 1 1 1
( ) =( ) = [∇𝑦𝑛 + ∇2 𝑦𝑛 + ∇3 𝑦𝑛 + ∇4 𝑦𝑛 + ⋯ … … … . ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥0 𝑑𝑥 𝑝=0 ℎ 2 3 4

1 1 1 1
= 10 [8 + 2 (−4) + 3 (−1) + 4 (−3) + ⋯ … … … . ]
=0.4916

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 1 11 2
( 2) = ( 2) = 2 [∇2 𝑦𝑛 + ∇3 𝑦𝑛 + ∇ 𝑦𝑛 + ⋯ … … … . ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑝=0 ℎ 12
0

1 11
= 102 [(−4) + (−1) + 12 (−3) + ⋯ … … … . ]

=-0.0775

12
 UNIT II
LAPLACE
TRANSFORMS

13
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
INTRODUCTION
Laplace Transformations were introduced by Pierre Simmon Marquis De Laplace
(1749-1827), a French Mathematician known as a Newton of French. Laplace
Transformations is a powerful technique, it replaces operations of calculus by operations of
algebra. An Ordinary (or) Partial Differential Equation together with Initial conditions is
reduced to a problem of solving an Algebraic Equation by this method.

USES
 Particular Solution is obtained without first determining the general solution.
 Non-Homogeneous Equations are solved without obtaining the complementary
integral.
 L.T is applicable not only to continuous functions but also to piecewise continuous
functions, complicated periodic functions, step functions and impulse functions.

APPLICATIONS:
 L.T is very useful in obtaining solution of linear differential equations, both ordinary
and partial, solution of system of simultaneous differential equations, solution of
integral equations, solution of linear difference equations and in the evaluation of
definite integrals.
DEFINITION:
Let f (t) be a function of‘t’ defined for all positive values of t. Then Laplace
transforms of f (t) is denoted by L {f (t)} is defined by

L  f  t    e  st f  t dt  f  s   (1)
0

provided that the integral exists. Here the parameter‘s’ is a real (or) complex number.
The relation (1) can also be written as f  t   L1 f  s  
In such a case the function f(t) is called the inverse Laplace transform of f  s  .The

symbol ‘L’ which transform f(t) into f  s  is called the Laplace transform operator. The
̅ to f (t) can be called the inverse Laplace transform
symbol ‘L-1’ which transforms 𝑓 (s)
operator.
Conditions for Laplace Transforms

14
Exponential order: A function f (t) is said to be of exponential order ‘a’ If lt e st f  t   a
t 

finite quantity.
Ex: (i). The function t 2 is of exponential order
3
(ii). The function et is not of exponential order (which is not finite quantity)
Piece – wise Continuous function: A function f (t) is said to be piece-wise continuous over
the closed interval [a,b] if it is defined on that interval and is such that the interval can be
divided into a finite number of sub intervals, in each of which f (t) is continuous and has both
right and left hand limits at every end point of the subinterval.
Sufficient conditions for the existence of the Laplace transform of a function:
The function f (t) must satisfy the following conditions for the existence of the L.T.
(i).The function f(t) must be piece-wise continuous (or sectionally continuous) in any limited
interval 0  a  t  b .
(ii).The function f (t) is of exponential order.
Laplace Transforms of standard functions:
1
1. Prove that L 1 
s
Proof: By definition
 
 e st  e e0
L 1   e .1dt  
 st
    0  1 if s  0
0   s  0
 s  s s

L 1  1
s  e 
 0

2. Prove that L t  1

s2
Proof: By definition


  e st  e st 
L t   e .tdt  t. 
 st
   1. dt 
0   s  s 0

 e  st e  st 
 t .  2
 1 2
  s    0
 s s

Prove that L t n  
n!
3. where n is a +ve integer
s n 1
 
 e  st   st
Proof: By definition L t n    e  st .t n dt  t n .

n 1 e

 s  0 0
 n.t . dt
0
 s

n   st n 1
s 0
 00 e t dt

15
 L t n 1
n

s
n 1
Similarly L t n 1    s
L t n  2 

n2
L t n  2   L t n 3 
s
By repeatedly applying this, we get
n n 1 n  2
L t n   . ..... . L t n  n 
2 1
.
s s s s s
n! n! 1 n!
 n
L 1  n .  n 1
s s s s
Note: L t n  can also be expressed in terms of Gamma function.

n !   n  1
i.e., L t n       n  1  n!
s n 1 s n 1

Def: If n>0 then Gamma function is defined by   n    e x x n1dx
0

 

We have L t n   e st .t n dt
0

Putting x=st on R.H.S, we get

 x  st 
xn 1
L t t  

n x
e . n . dx  
0 s s  1 dx  dt 
s 

1   When t  0, x  0 
s n 1 0
 e x .x n dx  
 When t  , x   

L t n  
1
.  n  1
s n 1
If ' n 'is a +ve integer then   n  1  n !
 L t n   n !
s n 1
Note: The following are some important properties of the Gamma function.
1.   n  1  n.  n  if n  0

2.   n  1  n! if n is a +ve integer

3.  1  1,  1  
2  
Note: Value of   n  in terms of factorial

16
   2   1 1  1!
  3  2   2   2!
  4   3   3  3!
and so on.
In general   n  1  n! provided ‘n’ is a +ve integer.

Taking n=0, it defined 0! =  1  1

Prove that L eat  

1
4.
sa
Proof: By definition,

L eat    e st .eat dt   e s at dt

 

0 0


 e   s  a t 
 
   s  a  0

e e0 1
   if s  a
sa sa sa

Similarly L e  at  
1
if s  a
sa
a
5. Prove that L sinh at 
s  a2
2

Proof: L sinh at  L  eat  e at 

   L e   L e 
1 at  at

 2  2

1 1 1  1 s  a  s  a 2a a
      2
 
2 s a s  a 2  s a  2s  a  s  a

2 2 2 2 2

s
6. Prove that L cosh at 
s  a2
2

 eat  e at 
Proof: L cosh at  L  
 2 

 L e at   L e  at   
1 1 1 1 
     
2 2 s  a s  a

1 s  a  s a 2s s
  
2  s 2  a 2  2  s 2  a 2  s 2  a 2

a
7. Prove that L sin at 
s  a2
2


Proof: By definition, L sin at   e st sin atdt
0

17
 
 e  st   eax 
2 
 2  s sin at  a cos at     e sin bxdx 
ax
2 
a sin bx  b cos bx 
s  a 0 a b
2
 

a

s  a2
2

s
8. Prove that L cos at 
s  a2
2

Proof: We know that L eat  

1
sa
Replace ‘a’ by ‘ia’ we get
s  ia
L eiat  
1

s  ia  s  ia  s  ia 

s  ia
i.e., L cosat  i sin at 
s2  a2
Equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides, we have
s a
L cos at  and L sin at  2
s a
2 2
s  a2
Solved Problems :
1. Find the Laplace transforms of (t 2  1)2

Sol: Here f(t)  (t 2  1)2  t 4  2t 2  1

L{(t 2 + 1)2 } = L{t 4 + 2 t 2 + 1} = L{t 4 } + 2 L{t 2 } + L{1}

4! 2! 1 4! 2! 1
 4 1
 2. 3   5  2. 3 
s s s s s s
24 4 1 1
 5
 3   5 (24  4s 2  s 4 )
s s s s
 e at  1
2. Find the Laplace transform of L  
 a 
 e a t  1  1
 = L e  1   L e   L 1
 at 1  at
Sol: L
 a  a a

1 1 1 1
   
a s a s s(s  a)
3. Find the Laplace transform of Sin2tcost
1 1
Sol: W.K.T sin 2t cos t  [2sin 2t cos t ]  [sin 3t  sin t ]
2 2

1  1
 L{sin 2t cos t}  L  [sin 3t  sin t ]   L sin 3t  L sin t
2  2

18
 1 3 1  2( s 2  3)
  
2  s 2  9 s 2  1 ( s 2  1)( s 2  9)
4. Find the Laplace transform of Cosh22t
1
Sol: w.k.t cosh 2 2t  1  cosh 4t 
2


L cosh 2 2t   1
2
L(1)  L{cosh 4t}

1 1 s  s2  8
  
2  s s 2  16  s( s 2  16)
5. Find the Laplace transform of Cos33t
Sol: Since cos9t=cos3(3t)
1
cos9t=4cos3 3t-3cos3t (or) cos3 3t= cos 9t  3cos 3t 
4
1 3
L{cos3 3t} = L{cos 9t} + L{cos 3t}
4 4
1 s 3 s
∴ = . 2  . 2
4 s  81 4 s  9

s 1 3  s  s 2  63
=  2  
4  s  81 s 2  9   s 2  9  s 2  81

Find the Laplace transforms of  sin t  cos t 

2
6.

Since  sin t  cos t   sin 2 t  cos 2 t  2sin t cos t  1 sin 2t

2
Sol:

L{(sin t + cos t )2 } = L{1+ sin 2t}

= L{1} + L{sin 2t}

1 2 s 2  2s  4
  2 
s s 4 s  s2  4

7. Find the Laplace transforms of cost cos2t cos3t

1
Sol: cos t cos 2t cos 3t  .cos t  2.cos 2t.cos 3t 
2
1 1
= cos t[cos 5t + cos t ] = [cos t cos 5t + cos 2 t ]
2 2
1 1
  2 cos t cos 5t  2 cos 2 t    cos 6t  cos 4t   1  cos 2t  
4 4
1
= [1  cos 2t  cos 4t  cos 6t ]
4

19
 1
 L{cos t cos 2t cos 3t}  L{1  cos 2t  cos 4t  cos 6t}
4
1
= [ L{1}  L{cos 2t}  L{cos 4t}  L{cos 6t}]
4

= 1  1  2 s  2 s  2 s 
4  s s  4 s  16 s  36 

8. Find L.T. of Sin2t

1  cos 2t 
Sol: L{sin 2 t}  L  
 2 
1 1 1 s 
 [L{1}  L{cos 2t}]    2
2 2  s s  4 
9. Find L(√𝒕)

1 
   1
 t   L t 2
  1  where n is not an integer
2
1
Sol: L
 1
s2
1 1
 
2 2 
 3
 3
  n  1  n.  n 
2 2
s 2s
10. Find 𝑳 {𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜶)}, where  a constant is
Sol: 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼 )} = 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 }
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡} + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝐿{𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡}
𝜔 𝜔
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑠 2 +𝜔2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠 2+𝜔2

Properties of Laplace transform:

Linearity Property:
Theorem1: The Laplace transform operator is a Linear operator.
i.e. (i). L cf t   c.L f t  (ii). L  f t   g t   L  f t   L g t  Where ‘c’ is

constant
Proof: (i) By definition
 
L cf  t    e cf  t  dt c  e  st f  t  dt  cL  f  t 
 st

0 0

(ii) By definition

L  f  t   g  t    e  st  f  t   g  t dt
0

20
  
  e st f  t dt   e  st g  t dt  L  f  t   L  g  t 
0 0

Similarly the inverse transforms of the sum of two or more functions of ‘s’ is the sum of the
inverse transforms of the separate functions.

    
Thus, L1 f  s   g  s   L1 f  s   L1 g  s   f  t   g  t 

Corollary: L c f  t   c g t   c L  f t   c L g t  ,
1 2 1 2 where c1, c2 are constants

Theorem2: If a, b, c be any constants and f, g, h any functions of t, then

L{af (t ) + bg (t ) - ch(t )} = a.L{ f (t )} + b.L{g (t )} - cL{h(t )}
Proof: By the definition

L{af (t )  bg (t )  ch(t )}   e st {af (t )  bg (t )  ch(t )}dt
0

  
 a. e  st f  t  dt  b  e  st g  t  dt  c  e  st h  t  dt
0 0 0

 a.L{ f (t )}  bL{g (t )}  cL{h(t )}

Change of Scale Property:

- 1  s
If L{ f (t )} = f (s) then L{ f (at )}  . f  
a a
Proof: By the definition we have

L{ f (at )}   e st f (at )dt
0

du
Put at  u  dt 
a
when t   then u   and t = 0 then u = 0
 s

 
 su
du 1  a .u 1
f  u  du  . f s

 L{ f (at )}   e a
f (u )  . e
a a 0 a a
0

Solved Problems :
1. Find 𝑳{𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝟑𝒕}
1
Sol: 𝐿{sinh 𝑡} = 𝑠 2−1 = 𝑓(𝑠)
1
∴ 𝐿{sinh 3𝑡} = 3 𝑓(𝑠⁄3)(Change of scale property)

1 1 3
  2
  1 s  9
2
3 s
3

21
2. Find 𝑳{𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟕𝒕}
𝑠
Sol: 𝐿{cos 𝑡} = 𝑠 2 +1 = 𝑓 (𝑠) (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
1
𝐿{cos 7𝑡} = 7 𝑓(𝑠⁄7) (Change of scale property)
1 𝑠⁄ 𝑠
7
𝐿{cos 7𝑡} = 7 2 = 𝑠 2+49
(𝑠⁄7) +1

First shifting property:

at
If L{ f (t )} = f ( s) then L{e f (t )} = f ( s - a)
Proof: By the definition

L{eat f (t )}   e st eat f (t )dt
0


f  t  dt
  s  a t
 e
0


  e  ut f  t  dt where u  s  a
0

= f (u )  f  s  a 
- at
Note: Using the above property, we have L{e f (t )} = f (s+ a)
Applications of this property, we obtain the following results
n!  n! 
1. L{eat t n }  n 1 
L(t n )  n 1 
( s  a)  s 

b  b 
2. L{e at sin bt}  2 
L(sinbt)  2
( s  a)  b 
2
s  b 2 

sa  s 
3. L{eat cos bt}  2 
L(cosbt)  2
( s  a)  b 
2
s  b 2 

b  b 
4. L{e at sinh bt}  2 
L(sinhbt)  2
( s  a)  b 
2
s  b 2 

sa  s 
5. L{e at cosh bt}  2 
L(coshbt)  2
( s  a)  b 
2
s  b 2 
Solved Problems :
1. Find the Laplace Transforms of t 3e 3t

Sol: Since L{t 3 } = 3!4

s
Now applying first shifting theorem, we get

22
 3!
L{t 3 e- 3t } =
( s + 3) 4

2. Find the L.T. of et cos 2t

𝑠
Sol: Since L{cos 2𝑡} = 𝑠 2+4

Now applying first shifting theorem, we get

𝑠+1 𝑠+1
𝐿{𝑒 −𝑡 cos 2𝑡} = 2
= 2
(𝑠 + 1) + 4 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 5
3. Find L.T of 𝒆𝟐𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒕
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡
Sol: - L [𝑒 2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡] = L [𝑒 2𝑡( )]
2
1
= 2 {𝐿 [𝑒 2𝑡 ] + 𝐿[𝑒 2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡]}
1 1 1
= 2 (𝑠−2)+ 2 {𝐿[𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡]}𝑠→𝑠−2
1 1 1 𝑠−2
= 2 (𝑠−2)+ 2 (𝑠−2)2 +22
1 1 1 𝑠−2
= 2 (𝑠−2)+ 2 (𝑠 2−4𝑠+8)

Second translation (or) second Shifting theorem:

𝑓(𝑡−𝑎),𝑡>𝑎
If 𝐿{𝑓 (𝑡)} = 𝑓 (𝑠)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑡) = { 0 𝑡<𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐿 {𝑔(𝑡)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝑓 (𝑠)

Proof: By the definition

∞ 𝑎 ∞
𝐿{𝑔(𝑡)} = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑔(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑔(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + ∫𝑎 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑔(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
∞ ∞ ∞
= ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 . 𝑜𝑑𝑡 + ∫𝑎 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑎 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 (𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑑𝑡
Let t-a = u so that dt = du And also u = 0 when t = a and u →  when t → 
∞ ∞ ∞
∴ 𝐿{𝑔(𝑡)} = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠(𝑢+𝑎) 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑢 𝑓 (𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 ∫𝑎 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡

= 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝑓 (𝑠)

Another Form of second shifting theorem:
If 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑓 (𝑠) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 > 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐿{𝐹(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝐻(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝑓(𝑠)
1, 𝑡 > 0
where H (t) = { and H(t) is called Heaviside unit step function.
0, 𝑡 < 0
Proof: By the definition
∞
𝐿{𝐹(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝐻(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝐹(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝐻(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑑𝑡 → (1)
Put t-a=u so that dt= du and also when t=0, u=-a when t →  , u→ 
∞
Then 𝐿{𝐹(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝐻(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = ∫𝑎 𝑒 −𝑠(𝑢+𝑎) 𝐹(𝑢)𝐻(𝑢)𝑑𝑢. [𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑞 (1)]

23
 0 

 e F  u  H  u  du   e F  u  H u  du
 s (u  a )  s (u  a )

a 0

−𝑠(𝑢+𝑎) ∞
= ∫−𝑎 𝑒
0 𝐹(𝑢). 0𝑑𝑢 + ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠(𝑢+𝑎) 𝐹(𝑢). 1𝑑𝑢

[Since By the definition of H (t)]

∞ ∞
= ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠(𝑢+𝑎) 𝐹(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 ∫𝑎 𝑒 −𝑠𝑢 𝐹(𝑢)𝑑𝑢

 e  sa  e  st F  t  dt by property of Definite Integrals
0

= 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐿{𝐹(𝑡)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝑓(𝑠)

Note: H  t  a  is also denoted by u  t  a 

Solved Problems

1.
cos t  

Find the L.T. of g (t) when g  t   
3   if t  
3
 0 if t  
 3

Sol. Let f  t   cos t

𝑠
∴ 𝐿{𝐹(𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡} = 𝑠 2+1 = 𝑓(𝑠)

𝑓(𝑡 − 𝜋⁄3) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡 − 𝜋⁄3), 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 > 𝜋⁄3

𝑔 (𝑡 ) = {
0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 < 𝜋⁄3
Now applying second shifting theorem, then we get
−𝜋𝑠
−𝜋𝑠
𝑠 𝑠.𝑒 3
𝐿{𝑔(𝑡)} = 𝑒 3 (𝑠 2+1) = 𝑠 2+1

2. Find the L.T. of (ii)(𝒕 − 𝟐)𝟑 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝟐) (ii) 𝒆−𝟑𝒕 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝟐)

Sol: (i). Comparing the given function with f(t-a) u(t-a), we have a=2 and f(t)=t 3
3! 6
∴ 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑡 3 } = 𝑠 4 = 𝑠 4 = 𝑓 (𝑠)

Now applying second shifting theorem, then we get

6 6𝑒 −2𝑠
𝐿{(𝑡 − 2)3 𝑢(𝑡 − 2)} = 𝑒 −2𝑠 𝑠 4 = 𝑠4

(ii). 𝐿{𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑢(𝑡 − 2)} = 𝐿{𝑒 −𝑠(𝑡−2) . 𝑒 −6 𝑢(𝑡 − 2)} = 𝑒 −6 𝐿{𝑒 −3(𝑡−2) 𝑢(𝑡 − 2)}
1
𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −3𝑡 then 𝑓 (𝑠) = 𝑠+3

Now applying second shifting theorem then, we get

1 𝑒 −2(𝑠+3)
𝐿{𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡 − 2)} = 𝑒 −6 . 𝑒 −2𝑠 𝑠+3 = 𝑠+3

24
Multiplication by‘t’:
−𝒅
Theorem: If 𝑳{𝒇(𝒕)} = 𝒇(𝒔) 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑳{𝒕𝒇(𝒕)} = 𝒇(𝒔)
𝒅𝒔

Proof: By the definition f  s    e  st f  t  dt
0


d
ds
 d

f  s    e  st f  t  dt
ds 0

By Leibnitz’s rule for differentiating under the integral sign,


d 
f  s    e  st f  t  dt
ds 0
s

  te st f  t  dt
0

∞
= − ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 {𝑡𝑓(𝑡)}𝑑𝑡 = − 𝐿{𝑡𝑓(𝑡)}
−𝑑
Thus 𝐿{𝑡𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑓 (𝑠 )
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑛
∴ 𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)} = (−1)𝑛 𝑑𝑠 𝑛 = 𝑓 (𝑠)

Note: Leibnitz’s Rule


If f  x,   and f  x,   be continuous functions of x and  then

𝑑 𝑏 𝑏 𝜕
{∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝛼 )𝑑𝑥} = ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝛼 )𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝛼 𝑎 𝜕𝛼

Where a, b are constants independent of 

Solved Problems:
1. Find L.T of tcosat
𝑠
Sol: Since 𝐿{𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑡} = 𝑠 2 +𝑎2
𝑑 𝑠
𝐿{𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑡} = − 𝑑𝑠 [𝑠 2+𝑎2 ]
−𝑠 2+𝑎 2 −𝑠.2𝑠 𝑠 2−𝑎 2
= (𝑠 2+𝑎 2 )2
= (𝑠 2+𝑎2 )2

2. Find t2sin at
𝑎
Sol: Since 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡} = 𝑠 2+𝑎2
𝑑2 𝑎
𝐿{𝑡 2 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡} = (−1)2 𝑑𝑠 2 (𝑠 2+𝑎2 )

d  2as  2a  3s  a 
  2 2

= 
ds   s 2  a 2 2   s2  a2 
3

 
3. Find L.T of tet sin 3t

25
 3
Sol: Since 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑡} = 𝑠 2+32
−𝑑 3 6𝑠
∴ 𝐿{𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑡} = [ ]= Now using the shifting property, we get
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 2+32 (𝑠 2+9)2

6(𝑠+1) 6(𝑠+1)
𝐿{𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑡} = ((𝑠+1)2 =
+9)2 (𝑠 2+2𝑠+10)2

4. Find 𝑳{𝒕𝒆𝟐𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒕}

3
Sol: Since 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑡} = 𝑠 2+9

 L e 2t sin 3t 
3 3

 s  2 9 s  4 s  13
2 2

𝑑 3 0−3(2𝑠−4)
𝐿{𝑡𝑒 2𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑡} = (−1) 𝑑𝑠 [𝑠 2−4𝑠+13] = (−1) [(𝑠 2−4𝑠+13)2 ]

3  2s  4  6  s  2
= 
s  4s  13 s  4s  13
2 2 2 2

Find the L.T. of 1  tet 

2
5.

Sol: Since (1 + 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 )2 = 1 + 2𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑡 2 𝑒 −2𝑡

 L 1  tet   L 1  2L tet   L t 2e2t 

2

1 d  1  2 d  1 
2
  2  1     1  
s ds  s  1  ds 2  s  2 

1 2 d  1 
    
s  s  1 ds   s  2 2 
2

1 2 2
  
s  s  1  s  2 3
2

6. Find the L.T of t3e-3t (already we have solved by another method)

𝑑3
Sol: 𝐿{𝑡 3 𝑒 −3𝑡 } = (−1)3 𝑑𝑠 3 𝐿{𝑒 −3𝑡 }
𝑑3 1 −3!(−1)3
= − 𝑑𝑠 3 (𝑠+3) = (𝑠+3)4
3!
= (𝑠+3)4

7. Find 𝑳{𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒂𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒕}

𝑒 𝑎𝑡 +𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
Sol. 𝐿{cosh 𝑎𝑡 sin 𝑎𝑡} = 𝐿 { . sin 𝑎𝑡}
2
1
=2 [𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 sin 𝑎𝑡} + 𝐿{𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 sin 𝑎𝑡}]

1 a a 
   
2   s  a 2  a 2  s  a 2  a 2 

26
 f  t    t  1 , t 1
2

8. Find the L.T of the function

0 0  t 1
Sol: By the definition
∞ 1 ∞
𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + ∫1 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡

  e st 0dt   e st  t  1 dt
1 2
0 1

∞
∞ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ∞ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
= ∫1 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (𝑡 − 1)2 𝑑𝑡 = [(𝑡 − 1)2 ] − ∫1 2(𝑡 − 1) 𝑑𝑡
−𝑠 1 −𝑠

2   st
e  t  1 dt
s 1
 0

2  

  e  st  
 e
 st
   t  1     1 dt 
s 
  s  1 s 


 2 e 
 st
2 1  2
 3  e  st 

 0   e  st dt   2  
s s 1  s   s 1 s 1

2
3 
0  e s   3 e s
2

s s
9. Find the L.T of f (t) defined as f (t )  3 , t >2
0, 0<t<2
∞
Sol: 𝐿{𝑓 (𝑡)} = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

  e st f  t  dt   e st f  t  dt
2

0 2

2 ∞
= ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 . 0𝑑𝑡 + ∫2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 3𝑑𝑡
3  st  3
 e    0  e 2 s 

 0   e  st 3dt 
2 s 2 s
3
 e 2 s
s
10. Find 𝑳{𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒂𝒕 + 𝒃)}
Sol: 𝐿{𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏)} = 𝐿{cos 𝑎𝑡 cos 𝑏 − sin 𝑎𝑡 sin 𝑏}
= cos 𝑏. 𝐿{cos 𝑎𝑡} − sin 𝑏 𝐿{sin 𝑎𝑡}
𝑠 𝑎
= cos 𝑏. 𝑠 2+𝑎2 − sin 𝑏. 𝑠 2+𝑎2
−𝑑 𝑠 𝑎
𝐿{𝑡. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏)} = [cos 𝑏. − sin 𝑏. 𝑠 2 +𝑎2 ]
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 2+𝑎 2

 2    s 2  a 2  .0  a.2s 
 s  a 2 .1  s.2s 
=  cos b.   sin b  
 s  a   s  a  
2 2 2   2 2 2
 

27
 
1  s 2  a 2 2 cos b  2as sin b 
 
s 2
a 2 2

11. Find L.T of L [t𝒆𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒕]
1
Sol: - We know that L[sint] = 𝑠 2+1
𝑑 𝑑 1 (−1)2𝑠
L[tsint] = (-1) 𝑑𝑠 L[sint] = - ( )= - (𝑠 2+1)2
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 2+1
2𝑠
= (𝑠 2+1)2

By First Shifting Theorem

2𝑠 2(𝑠−1) 2(𝑠−1)
L [t𝑒 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡] = [(𝑠 2+1)2 ] = ((𝑠−1)2 +1)2 = (𝑠 2−2𝑠+2)2
𝑠→𝑠−1

Division by‘t’:
𝟏 ∞
Theorem: If 𝑳{𝒇(𝒕)} = 𝒇(𝒔) 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑳 { 𝒇(𝒕)} = ∫𝒔 𝒇(𝒔)𝒅𝒔
𝒕

Proof: We have f  s    e st f  t  dt
0

Now integrating both sides w.r.t s from s to  , we have



 


0
f ( s)ds    e st f (t )dt ds
s 0 
 
  f t  e
 st
dsdt (Change the order of integration)
0 s

  f  t    e st ds dt (
 
t is independent of‘s’)
0  s 

  e  st 
 f t    dt
0
 t  s
∞ 𝑓(𝑡) 1
=∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡(𝑜𝑟)𝐿 {𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)}
𝑡

Solved Problems:
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕
1. Find 𝑳 { }
𝒕
1
Sol: Since 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡} = 𝑠 2+1 = 𝑓(𝑠)
Division by‘t’, we have
sin 𝑡 ∞ ∞ 1
𝐿{ } = ∫𝑠 𝑓(𝑠)𝑑𝑠 = ∫𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠 2+1

= [𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠]∞ −1 −1
𝑠 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛 ∞ − 𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝑠

   Tan1s  cot 1 s
2
sin at
2. Find the L.T of
t

28
 𝑎
Sol: Since 𝐿{sin 𝑎𝑡} = 𝑠 2 +𝑎2 = 𝑓 (𝑠)

Division by t, we have
sina 𝑡 ∞ ∞ 𝑎
𝐿{ } = ∫𝑠 𝑓(𝑠)𝑑𝑠 = ∫𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠 2+𝑎 2

1 
 a. Tan 1 s   Tan 1  Tan 1 s
a as a

   Tan1 s  cot 1 s
2 a  
a
𝟏−𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐚 𝒕
3. Evaluate 𝑳 { }
𝒕
1 𝑠
Sol: Since 𝐿{1 − cos a 𝑡} = 𝐿{1} − 𝐿{𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑡} = 𝑠 − 𝑠 2+𝑎2
1−cos a 𝑡 ∞ 1 𝑠
𝐿{ } = ∫𝑠 ( − 2 2 ) 𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠 𝑠 +𝑎

 
 log s  log  s 2  a 2 
1
 2 s

1   s 2 
  2log s  log  s  a    log  2
1 
 2 2
 
2 s 2   s  a2  s

  
   1 log1  log s 
2
1  1
 l og
2  1  a2 
 2 
2  s 2  a 2 
  s  s
1
1  s2   s2  2 s2  a2
  l og  2 2 
 log  2 2 
 log
2 s a   s a  s2

𝟏−𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕 s2  1
Note: 𝑳 { } = log (Putting a=1 in the above problem)
𝒕 s
𝒆−𝒂𝒕−𝒆−𝒃𝒕
4. Find 𝑳 { }
𝒕

𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 −𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 ∞ 1 1
Sol: 𝐿{ }=∫𝑠 ( − 𝑠+𝑏 ) 𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠+𝑎

   s  a 
 log  s  a   log  s  b   s  log  
  s  b  s

 a
 1 s  sa
 l t log   log  
s 
 1 b   sb 
 s
 sb 
 log1  log( s  a)  log( s  b)  log  
sa

29
 1  cos t 
5. Find L  
 t 
2

1  cos t  1 1  cos t 
Sol: L  L .  ..... 1
 t  t 
2
t

1  cos t    1
Now L 
s   
  s   2  ds  log s  log  s  1
1 2

 t   s s 1   2 s

1 s2  1  s2  1 s2  1
 log 2   log 2   log 2
2 s  1 s 2  s  1 2 s

1  cos t  1 s2 1
L 
 t
2   s 2 log s 2 ds

1   
  s2  1   s
2
 2 
  log  2   .s    2  3  .sds
s s 1 s
2  
  s     
s

1   1   s2  1   ds 
   s 
lt s.log  1  2 
 s log  2   2 s 2 
2   s   s  s  1

1  1 1 1  s 2  1 
   lt s  2  4  6  ....   s log 2   2Tan 1s 
2   s   s 2s 3s  s  s

1   1   1    x 2 x3 x 4 
  0  s log 1  2   2   Tan s    log 1  x   x     ..... 
2   s  2    2 3 4 
1  1
 cot 1 s  s log 1  2 
2  s 
𝒆−𝒂𝒕 −𝒆−𝒃𝒕
6.Find L.T of 𝒕
1 1
Sol: W.K.T L [𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 ] = 𝑠+𝑎 , L [𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 ] = 𝑠+𝑏
𝑓(𝑡) ∞
L[ ̅
]=∫𝑠 𝑓 (𝑠)𝑑𝑠
𝑡
∞
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 1 1
∴ L[ ]=∫ ( − )𝑑𝑠
𝑡 s 𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑏
= [log(𝑠 + 𝑎) − log(𝑠 + 𝑏)]∞
𝑠
𝑠+𝑎
= log(𝑠+𝑏 )∞
𝑠
𝑎
1+
= log( 𝑠
𝑏 )∞
𝑠
1+
𝑠
𝑠+𝑎
=log (1)-log (𝑠+𝑏 )
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑏
=0- log (𝑠+𝑏 ) = log (𝑠+𝑎)

Laplace transforms of Derivatives:

30
If f 1  t  be continuous and 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑓 (𝑠) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐿{𝑓 1 (𝑡)} = 𝑠𝑓 (𝑠) − 𝑓(0)

Proof: By the definition

∞
𝐿{𝑓 1 (𝑡)} = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 1 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
 
 e st f  t     s  e st f  t  dt (Integrating by parts)
0 0

 
 e st f  t   s  e st f  t  dt
0 0

 st
lt e
= t  f (t )  f (0) +𝑠. 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)}

Since f (t) is exponential order

 st
 lt e f (t ) =0
t 

∴ 𝐿{𝑓1 (𝑡)} = 0 − 𝑓(0) + 𝑠𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)}

= 𝑠𝑓(𝑠) − 𝑓(0)
The Laplace Transform of the second derivative f11(t) is similarly obtained.
∴ 𝐿{𝑓11 (𝑡)} = 𝑠. 𝐿{𝑓 1 (𝑡)} − 𝑓 1 (0)

 s.  s f  s   f  0   f 1  0 

 s 2 f  s   sf  0   f 1  0 

∴ 𝐿{𝑓111 (𝑡)} = 𝑠. 𝐿{𝑓 11 (𝑡)} − 𝑓 11 (0)

= 𝑠[𝑠 2 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} − 𝑠𝑓 (0) − 𝑓1 (0)] − 𝑓 11 (0)
= 𝑠 3 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} − 𝑠 2 𝑓 (0) − 𝑠𝑓 1 (0) − 𝑓11 (0)
Proceeding similarly, we have
𝐿{𝑓 𝑛 (𝑡)} = 𝑠 𝑛 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓(0) − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓1 (0) … … 𝑓 𝑛−1 (0)

Note 1: 𝐿{𝑓 𝑛 (𝑡)} = 𝑠 𝑛 𝑓 (𝑠) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 (0) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 1 (0) = 0, 𝑓11 (0) = 0 … 𝑓 𝑛−1 (0) = 0
Note 2: Now |𝑓(𝑡)| ≤ 𝑀. 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡 ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎 𝑎𝑚𝑑 𝑀.
We have |𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)| = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 |𝑓(𝑡)| ≤ 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 . 𝑀𝑒 𝑎𝑡
=M. 𝑒 −(𝑠−𝑎)𝑡 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑡 → ∞ if s>a
𝑙𝑡
∴ 𝑡→∞ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓 (𝑡) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠 > 𝑎
Solved Problems:
Using the theorem on transforms of derivatives, find the Laplace Transform of the
following functions.
(i). eat (ii). cosat (iii). t sin at

31
(i). Let f  t   eat Then f 1 t   a.eat and f  0  1

𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝐿{ 𝑓 1 (𝑡)} = 𝑠. 𝐿{ 𝑓(𝑡)} − 𝑓 (0)

𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐿{𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } = 𝑠. 𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } − 1
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } − 𝑠. 𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } = −1
𝑖. 𝑒. , (𝑎 − 𝑠)𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } = −1
1
∴ 𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } = 𝑠−𝑎

(ii). 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 1 (𝑡) = −𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 11 (𝑡) = −𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑡
∴ 𝐿{ 𝑓11 (𝑡)} = 𝑠 2 𝐿{ 𝑓(𝑡)} − 𝑠. 𝑓(0)−𝑓1 (0)
Now f  0  cos 0  1and f 1  0  a sin 0  0

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐿{−𝑎2 cos 𝑎𝑡} = 𝑠 2 𝐿{cos 𝑎𝑡} − 𝑠. 1 − 0

⟹ −𝑎2 𝐿{cos 𝑎𝑡} − 𝑠 2 𝐿{cos 𝑎𝑡} = −𝑠
𝑠
⟹ −(𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 )𝐿{cos 𝑎𝑡} = −𝑠 ⇒ 𝐿{cos 𝑎𝑡} = 𝑠 2+𝑎2

(iii). Let f  t   t sin at then f 1  t   sin at  at cos at

f 11  t   a cos at  a cos at  at sin at   2a cos at  a2t sin at

Also f(0) = 0 and 𝑓 1 (0) = 0

𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝐿{ 𝑓11 (𝑡)} = 𝑠 2 𝐿{ 𝑓(𝑡)} − 𝑠𝑓(0)−𝑓1 (0)
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐿{2𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑎2 𝑡 sin 𝑎𝑡} = 𝑠 2 𝐿{tsin 𝑎𝑡} − 0 − 0
𝑖. 𝑒. ,2𝑎 𝐿{cos 𝑎𝑡} − 𝑎2 𝐿{𝑡 sin 𝑎𝑡} − 𝑠 2 𝐿{tsin 𝑎𝑡} = 0
−2𝑎𝑠 2𝑎𝑠
𝑖. 𝑒. , −(𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 )𝐿{t sin 𝑎𝑡} = 𝑠 2+𝑎2 ⇒ 𝐿{t sin 𝑎𝑡} = (𝑠 2+𝑎2 )2

Laplace Transform of Integrals:

𝑡 𝑓(𝑠)
If 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑓 (𝑠) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐿 {∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥} = 𝑠

Proof: Let g  t    f  x  dx
t

𝑑 𝑡
Then 𝑔1 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡 [∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥] = 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(0) = 0

Taking Laplace Transform on both sides

𝐿{𝑔1 (𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)}
But 𝐿{𝑔1 (𝑡)} = 𝑠𝐿{𝑔(𝑡)} − 𝑔(0) = 𝑠𝐿{𝑔(𝑡)} − 0 [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑔(0) = 0]
∴ 𝐿{𝑔1 (𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)}
1
⟹ 𝑠𝐿{𝑔(𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} ⇒ 𝐿{𝑔(𝑡)} = 𝑠 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)}
𝑡
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑔(𝑡) = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥

32
 𝑡 𝑓(𝑠)
∴ 𝐿 {∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥} = 𝑠

Solved Problems:
t
1. Find the L.T of  sin atdt
0

𝑎
Sol: L{sin 𝑎𝑡} = 𝑠 2+𝑎2 = 𝑓 (𝑠)

Using the theorem of Laplace transform of the integral, we have

𝑡 𝑓(𝑠)
𝐿 {∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥} = 𝑠
𝑡 𝑎
∴ 𝐿 {∫0 sin 𝑎𝑡} = 𝑠(𝑠 2+𝑎2)

sin t
t
2. Find the L.T of 
0 t
dt

1 𝑙𝑡 sin 𝑡
Sol: 𝐿{sin 𝑡} = 𝑠 2+1 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑡→0 𝑡
= 1 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠
sin 𝑡 ∞ ∞ 1
∴ 𝐿{ } = ∫𝑠 𝐿{sin 𝑡}𝑑𝑠 = ∫𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠 2 +1

 Tan1s   Tan1  Tan1s    Tan1s  cot 1 s (or ) Tan1 1



s 2 s  
sin 𝑡
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐿 { } = 𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 (1⁄𝑠)(𝑜𝑟)𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑠
𝑡
𝑡 sin 𝑡 1 1
∴ 𝐿 {∫0 𝑑𝑡} = 𝑠 𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 (1⁄𝑠) (𝑜𝑟) 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑠
𝑡
𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒕
3. Find L.T of 𝒆−𝒕 ∫𝟎 𝒅𝒕
𝒕
𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
Sol: L [ 𝑒 −𝑡 ∫0 𝑑𝑡]
𝑡

We know that
1
L {sint} = = 𝑓 (̅ 𝑠)
𝑠 2+1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 ∞ ∞ 1
L{ } = ∫𝑠 𝑓 (̅ 𝑠)𝑑𝑠 =∫𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠 2 +1

=(𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑠)∞
𝑠
𝜋
=𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ∞ − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 = 2 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑠
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
∴ L{ } = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑠
𝑡
𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 1
Hence L {∫0 𝑑𝑡} = 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑠
𝑡

By First Shifting Theorem

𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑠
L [ 𝑒 −𝑡 ∫0 𝑑𝑡] =𝑓(̅ 𝑠 + 1) = ( )𝑠→𝑠+1
𝑡 𝑠

33
 𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 1
∴ L [ 𝑒 −𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝑡] = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 (𝑠 + 1)
𝑡 𝑠+1
0

Laplace transform of Periodic functions:

If f (t) is a periodic function with period ‘a’. i.e, f  t  a   f  t  then

L  f  t  
1
e  st f  t  dt
a

1  e  sa 0

Eg: sin x is a periodic function with period 2

i.e., sin x  sin  2  x   sin  4  x  .............

Solved Problems:

1. A function f (t) is periodic in (0,2b) and is defined as f  t   1 if 0  t  b

 1 if b  t  2b
Find its Laplace Transform.

L  f  t  
1
e  st f  t  dt
2b
Sol:
1  e 2bs  0

1  b  st
e f  t  dt   e  st f  t  dt 
2b
2 bs  0

1 e  b 

1  b  st
e  st dt 
2b
2 bs  0 
 e dt 
1 e  b 

1  e st b  e st 2b 
     
1  e2bs   s 0   s b 

2 bs  
  e  sb  1   e 2bs  e  sb  
1

s 1  e  

L  f  t  
1
1  2e  sb  e 2bs 
s 1  e 
2 bs 


2. Find the L.T of the function f  t   sin t if 0  t 

 2 2
 0if t  where f  t  has period
  
2
Sol: Since f (t) is a periodic function with period


L  f  t  
1
e  st f  t dt
a

1  e  sa  0

34
 2
L  f  t  
1
 s 2 

e st f  t dt
1 e  0

1     st 2

 0   e .0dt 
  st
 2 s
e sin  t dt 
1 e 


1  e st  s sin t   cos t   
 2 s  
1 e 
 s2   2 0
eat
 a sin bt  b cos bt 
b
 a
eat sin bt 
a 2  b2


1 e
1
2 s

 1
 s 2   2 e
 s

 
.   


Laplace Transform of Some special functions:
1. The Unit step function or Heaviside’s Unit functions:
0 𝑡<𝑎
It is defined as 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) = {
1 𝑡>𝑎
Laplace Transform of unit step function:
𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
To prove that 𝐿{𝑢 (𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑠

0 𝑡<𝑎
Proof: Unit step function is defined as 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) = {
1 𝑡>𝑎
∞
Then 𝐿{𝑢 (𝑡 − 𝑎)} = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑑𝑡

  e st u  t  a  dt   e st u  t  a  dt
a

0 a

a 
  e st .0dt   e st .1dt
0 a


  e st  1   as e as
  st
e dt      .  e  e  
a
 s  a s   s
𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
∴ 𝐿{𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑠

Laplace Transforms of Dirac Delta Function:

1
The Dirac delta function or Unit impulse function𝑓∈ (𝑡) = { ⁄∈ 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤∈
0 𝑡 >∈
𝟏−𝒆−𝒔∈
2. Prove that 𝑳{𝒇∈ (𝒕)} = hence show that 𝑳{𝜹(𝒕)} = 𝟏
𝒔∈

1
Proof: By the definition 𝑓∈ (𝑡) = { ⁄∈ 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤∈
0 𝑡 >∈
∞
And Hence 𝐿{𝑓∈ (𝑡)} = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓∈ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
∈ ∞
= ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓∈ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + ∫∈ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓∈ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

35
 ∈ 1 ∞
= ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ∈ 𝑑𝑡 + ∫∈ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 . 0 𝑑𝑡
∈
1 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 1−𝑒 −𝑠∈
= ∈ [ −𝑠 ] = − 1⁄∈ 𝑠 [𝑒 −𝑠∈ − 𝑒 0 ] =
0 𝑠∈

1−𝑒 −𝑠∈
∴ 𝐿{𝑓∈ (𝑡)} = 𝑠∈

𝑙𝑡 𝑙𝑡 1−𝑒 −𝑠∈
Now 𝐿{𝛿(𝑡)} =∈→0 𝐿{𝑓∈ (𝑡)} = ∈→0 𝑠∈

∴ 𝐿{𝛿(𝑡)} = 1 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 L-Hospital rule.

Properties of Dirac Delta Function:
∞
1. ∫0 𝛿 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 0
∞
2. ∫0 𝛿 (𝑡)𝐺(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐺(0) where G(t) is some continuous function.
∞
3. ∫0 𝛿 (𝑡 − 𝑎)𝐺(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐺(𝑎) where G(t) is some continuous function.

4. G (t ) 1  t  a   G1 (a )
0

Solved Problems:
1. Prove that 𝑳{𝜹(𝒕 − 𝒂)} = 𝒆−𝒂𝒔
Sol: By Translation theorem
L{𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐿{𝛿(𝑡)}
= 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 [sin 𝑐𝑒 𝐿{𝛿 (𝑡)} = 1]
∞
2. Evaluate ∫𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒕 𝜹(𝒕 − 𝝅⁄𝟑) 𝒅𝒕
Sol: By using property (3) then we get
∞
∫0 𝛿 (𝑡 − 𝑎)𝐺 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝐺(𝑎)
Here 𝑎 = 𝜋⁄3 , 𝐺 (𝑡) = cos 2𝑡

G  a   G   3   cos 2 3  12
∞
∴ ∫0 cos 2𝑎𝑡 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝜋⁄3) 𝑑𝑡 = cos 2 𝜋⁄3 = −𝜋⁄2

3. Evaluate e 4t 1  t  2  dt
0

Sol: By the 4th Property then we get



  t  a  G  t  dt  G (a)
1 1

G  t   e4t and a  2

G1  t   4.e4t

36
 G1  a   G1  2  4.e8

 e 4t 1  t  2  dt  G1  a   4.e 8
0

Inverse Laplace Transforms:

If f  s  is the Laplace transforms of a function of f (t) i.e. 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑓(𝑠) then f (t)

is called the inverse Laplace transform of f  s  and is written as 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 {𝑓(𝑠)}

∴ 𝐿−1 is called the inverse L.T operator.

Table of Laplace Transforms and Inverse Laplace Transforms

S.No. 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑓(𝑠) 𝐿−1 {𝑓(𝑠)} = 𝑓(𝑡)
1. 𝐿{1} = 1⁄𝑠 𝐿−1 {1⁄𝑠} = 1
2. 1 𝐿−1 {1⁄𝑠 − 𝑎} = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } =
𝑠−𝑎
3.
𝐿{𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 } =
1 𝐿−1 {1⁄𝑠 + 𝑎} = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
𝑠+𝑎
4. 𝑛! 1 𝑡𝑛
𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 } = 𝑛+1
𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 + 𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝐿−1 { 𝑛+1
}=
𝑠 𝑠 𝑛!
5. (𝑛 − 1)! 𝑡 𝑛−1
𝐿{𝑡 𝑛−1 } = 𝐿−1 {1⁄𝑠 𝑛 } = , 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
𝑠𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)!
6. 𝑎 1 1
𝐿{sin 𝑎𝑡} = 𝐿−1 { } = . sin 𝑎𝑡
+ 𝑎2𝑠2 𝑠2
+𝑎 2 𝑎
7. 𝑠 𝑠
𝐿{cos 𝑎𝑡} = 2 𝐿−1 { 2 } = cos 𝑎𝑡
𝑠 + 𝑎2 𝑠 + 𝑎2
8. 𝑎 1 1
𝐿{sinh 𝑎𝑡} = 2 𝐿−1 { } = sinh 𝑎𝑡
𝑠 − 𝑎2 𝑠2
−𝑎 2 𝑎
9. 𝑠 𝑠
𝐿{cosh 𝑎𝑡} = 2 𝐿−1 { 2 } = cosh 𝑎𝑡
𝑠 − 𝑎2 𝑠 − 𝑎2
𝑏 1 1
10. 𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 sin 𝑏𝑡} = 𝐿−1 { 2 2
} = . 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 sin 𝑏𝑡
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑏2 (𝑠 − 𝑎 ) + 𝑏 𝑏
11. 𝑠−𝑎 (𝑠 − 𝑎)
𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 cos 𝑏𝑡} = 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 cos 𝑏𝑡
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑏2 (𝑠 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑏2
12. 𝑏 1 1
𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 sinh 𝑏𝑡} = 𝐿−1 { 2 2
} = . 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 sinh 𝑏𝑡
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 − 𝑏2 (𝑠 − 𝑎 ) − 𝑏 𝑏
13. 𝑠−𝑎 (𝑠 − 𝑎)
𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 cosh 𝑏𝑡} = 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 cosh 𝑏𝑡
(𝑠 − 𝑎)2 − 𝑏2 (𝑠 − 𝑎 )2 − 𝑏2
14. 𝑏 1 1
𝐿{𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 sin 𝑏𝑡} = 𝐿−1 { 2 2
} = . 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 sin 𝑏𝑡
(𝑠 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑏2 (𝑠 + 𝑎 ) + 𝑏 𝑏

37
15. 𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑎
𝐿{𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 cos 𝑏𝑡} = 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 cos 𝑏𝑡
(𝑠 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑏2 (𝑠 + 𝑎 )2 + 𝑏2
16. 𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑓(𝑠 − 𝑎) 𝐿−1 {𝑓(𝑠 − 𝑎)} = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐿−1 {𝑓(𝑠)}
17. 𝐿{𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑓(𝑠 + 𝑎) 𝐿−1 {𝑓(𝑠 + 𝑎)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝐿−1 {𝑓(𝑠)}

Solved Problems :
s 2  3s  4
1. Find the Inverse Laplace Transform of
s3
𝑠 3−3𝑠+4
Sol: 𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 {1⁄𝑠 − 3. 1⁄𝑠 2 + 4⁄𝑠 3 }
𝑠3

 L1 1  s   3L  1 s   L  4 s 
1
2
1
3

t2
 1  3t  4.  1  3t  2t 2
2!
𝒔+𝟐
2. Find the Inverse Laplace Transform of 𝒔𝟐 −𝟒𝒔+𝟏𝟑
𝑠+2 𝑠+2 𝑠−2+4
Sol: 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2−4𝑠+13} = 𝐿−1 {(𝑠−2)2 +9} = 𝐿−1 {(𝑠−2)2+32 }
𝑠−2 1
= 𝐿−1 {(𝑠−2)2 +32 } +4. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠−2)2 +32 }

4
 e 2t cos 3t  e 2t sin 3t
3
2s  5
3. Find the Inverse Laplace Transform of
s2  4
2𝑠−5 2𝑠 5
Sol: 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2−4} = 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2−4 − 𝑠 2−4}
𝑠 1
= 2𝐿−1 {𝑠 2 −4} − 5𝐿−1 {𝑠 2−4}

1
 2.cosh 2t  5. sinh 2t
2
𝟐𝒔+𝟏
4. Find 𝑳−𝟏 {𝒔(𝒔+𝟏)}

𝑠+𝑠+1 1 1
Sol: 𝐿−1 {𝑠(𝑠+1)} = 𝐿−1 {𝑠+1 + 𝑠 }
1 1
= 𝐿−1 {𝑠+1} + 𝐿−1 {𝑠 } = 𝑒 −𝑡 + 1
𝟑𝒔−𝟖
5. Find 𝑳−𝟏 {𝟒𝒔𝟐 +𝟐𝟓}

38
 3𝑠−8 3𝑠 1
Sol: 𝑳−𝟏 {4𝑠 2 +25} = 𝐿−1 {4𝑠 2 +25} − 8𝐿−1 {4𝑠 2+25}

3 𝑠 8 1
= 4 𝐿−1 { 2 } − 4 𝐿−1 { 2 }
𝑠 2+(5⁄2) 𝑠 2+(5⁄2)

3 5 8 2 5
 .cos t  . sin t
4 2 4 5 2
3 5 4 5
 cos t  sin t
4 2 5 2
s
6. Find the Inverse Laplace Transform of
s  a
2

𝑠 𝑠+𝑎−𝑎 𝑠−𝑎
Sol: 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+𝑎)2 } = 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+𝑎)2 } = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝐿−1 { }
𝑠2

1 𝑎
= 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝐿−1 {𝑠 − 𝑠 2 }
1 1
= 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 [𝐿−1 {𝑠 } − 𝑎. 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2}]

 e at 1  at 
𝟑𝒔+𝟕
7. Find 𝑳−𝟏 {𝒔𝟐 −𝟐𝒔−𝟑}

3s  7 A B
Sol: Let  
s  2s  3 s  1 s  3
2

𝐴(𝑠 − 3) + 𝐵(𝑠 + 1) = 3𝑠 + 7
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠 = 3, 4𝐵 = 16 ⇒ 𝐵 = 4
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠 = −1, − 4𝐴 = 4 ⇒ 𝐴 = −1
3s  7 1 4
  
s  2s  3 s  1 s  3
2

3𝑠 + 7 −1 4 1 1
𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 {
+ } = −1𝐿−1 { } + 4𝐿−1 { }
𝑠 2 − 2𝑠 − 3 𝑠+1 𝑠−3 𝑠+1 𝑠−3
 et  4.e3t
𝒔
8. Find 𝑳−𝟏 {(𝒔+𝟏)𝟐 (𝒔𝟐+𝟏)}
𝑠 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑠+𝐷
Sol: (𝑠+1) 2(𝑠 2+1)
= 𝑠+1 + (𝑠+1)2 + 𝑠 2+1

𝐴(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 2 + 1) + 𝐵 (𝑠 2 + 1) + (𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷)(𝑠 + 1)2 = 𝑠

Equating Co-efficient of s3, A+C=0……..(1)

Equating Co-efficient of s2, A+B+2C+D=0…….(2)

Equating Co-efficient of s, A+C+2D=1…….(3)

39
 1
put s  1, 2 B  1  B  
2
1
Substituting (1) in (3) 2 D  1  D 
2
Substituting the values of B and D in (2)
1 1
i.e. 𝐴 − 2 + 2𝐶 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝐴 + 2𝐶 = 0, 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝐴 + 𝐶 = 0 ⇒ 𝐴 = 0, 𝐶 = 0

1 1
s
  2 2  22
 s  1  s  1  s  1 s  1
2 2

𝑠 1 1 1
𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)2(𝑠 2+1)} = 2 [𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+1} − 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)2}]
1 1
= 2 [sin 𝑡−𝑒 −𝑡 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2}]

1
 sin t  te t 
2
𝒔
9. Find 𝑳−𝟏 {𝒔𝟒 +𝟒𝒂𝟒 }

Sol: Since s 4  4a 4   s 2  2a 2    2as 

2 2

= (𝑠 2 + 2𝑎𝑠 + 2𝑎2 )(𝑠 2 − 2𝑎𝑠 + 2𝑎2 )

s As  B Cs  D
 Let  2  2
s  4a
4 4
s  2as  2a 2
s  2as  2a 2
(𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵)(𝑠 2 − 2𝑎𝑠 + 2𝑎2 ) + (𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷)(𝑠 2 + 2𝑎𝑠 + 2𝑎2 ) = 𝑠
1 1
Solving we get A  0, C  0, B  ,D 
4a 4a
1 1
𝑠 −
−1 4𝑎 −1 4𝑎
𝐿 {𝑠 4+4𝑎4 } = 𝐿 {𝑠 2+2𝑎𝑠+2𝑎2 } + 𝐿 { 𝑠 2−2𝑎𝑠+2𝑎2 }

1 1  1  1  1 
 a.L  2
 .. L1  2
 ( s  a )  a  4a  ( s  a)  a 
2 2
4
1 1  at 1 1
 . .e sin at  . e at sin at
4a a 4a a

sin at  e at  e  at   2 .sin at.2sinh at  2 sin at sinh at

1 1 1
 2
4a 4a 2a
𝟐
𝒔𝟐 −𝟑𝒔+𝟒 𝟑(𝒔𝟐−𝟐)
10. Find i. 𝑳−𝟏 { } ii. 𝑳−𝟏 { }
𝒔𝟑 𝟐𝒔𝟓

Sol:
𝑠 2−3𝑠+4 𝑠2 3𝑠 4 1 3 4
i. 𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { 3 − 3 + 3} = 𝐿−1 { − 2 + 3}
𝑠3 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

40
 1 1 1
= 𝐿−1 {𝑠 } − 3𝐿−1 {𝑠 2} + 4𝐿−1 {𝑠 3}
𝑡2
= 1 − 3𝑡 + 4 2! = 1 − 3𝑡 + 2𝑡 2
2 2
3(𝑠 2−2) 3 (𝑠 2−2) 3 𝑠 4−4𝑠 2+4
ii. 𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { }
2𝑠 5 2 𝑠5 2 𝑠5

3 1 4 4 3 1 1 1
= 𝐿−1 { − 3 + 5 } + {𝐿−1 { } − 4𝐿−1 { 3 } + 4𝐿−1 { 5 }}
2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

3 t 2 4t 4  3  t4  1 4
 1  4    1  2t    t  6t 2  6
2

2 2! 4!  2  6 4
𝒔
11. Find 𝑳−𝟏 [𝒔𝟐 −𝒂𝟐 ]

Sol:
𝑠 2𝑠 1 2𝑠 1 1 1
𝐿−1 [ 2 2
] = 𝐿−1 [ 2 2
] = 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝐿−1 [ + ]
𝑠 −𝑎 2(𝑠 − 𝑎 ) 2 (𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 + 𝑎) 2 𝑠−𝑎 𝑠+𝑎

1 at
 e  e  at   cosh at
2
 4 
12. Find L1  
 ( s  1)(s 2) 
 4   1   1 1 
Sol: L1    4 L1    4 L1     4[et  e2t ]
 ( s  1)(s 2)   ( s  1)(s 2)   s 1 s  2 

 1 
13. Find L1  
 ( s  1) ( s  4) 
2 2

1 A B Cs  D
Sol:    2
( s  1) ( s  4) s  1 ( s  1)
2 2 2
s 4
2 1 2 3
A , B  ,C  ,D 
25 5 25 25
 1  2 1  1  1 1  1  2 1  s  3 1  1 
 L1   L   L  2
 L  2  L  2 
 ( s  1) ( s  4)  25  s  1  5  ( s  1)  25  s  4  25  s  4 
2 2

2  t 1  1  1  t 1  1  2 3 1
 e L    e L  2   cos 2t  . sin 2t
25 s 5  s  25 25 2
2 t 1 t 2 3
 e  e .t  cos 2t  sin 2t
25 5 25 50

 s2  s  2 
14. Find L1  
 s( s  3)(s 2) 

41
 s2  s  2 A B C
Sol:   
s  s  3 s  2  s s  3 s  2

Comparing with s2, s, constants, we get

A  1 , B  4 ,C  2
3 15 5

 s2  s  2 
1 1  1 4 2 
L   L    
 s( s  3)(s 2)   3s 15( s  3) 5( s  2) 

1  4  1  2 
 L1    L1    L  5( s  2) 
 3s  15( s  3)   
1 4 2
  e 3t  e 2t
3 15 5
 s 2  2s  4 
15. Find L1  2 
 ( s  9)(s 5) 
s 2  2s  4 A Bs  C
Sol: =  2
(s  9)(s 5) s  5 s  9
2

Comparing with s2, s, constants, we get

A  31 ,B  3 , C  83
34 34 34
 s 2  2s  4  1  s  2s  4 
2
L1  2   L  2 
 ( s  9)(s 5)   (s  9)(s 5) 
 31  1  3  1  83 
 L1   L   L  
 34(s 5)   34( s  9)   34(s  9) 
2 2

31 5t 1  83 
 e   3cos 3 t  sin 3t 
34 34  3 

First Shifting Theorem:

  
If L1 f (s)  f (t ), thenL1 f ( s  a)  eat f (t ) 
Proof: We have seen that L e at
f (t )  f ( s  a )  L  f (s  a)  e
1 at
 
f (t )  eat L1 f (s)

Solved Problems :
  1
1. Find L1 
1
  L f ( s  2)
 ( s  2)  16 
2  

42
  1  2 t 1  1 
Sol: L1   e L  2 
 ( s  2)  16   s  16 
2

1 e2t sin 4t
 e2t . sin 4t 
4 4

 3s  2 
2. Find L1  2 
 s  4s  20 

 3s  2  1  3s  2  1  3( s  2)  4 
Sol: L1  2 L  L  2
 s  4s  20   ( s  2)  16   ( s  2)  4 
2 2

 s2   1 
 3L1  2
 4 L1  2
 ( s  2)  4   ( s  2)  4 
2 2

 s   1 
 3e2t L1  2 2 
 4e2t L1  2 2 
s  4  s  4 
1
 3e 2t cos 4t  4e 2t sin 4t
4
 s3 
3. Find L1  2 
 s  10s  29 

 s3  1  s3  1  s  5  8 
Sol: L1  2 L  2
L  2
 s  10s  29   ( s  5)  2   ( s  5)  2 
2 2

 s  8  5t  1 
 e5t L1  2 2 
 e cos 2t  8. sin 2t 
s  2   2 

Second shifting theorem:

 f t  a if t  a 
 
If L1 f (s)  f (t ), then L1{e as f (s)}  G(t) , where G(t )   
if t  a 
 0
 f t  a if t  a 
Proof: We have seen that G(t )   
 0 if t  a 

then L G  t   e as . f (s)

 
 L1 e as f ( s)  G  t 

Solved Problems :
1  e s  1  e
3 s

1. Evaluate (i) L1  2  (ii) L  2
 s 1   ( s  4) 

43
 1  e s 
1 1  1  1  e
 s

Sol: (i) L  2 = L  2  + L  2 
 s 1   s  1  s  1
 1 
Since L1    sin t  f (t ) , say
 s  1
2

 e s  sin(t   ) , if t   
∴ By second Shifting theorem, we have L1    
 s  1  0
2
, if t   

 e  s 
or L1  2  =sin(t-π)H(t-π)= -sint. H(t-π)
 s  1
1  e s 
Hence L1  2  =sint-sint. H (t-π) =sint [1- H (t-π)]
 s  1 
Where H (t-π) is the Heaviside unit step function
 1  4t 1  1 
(ii) Since L1  2
e L  2
 ( s  4)  s 
= e4t .t  f (t ) , say

 e3s  e4(t 3) .(t  3) , if t  3

1
∴ By second Shifting theorem, we have L  2
 
 ( s  4)   0 , if t  3

 e3s  4(t 3)

or L1  2
=e .(t  3) H(t-3)
 ( s  4) 
Where H (t-3) is the Heaviside unit step function
Change of scale property:


If L  f  t   f  s  , Then L1 f  as   1 t
f  ,a  0
a a

Proof: We have seen that L  f  t   f  s 

1  t 
Then f  as   L f   , a  0
a  a


 L1 f  as    1 t
f  ,a  0
a a

Solved Problems :
 s  1 1  8s 
1. If L1  2 2
= t sin t , find L  2
 ( s  1)  2  (4s  1) 
2

44
  s  1
Sol: We have L1  2
= t sin t ,
 ( s  1)  2
2

Writing as for s,

 as  1 1 t t t t
L1  2 2 2
= . . sin = 2 .sin , by change of scale property.
 (a s  1)  2 a a a 2a a
Putting a=2, we get

 2s  t t  8s  1 t
L1  2 2
= sin or L1  2
= sin
 (4s  1)  8  (4s  1)  2
2
2 2

Inverse Laplace Transform of derivatives:

   n
 n
Theorem: L1 f ( s)  f (t ) , then L1 f ( s )  (1) n t n f (t ) where f ( s) 
dn
 f ( s) 
ds n  
n
Proof: We have seen that L t n f (t )  (1) n
d
f (s)
ds n

 n

 L1 f ( s )  (1) n t n f (t )

Solved Problems :
 s  1
1. Find L1 log 
 s 1

 s  1
Sol: Let L1 log   f (t )
 s 1
s 1
L  f (t )  log
s 1
d  s  1
L tf (t )  log 
ds  s  1
1 1
L tf (t )  
s 1 s 1
 1 1 
tf (t )  L1   
 s  1 s  1
 1  1  1 
tf (t )  1. L1   L  
 s  1  s  1
= 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑡
2sinh t
t f  t   2sinh t  f  t  
t
 s  1  2sinh t
 L1 log 
 s 1 t

45
  1  s  1  et
Note: L1 log =
 s  t

2. Find L1 cot 1 ( s)

Sol: Let L1 cot 1 ( s)  f (t )

L  f (t )  cot 1 (s)

d  1  1
L tf (t )  [cot 1 ( s)    2 

1  s  1  s
2
ds

 1 
tf (t )  L1  2   sin t
 s  1
sin t
f t  
t

 1

 L1 cot 1 ( s )  sin t
t

Inverse Laplace Transform of integrals:





 f (t )
 
Theorem: L1 f ( s)  f (t ) , then L1   f ( s )ds  
 
s  t

 f (t ) 
Proof: we have seen that L     f (s)ds
 t  s

   f (t )
 L1   f ( s )ds  
 s  t

Solved Problems :

1  s 1 
1. Find L  2
 ( s  2s  2) 
2

s 1
Sol: Let f ( s ) 
( s  2s  2) 2
2

 s 1 

Then L1 f ( s) = L1   2 
 s ( s  2 s  2)
2
ds 


1  s 1 
=L  2
[( s  1)  1] 
2

 s 
= et L1  2 2
, by First Shifting Theorem
 ( s  1) 

46
 t t  s  t
 et sin t  e t sin t L1  2 2 2
 sin at
2 2  ( s  a )  2 a

Multiplication by power of’s’:

 
Theorem: L1 f ( s)  f (t ) , and f (0),then L1 s f (s)  f 1 (t )  
 
Proof: we have seen that L f (t )  s f ( s )  f (0)
1

 
 L f 1 (t )  s f ( s ) [ f (0)  0] or

 
L1 s f (s)  f 1 (t )

Note: L1 s f (s)  f

n n
(t ),if f n (0)  0forn  1, 2,3.........n  1

Solved Problems :
 s   s 
1. Find (i) L1  2
(ii) L1  2
 ( s  2)   ( s  3) 
1
Sol: Let f ( s )  Then
( s  2) 2
 1  2t 1  1  2t
 
L1 f ( s)  L1  2
 ( s  2) 
= e L  2  = e .t  f (t ) ,
s 
Clearly f (0) =0
 s  1  s  1
Thus L1  2
 ( s  2) 
= L  s. 2
 ( s  2) 
= L s. f ( s) = f 1 (t )  
d
= (te 2t ) = t(2e2t )  e2t .1 = e2t (1  2 t)
dt
 s  3t
Note: in the above problem put 2=3, then L1  2
= e (1  3t)
 ( s  3) 

Division by S:
 f  s  
 
t
Theorem: If L1 f ( s)  f (t ) , Then L1    f  u  du

 s  0

47
 t  f s
Proof: We have seen that L   f  u  du  
0  s

 f  s   t
 L1     f  u  du
 s  0

 f  s   t t
Note: If L 1
 
f ( s)  f (t ) , then L  2     f  u  du.du
1

 s  0 0
Solved Problems :
1
1. Find the inverse Laplace Transform of
s (s  a2 )
2 2

 1  1
Sol: Since L1  2 2 
= sinat , we have
 (s  a )  a
 1  t1
L1  2 2 
=  sin atdt
 s( s  a )  0 a

1   cos at 
t
1 1
=   =  a 2 (cosat  1) = a 2 (1  cosat)
a  a 0

 1  t 1
Then L1  2 2 2 
=  2 (1  cos at )dtdt
 s (s  a )  0 a
t
1  sin at  1  sin at 
= 2 t   = t  a 
a  a 0 a 2  

 1  1  sin at 
 L1  2 2 2 
= 2 t  
 s (s  a )  a  a 

Convolution Definition:
If f (t) and g (t) are two functions defined for t  0 then the convolution of f (t) and g (t) is

defined as f  t  * g  t    f  u g  t  u  du
t

f  t  * g  t  can alsobe written as  f * g t 

Properties:
The convolution operation * has the following properties
1. Commutative i.e.  f * g t    g * f t 
2. Associative  f *  g * h    t    f * g  * h   t 

3. Distributive  f *  g  h    t    f * g  t    f * h  t  for t  0

48
Convolution Theorem: If f (t ) and g(t ) are functions defined for t  0 then

L  f  t  * g  t   L  f  t .L g  t   f  s  .g  s 

i.e., The L.T of convolution of f(t) and g(t) is equal to the product of the L.T of f(t) and g(t)

Proof: WKT L   t    e st


0  f u  g t  u  dudt
0
t


f  u  g  t  u  du dt
t
 e
 st
0 0

The double integral is considered within the region enclosed by the line
u=0 and u=t
On changing the order of integration, we get

   
 
L  t   e st f  u  g t  u  dt du
0 u


  e su f  u 
0  e 

u
 s  t u 

g  t  u  dt du

f  u   e 
 
  e su  sv
g  v  dv du put t  u  v
0 0

 
 
  e su f  u  g  s  du  g  s   e su f u  du  g  s  . f  s 
0 0

L  f  t  * g  t   L  f  t .L g  t   f  s  .g  s 

Solved Problems :
 s 
1. Using the convolution theorem find L1  2 2 2
 (s  a ) 
 s  1  s 1 
Sol: L1  2 2 2
=L  2 . 2 2 
 (s  a )  s  a s  a 
2

s 1
Let f  s   and g  s   2
s a 2
2
s  a2

  s 
So that L1 f ( s)  L1  2 
2 
s  a 
 cos at  f (t )  say

   s  1
L1 g ( s )  L1  2 2 
s  a  a
 sin at  g (t )  say

 By convolution theorem, we have

 s  t 1
L  2 2 2    cos au. .sin a(t  u )du
1

 (s  a )  0 a

49
 t
1
sin(au  at  au)  sin(au  at  au) du
2a 0


t
1
sin at  sin(2au  at ) du
2a 0


t
1  1 
  sin at.u  .cos(2au  at ) 
2a  2a 0
1  1 1 
  t sin at  cos  2at  at   cos  at  
2a  2a 2a 
1  1 1 
  t sin at  cos at  cos at 
2a  2a 2a 
t
 sin at
2a

 s2  1
2. Use convolution theorem to evaluate L  2 2 
 ( s  a )( s  b ) 
2 2

 s2  1  s s 
Sol: L1  2 2 
L  2 . 2 2
 ( s  a )(s  b )  s  a s b 
2 2 2

s s
Let f  s   and g  s   2
s a22
s  b2

   s 
So that L1 f ( s )  L1  2 2 
s  a 
 cos at  f (t )  say

 
  s
L1 g ( s)  L1  2 2   cos bt  g (t )  say
 (s  b ) 
 By convolution theorem, we have
t
 s s 
1
L  2 . 2 2 
s  a s b  0
2 
 cos au.cosb(t  u )du

t
1
cos(au  bu  bt )  cos(au  bu  bt ) du
2 0


1  sin(au  bu  bt ) sin(au  bu  bt ) 
t

   
2 a b ab 0
1  sin at  sin bt sin at  sin bt  a sin at  b sin bt
   
2  a b a b a 2  b2

50
  1 
3. Use convolution theorem to evaluate L1  2 2
 s( s  4) 
 1  1  1 s 
Sol: L1  2 2
L  2. 2 2
 s( s  4)   s ( s  4) 
1 s
Let f  s   and g  s  
 s  4
2 2
s 2

  1
So that L1 g ( s )  L1  2   t  g (t )  say
s 

  t.sin 2t    ts in 2t 
 
L1 f (s)  L1  2
s
2
 ( s  4) 

s
 f (t )  say  L1  2 2 2  
 (s  a ) 

4  2a 

1 s  tu
1
L  2 . 2 2
  sin 2u(t  u)du
 s ( s  4)  0 4
t t
1 2
t
4  u sin 2udu 
0
4 0
u sin 2udu

t
 u 1 
 t   cos 2u  sin 2u 
4 2 4 0
t
1  u 2 u 1 
  cos 2u  sin 2u  cos 2u 
4 2 2 4 0
1
 1  t sin 2t  cos 2t 
16
 1 
4. Find L1  
 ( s  2)( s  1) 
2

 1   1 1 
Sol: L1    L1  . 2 
 ( s  2)( s  1)   s  2 s  1
2

1 1
Let f  s   and g  s   2
s2 s 1

   1  2t
So that L1 f ( s )  L1    e  f (t )  say
s  2

   1 
L1 g ( s )  L1  2   sin t  g (t )  say
 s  1
t
 1 1 
 L1  . 2 
 s  2 s  1
 f (u).g(t  u) du
0
(By Convolution theorem)

51
 t t
  e sin(t  u) du (or)  sinu.e2(t u ) du
2u

0 0

t
 e2t  sin ue2u du
0

t
 e 2u 
 e  2  2sin u  cos u 
2t

 2 1 0

1 
 e 2t  e 2t  2sin t  cos t   1  1 
5 5 


5
 e  2sin t  cos t 
1 2t

 1 
5. Find L1  
 ( s  1)( s  2) 
 1  1  1 1 
Sol: L1  L  . 
 ( s  1)( s  2)   s 1 s  2 
1 1
Let f  s   and g  s  
s 1 s2

   1  t
So that L1 f ( s )  L1    e  f (t )  say
 s  1

   1  2t
L1 g ( s )  L1    e  g (t )  say
s  2
 By using convolution theorem, we have

 1  t u 2(t u )
  e e
1
L  du
 ( s  1)(s 2)  0
t
t t
 e 3u  1 2t
 e e2 t 3u
du  e 2t
e
3u
du  e 
2t
  e  e 
t

0 0  3  0 3

 1 
6. Find L1  2 2 2 
 s (s  a ) 
 1  1 1 
Sol: L1  2 2 2 
 L1  2 . 2 2
 s (s  a )  s s  a 
1 1
Let f  s   and g  s   2
s 2
s  a2

  1
So that L1 f ( s)  L1  2   t  f (t )  say
s 

52
    1  1
L1 g ( s )  L1  2 2 
s  a  a
 sinh at  g (t )  say

By using convolution theorem, we have

 1  t 1
L  2 2 2    u. sinh a(t  u )du
1

 s (s  a )  0 a
t
1
a 0
 u sinh(at  au )du

sin  at  au  
t
1  u
  cosh  at  au   
a a a2 0
1  t 1 
 cosh(at  at )  0  2 [0  sinh at ]
=a a a 

1  t 1 
   2 sinh at 
aa a 
1
  at  sinh at 
a3
𝒔
3. Using Convolution theorem, evaluate 𝑳−𝟏 {(𝑺+𝟐)(𝒔𝟐+𝟗)}
1 𝑆 1 𝑆
Sol: 𝐿−1 {𝑠+2 . 𝑠 2+9} = 𝐿−1 {𝑠+2 . 𝑠 2+32 }=𝐿−1 {𝑓 (̅ 𝑠). 𝑔̅ (𝑠)}
1 1
𝑓 (̅ 𝑠)=𝑠+2 = 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} ⇒ 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 {𝑠+2} = 𝑒 −2𝑡 ----------------- (1)
𝑠 𝑠
𝑔̅ (𝑠)=𝑠 2+32 = 𝐿{𝑔(𝑡)} ⇒ 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+32 } = 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡----------------- (2)

By Convolution theorem we have

𝐿−1 {𝑓(̅ 𝑠). 𝑔̅ (𝑠)} = 𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡)
𝑡
Where 𝑓 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡) = ∫0 𝑔(𝑢)𝑓 (𝑡 − 𝑢)𝑑𝑢
1 𝑆 𝑡
∴ 𝐿−1 {𝑠+2 . 𝑠 2+9} = ∫0 𝑒 −2(𝑡−𝑢) 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑢𝑑𝑢
𝑡
= 𝑒 −2𝑡 ∫0 𝑒 2𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑢𝑑𝑢
1
= 𝑒 −2𝑡 . 22 +32 [2𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑢 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑢]𝑡0
𝑒 −2𝑡
= [2𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡 − 2 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡]
13
1 2𝑒 −2𝑡
= 13 [𝑒 −2𝑡 (2𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡)] − 13

Application of L.T to ordinary differential equations:

(Solutions of ordinary DE with constant coefficient):

53
 1. Step1: Take the Laplace Transform on both the sides of the DE and then by using the
formula
L{f n (t )}  s n L{f(t)}  sn1 f (0)  sn1 f 1 (0)  s n2 f 2 (0)  ............. f n1 (0) and apply
given initial conditions. This gives an algebraic equation.
2. Step2: replace f (0), f 1 (0) , f 2 (0) ,……… f n 1 (0) with the given initial conditions.

Where f 1  0   s f  0  – f  0 

f 2 (0)  s 2 f  s  – s f  0   f 1  0  , and so on

3. Step3: solve the algebraic equation to get derivatives in terms of s.

4. Step4: take the inverse Laplace transform on both sides this gives f as a function of t
which gives the solution of the given DE

Solved Problems :
1. Solve y111  2 y11  y1  2 y  0 using Laplace Transformation given that

y(0)  y1 (0)  0 and y11 (0)  6

Sol: Given that y111  2 y11  y1  2 y  0

Taking the Laplace transform on both sides, we get

     
L y111 (t )  2L y11 (t )  L y1  2L  y  0

 s 3L  y (t )  s 2 y (0)  sy1 (0)  y11 (0)  2 s 2 L  y (t )  sy (0)  y1 (0)  
sL  y(t )  y(0)  2L  y(t )  0
 
 s 3  2s 2  s  2 L  y (t )  s 2 y (0)  sy1 (0)  y11 (0)  2 sy (0)  2 y1 (0)  y(0)

 0  0  6  2.0  2.0  0

 
 s 3  2s 2  s  2 L  y (t )  6

6 6
L  y (t )  
s  2s  s  2 ( s  1)( s  1)( s  2)
3 2

A B C
  
s 1 s 1 s  2
 A( s  1)( s  2)  B( s  1)( s  2)  C ( s  1)( s  1)  6

 A( s 2  3s  2)  B(s 2  s  2)  C (s 2  1)  6

Comparing both sides s2,s,constants,we have

 A  B  C  0,3 A  B  0, 2 A  2 B  C  6

54
 A  BC  0
2A  2B  C  6
______________
3A  B  6
3A  B  0
_____________
6A  6  A  1
3 A  B  0  B  3 A  B  3
 A  B  C  0  C   A  B  1 3  2
1 3 2
 L  y (t )   
s 1 s 1 s  2
 1  1  1  1  1 
y (t )  L1    3.L    2.L 
t
 = e  3e  2.e
t 2 t

 s  1  s  1 s  2
Which is the required solution

2. Solve y11  3 y1  2 y  4t  e3t using Laplace Transformation given that

y  0  1and y1  0  1

Sol: Given that y11  3 y1  2 y  4t  e3t

Taking the Laplace transform on both sides, we get

   
L{ y11 (t )  3L y1 (t )  2L  y (t )  4L t  L e3t  
4 1
 s 2L{ y (t )  sy (0)  y1 (0)  3  sL{ y (t )  y (0)   2L{ y(t )  
s 2
s 3
4 1
 ( s 2  3s  2)L{ y (t )   s4
s 2
s 3
4s  12  s 4  s 2  3s3  4s3  12s 2
 (s 2  3s  2)L{ y(t ) 
s 2 (s  3)

s 4  7s3  13s 2  4s  12
 L{ y(t ) 
s 2 ( s  3)( s 2  3s  2)

s 4  7s3  13s 2  4s  12
 L{ y(t ) 
s 2 (s  3)( s  1)( s  2)

s 4  7s3  13s 2  4s  12 As  B C D E
    
s ( s  3)( s  1)(s  2)
2
s 2
s  3 s 1 s  2

55
 ( As  B)(s  1)(s  2)(s  3)  C (s 2 )(s  1)(s  2)  D(s 2 )(s  2)(s  3)  E (s 2 )(s  1)(s  3)

s 2 (s  3)(s  1)(s  2)
 s 4  7s3  13s 2  4s  12  ( As  B)(s3  6s 2  11s  6) 
C (s 2 )(s 2  3s  2)  D(s 2 )(s 2  5s  6)  E.s 2 (s 2  4s  3)

Comparing both sides s4,s3,we have

A  C  D  E  1......................(1)
6 A  B  3C  5D  4 E  7......................(2)

1
put s  1, 2 D  1  D 
2
put s  2,  4 E  8  E  2

1
put s  3,18C  9  C 
2
1 1
from eq.(1) A  1   2A3
2 2
3 5
from eq.(2) B= -7+18+   8  3  1  2
2 2
3 2 1 1 2 
y (t )  L1   2    
 s s 2( s  3) 2( s  1) s  2 
1 1
y  t   3  2t  e3t  et  2.e 2t
2 2
d2y dy dy
3. Using Laplace Transform Solve 2
 2  3 y  sin t , given that y   0 when t=0
dt dt dt
d2y dy
Sol: Given equation is 2
 2  3 y  sin t.
dt dt
L  y11  t   2L  y1  t   3L  y  t   L sin t

s 2 L  y  t   sy  0   y1  0   2  sL  y  t   y  0    3.L  y  t  
1
s 1
2

  s 2  2s  3 L  y  t  
1
s 1
2

 
 L  y  t    2
1

  s  1 s 2  2s  3 
 
 1 
 y  t   L1  
  s  1 s  3  s 2  1 
 

Now consider

56
 1 A B Cs  D
   2
 s  1 s  3  s  1 s  1 s  3 s  1
2

A  s  3  s 2  1  B  s  1  s 2  1   Cs  D  s  1 s  3  1

Comparing both sides s3,we have

1
put s  1,8 A  1  A 
8
1
put s  3,  40 B  1  B 
40
1 1
A B C  0  C  0 
8 40
5  1 4 1
C  
40 40 10
3 1 1
3 A  B  2C  D  0  D    
8 40 5
15  1  8 8 1
D  
40 40 5

 1 1 1 1 
 s 
 y  t   L1  8  40  102 5 
 s 1 s  3 s 1 
 
1  1  1 1  1  1 1  s  1 1  1 
 L1   L   L  2  L  2 
8  s  1  40  s  3  10  s  1 5  s  1
1 1 1 1
 y  t   et  e 3t  cos t  sin t
8 40 10 5
dx
4. Solve  x  sin  t, x  0   2
dt
dx
Sol: Given equation is  x  sin  t
dt
L  x1  t   L  x  t   L sin  t


 s.L  x  t   x  0   L  x  t  
s  2
2


 s.L  x  t   2  L  x  t  
s  2
2


  s  1 L  x  t   2
s  2
2

57
 
  2 
 x  t   L1   
  s  1  s   

2 2
s  1


 1  1    

 2L1  L  2 
 s  1   s  1  s    
2
  (By using partial fractions)
  s  
 2 
 2et  L1    1  12  2  12  2 
2 2

 s 1 s   s  
 
   1
 2et  et  cos t  . sin t
 1
2
1  2
1 2 
5. Solve  D 2  n 2  x  a sin  nt    given that x=Dx=0, when t=0

Sol: Given equation is  D 2  n 2  x  a sin  nt   

x11  t   n2 x  t   a sin  nt   

L  x11  t   n 2L  x  t   L a sin nt cos   a cos nt sin  

 s 2L x  t   sx  0  x1  0  n2L x t   a cos  L sin nt  a sin  L cos nt

  s 2  n 2  L  x  t   a cos 
n s
 a sin  . 2
s n
2 2
s  n2

 L  x  t   a cos 
n s
 a sin 
s 
2 2
s  n2 
2
2
n 2

(By using convolution theorem I –part, partial fraction in II-part)

1 1 a sin  1 
d 1 

.sin nx. sin n  t  x  dx 
t
 na cos   L  2 
 s  n 
0 n 2
n 2  ds

a cos  a sin  1
 cos  nt  2nx   cos nt dx 
t
 t sin nt
2n 0 2 n
a cos   t 

2n    cos n  t  2 x   cos nt dx 
a
sin  t sin nt 
0 2n 

a cos   1  at sin 
t

  .sin n  t  2 x   x cos nt   sin nt

2n  2n 0 2n

a cos   sin nt  at sin 

   t cos nt   sin nt
2n  2n  2n

a cos  sin nt at
   cos  cos nt  sin  sin nt 
2n 2 2n

58
 a cos  sin nt at
  cos   nt 
2n 2 2n
6. Solve 𝒚𝟏𝟏 − 𝟒𝒚𝟏 + 𝟑𝒚 = 𝒆−𝒕 using L.T given that y (0) = y1 (0) = 1.
Sol: Given equation is 𝑦 11 − 4𝑦 1 + 3𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑡
Applying L.T on both sides we get 𝐿(𝑦 11 ) − 4𝐿(𝑦 1 ) + 3𝐿(𝑦) = 𝐿(𝑒 −𝑡 )
1
⇒ {s2L[y] –s y (0) – y1 (0)} – 4{s L[y] – y (0)} + 3L{y} = 𝑠+1
1
⇒ (s2 + 4s +3) L{y} –s-1-4 = 𝑠+1
1
⇒ (s2 + 4s +3) L{y} = 𝑠+1 +s +5
1
⇒ (s2 + 4s +3) L{y} = +s+5
𝑠+1
1 𝑠+5
L{y} = (𝑠+1)(𝑠 2+4𝑠+3) + (𝑠 2+4𝑠+3)
1 𝑠+5
y =𝐿−1 [(𝑠+1)(𝑠 2+4𝑠+3)] + 𝐿−1 [(𝑠2+4𝑠+3)]

Let us consider
1 1
𝐿−1 [(𝑠+1)(𝑠 2+4𝑠+3)] = 𝐿−1 [(𝑠+1)2 (𝑠+3)]

1 1
=
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 1)2 (𝑠 + 3)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= 𝑠+1 + (𝑆+1)2 + 𝑆+3
1 1 1
(− ) ( ) ( )
4 2 4
= 𝑠+1 + (𝑆+1) 2 + 𝑆+3

1 1 1
(− ) ( ) ( )
−1 4 2 4
=𝐿 [ 𝑠+1 + (𝑆+1)2 + 𝑆+3]
1 1 1
(− ) ( ) ( )
−1 4 2 4
=𝐿 [ 𝑠+1 + (𝑆+1)2 + 𝑆+3]
1 1 1 1 1 1
=− 4 𝐿−1 [𝑠+1] + 2 𝐿−1 [(𝑆+1)2 ] + 4 𝐿−1 [𝑆+3 ]

1 1 1 1
𝐿−1 [ ] = − 𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −3𝑡 − −−→ (1)
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 3) 4 2 4
𝑠+5 𝑠+2 3
𝐿−1 [(𝑠 2+4𝑠+3)] = 𝐿−1 [((𝑠+2)2−1)]+𝐿−1 [ ((𝑠+2)2−1)]
𝑠 1
=𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝐿−1 [(𝑠2−1)]+𝐿−1 + 𝟑𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝐿−1 [ (𝑠2−1)]
𝑠+5
𝐿−1 [(𝑠 2+4𝑠+3)] = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕+𝟑𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒕 − − −→ (2)

From (1) & (2)

1 1 1
∴ 𝑦 = − 4 𝑒 −𝑡 + 2 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 + 4 𝑒 −3𝑡 +𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕+𝟑𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒕

59
 𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝝅
7. Solve + 𝟗𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒕 using L.T. given x (0) =1, x (𝟐 ) = -1.
𝒅𝟐 𝒕

Sol: Given 𝑥 11 + 9𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡

L [𝑥 11 ] + 9[𝑥] = 𝐿[𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡]
𝑠
⇒ 𝑠 2 𝐿[𝑥 ] − 𝑠𝑥(0) − 𝑥 1 (0) + 9𝐿[𝑥} = 𝑠 2+4
𝑠
⇒(𝑠 2 + 9)𝐿[𝑥] − 𝑠 − 𝑎 = 𝑠 2+4
𝑠
⇒(𝑠 2 + 9)𝐿[𝑥]= + (𝑠 + 𝑎)
𝑠 2+4
𝑠 𝑠 𝑎
𝐿[𝑥]= + (𝑠 2+9) + (𝑠 2+9)
(𝑠 2+4((𝑠 2+9)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑎
X= 𝐿−1 [(𝑠2+4((𝑠2+9)] + 𝐿−1 [(𝑠 2+9) ] + 𝐿−1 [(𝑠2+9)]
1 𝑠 𝑠 𝑎
= 5 𝐿−1 [𝑠 2+4 − 𝑠 2+9] + 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡 + 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡
1 𝑠 1 𝑠 𝑎
= 𝐿−1 [ ] − 𝐿−1 [ ] + 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡
5 𝑠 2+4 5 𝑠 2+9 3
1 1 𝑎
=5 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡 − 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡 + 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡 ------------------→ (1)
𝜋
Given x ( 2 ) = -1.
1 𝜋 1 3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 𝑎 3𝜋
∴ −1 = 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 ( 2 ) − 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2 2 2
1 𝑎
⇒ -1= - 5 − 0 + 0 − 3
𝑎 1
=− +1
3 5
𝑎 4
=5
3
1 4 4
∴ x= 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡 + 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡 + 5 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡 From (1)
5

𝟖. 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆(𝑫𝟑 − 𝟑𝑫𝟐 + 𝟑𝑫 − 𝟏)𝒚 = 𝒕𝟐 𝒆𝒕 Using L.T given y (0) =1,𝒚𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝒚𝟏𝟏 (𝟎) = −𝟐
Sol: Given 𝑦 111 − 3𝑦 11 + 3𝑦 1 − 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 𝑒 𝑡
𝐿[𝑦111 ] − 3𝐿[𝑦 11 ] + 3𝐿[𝑦 1 ] − 𝐿[𝑦] = 𝐿[𝑡 2 𝑒 𝑡 ]
⇒ {𝑠 3 𝐿[𝑦] − 𝑠 2 𝑦(0) − 𝑠𝑦 1 (0) − 𝑦 11 (0)} − 3{𝑠 2 𝐿[𝑦] − 𝑠𝑦 1 (0) − 𝑦(0)} +
3{𝑠𝐿[𝑦] − 𝑦(0)} − 𝐿[𝑦] = 𝐿[𝑡 2 𝑒 𝑡 ]
𝑑2
⇒ (𝑠 3 − 3𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 − 1)𝐿[𝑦] − 𝑠 2 − 0 + 2 + 0 + 3(1) − 3(1) = (−1)2 𝐿 [𝑒 𝑡 ]
𝑑𝑠 2
𝑑2 1
⇒ (𝑠 − 1)3 L[y]-𝑠 2 + 2 = 𝑑𝑠 2 (𝑠−1)
2
=
(𝑠−1)3
2
⇒ (𝑠 − 1)3 L[y] = (𝑠−1)3 +𝑠 2 − 2

60
 2 𝑠2 2
𝐿[𝑦 ] = 6
+ 3
−
(𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 − 1 )3
2 𝑠2 2
𝑦 = 𝐿−1 [(𝑠−1)6 ] + 𝐿−1 [(𝑠−1)3 ] − 𝐿−1 [(𝑠−1)3 ]
1 𝑠2 1
= 2𝐿−1 [(𝑠−1)6 ] + 𝐿−1 [(𝑠−1)3 ] − 2𝐿−1 [(𝑠−1)3 ]
1 𝑠2 1
=2𝑒 𝑡 𝐿−1 [(𝑠)6] + 𝐿−1 (𝑠−1)3 − 2𝑒 𝑡 𝐿−1 [𝑠 3]

𝑡5 𝑡2 𝑠2
= 2𝑒 𝑡 5! − 2𝑒 𝑡 2! + 𝐿−1 [(𝑠−1)3 ]
𝑠2
Consider 𝐿−1 [(𝑠−1)3 ]

1 1 𝑡2 𝑒 𝑡𝑡2
W.K.T 𝐿−1 [(𝑠−1)3 ] = 𝑒 𝑡 𝐿−1 [𝑠 3]=𝑒 𝑡 2! = 2

𝑠2 𝑑2 𝑒 𝑡 𝑡 2 1𝑑 1
𝐿−1 [ 3
] = 2
( )= (2𝑡𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 𝑒 𝑡 ) = (2𝑒 𝑡 + 2𝑡𝑒 𝑡 + 2𝑡𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 𝑒 𝑡 )
(𝑠 − 1) 𝑑𝑠 2 2 𝑑𝑡 2
1
= 2 (2𝑒 𝑡 + 4𝑡𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 𝑒 𝑡 )
𝑡5 𝑡2 1
∴ 𝑦 = 2𝑒 𝑡 5! − 2𝑒 𝑡 2! − 2 (2𝑒 𝑡 + 4𝑡𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 𝑒 𝑡 )

61
 UNIT – III

ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
Introduction: Complex analysis is the branch of mathematical analysis that investigates
functions of complex numbers. It is useful in many branches of mathematics, including
algebraic geometry, number theory, in physics, thermodynamics, and also in engineering
fields such as aerospace, mechanical and electrical engineering. Complex analysis is widely
applicable to two dimensional problems in physics. In this unit we discuss about limit,
differentiation and continuity of complex function and analyticity of a function and also
complex integration.

We are familiar with the concepts of limit, continuity,differentiation and integration

of function of real variable. Similar concepts can be defined with reference to complex
variables also and their study constitutes “Complex analysis”. A basic understanding of
complex variable theory will be useful in diverse branches of science and engineering.

Definitions:

Complex number: A number which is in the form of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 where 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 and i2 = -

1 is called complex number. Here 𝑥 is real part and 𝑦 is imaginary part of 𝑧.

(or)

A complex number 𝑧 is defined as the ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) of real numbers. i.e., 𝑧 = (𝑥, 𝑦)

Set of complex numbers: The complex number set is denoted by ℂ and

ℂ = {z / z = x+iy, x,y𝜖ℝ, 𝑖 2 = −1}

ℂ = {(x,y), x,y𝜖ℝ, 𝑖 2 = −1}

Argand plane: We have seen that complex numbers are represented by points (𝑥, 𝑦)𝜖 ℝ2 and
conversely. After this representation ℝ2 is called the Argand plane where (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.
After this representation the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes are called real and imaginary axes.

Modulus of a complex number:The modulus or absolute value of complex number 𝑧 is

denoted by |𝑧| and it is defined as its distance from the origin.

i.e.,|𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

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Now x ≤ |𝑥 | ≤ √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , y ≤ |𝑦| ≤ √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

i.e., Rez≤ |𝑧| i.e.,Img z ≤ |𝑧|

Conjugate of a complex number:The conjugate of a complex number𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦is

denoted by 𝑧̅ and it is defined as the mirror image of 𝑧 in the real axis.

i.e., 𝑧̅ = x – iy [i.e., 𝑧̅ = (x,-y) ]

Properties of conjugate:

 𝑧̿ = z, ∀ 𝑧𝜖ℂ
 𝑧̅ = 𝑧 ⟺ 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙
 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧̅1 + 𝑧̅2
 𝑧1 𝑧2 = ̅̅̅𝑧
̅̅̅̅̅̅ 𝑧1 ̅2
𝑧+𝑧̅
 z +𝑧̅ = 2 Rez ⇒ Rez = 2
𝑧−𝑧̅
 z - 𝑧̅ = 2 Imgz ⇒ Imgz = 2𝑖
𝑧̅1 𝑧
̅̅̅
 1
= ̅̅̅ , provided 𝑧2 ≠ 0
𝑧2 𝑧2

Properties of modulus:

 |𝑧| ≥ 0 i.e., |𝑧| is always non-negative

 |𝑧| = |𝑧̅| = |−𝑧| = |−𝑧
̅̅̅̅ | also Rez ≤ |𝑧|, Imgz ≤ |𝑧|
𝑧 |𝑧1 |
 | 1| = |𝑧2 |
, where 𝑧2 ≠ 0
𝑧2

 |𝑧|2 = 𝑧 𝑧̅
 |𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |
 ||𝑧1 | − |𝑧2 || ≤ |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |

The Polar form or Exponential form of complex number:

63
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = (𝑥, 𝑦) be complex number

𝑦
Here sin 𝜃 = 𝑟 ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃

𝑥
cos 𝜃 = ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑟

∴ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

𝑧 = 𝑟 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)

𝑍 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , which is a complex number in polar form

𝑦 𝑦
Here 𝑟 = |𝑧| and 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑥 ⟹ 𝜃 = tan−1 (𝑥 )

(𝑟, 𝜃) are called polar coordinates of a point P

 Here 𝜃 is called the argument or amplitude of 𝑧 and denoted by 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧) or 𝑎𝑚𝑝(𝑧)

𝑦
i.e.,𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥

 The Specific value of 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧, satisfying −𝜋 < 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧 < 𝜋 is called the principle value of
𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧
 For any two complex numbers 𝑧1, 𝑧2 we have

𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 . 𝑧2 ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2

𝑧1 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧1
𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( ) =
𝑧2 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑧2

 |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = 𝑟 represents a circle with centre at 𝑧0 and radius 𝑟

Let 𝑧 = (𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑧0 = (𝑎, 𝑏)

|𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟

⟹ (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2

 |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = 𝑟 ⇔ 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = r𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋

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 ⇔ 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + r𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
 |𝑧| = 𝑟 represents a circle with centre at origin and radius 𝑟
 |𝑧| = 𝑟 ⇔ Z = r𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋

Neighbourhood (or) 𝜹 – Disc around = 𝒛𝟎 :

Let 𝑧0 𝜖 ℂ and 𝛿 >0

𝑁𝛿 (𝑧0 ) = {𝑧𝜖ℂ|𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿 } is called the 𝛿 – neighbourhood of 𝑧0

Deleted 𝜹 – neighbourhood of 𝒛𝟎 :

𝑵𝜹 ∗ (𝒛𝟎 ) = 𝑁𝛿 (𝑧0 ) - {𝒛𝟎 }

= {z𝜖ℂ/0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿}

It is known as deleted 𝛿 – neighbourhood of 𝑧0 .

Pathwise connected: A non-empty subset ‘S’ of ℂ is said to be pathwise connected or

arcwise connected, if every pair of points in ‘S’ can joined by a polygond arc which is
entirely in ‘S

i.e., for each pair of points in‘S’ there exists a path joining than which entirely lies
inside ‘S’.

Domain:A non-empty open connected set in ℂ is said to be a domain.

Function of a complex variable: Let ‘S’ be a non-empty subset of the argandplane ℂ. A

function 𝑓: 𝑆 → ℂ is a rule which assigns a unique value 𝑓(𝑧)𝜖 ℂ for each 𝑧 𝜖 S, then we write
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑤, 𝑧 𝜖 𝑆 and we say that ‘𝑓’ is a complex valued function at complex variable 𝑧.

(or)

Let S ⊆ ℂ, a rule 𝑓:S→ ℂ is called complex function if for every 𝑧 𝜖 S, there exist a
unique image 𝑓(𝑧) 𝜖 ℂ, we write it as 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑤, for 𝑧 𝜖 S

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Range: The set {𝑓(𝑧) /𝑧 𝜖 𝑆} is called the range of ‘𝑓’

𝑓(𝑧)can be written as 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦), where 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

Here 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) are real valued functions of 𝑥, 𝑦

Definition of limit of a complex function: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a complex function, a complex

number 𝑙𝜖ℂ is said to be a limit of a function 𝑓(𝑧) as 𝑧 tends to 𝑧0 . If for every 𝜖 > 0 there
exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑙 | < 𝜖 whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿

Symbolically we write lim 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑙

𝑧→𝑧0

Continuity of complex function:A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0

If lim 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓( 𝑧0 )
𝑧→𝑧0

Derivative of 𝒇(𝒛): Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a given function defined on a nbd of 𝑧0 then 𝑓(𝑧) is said to
𝑓(𝑧0 +∆𝑧)−𝑓(𝑧0)
be differentiable at 𝑧0 if lim exists and it is denoted by 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 )
∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧

𝑓(𝑧0+∆𝑧)−𝑓(𝑧0 )
i.e.,𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = lim
∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧

Taking 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = ∆𝑧

𝑓(𝑧)−𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = lim
∆𝑧→0 𝑧−𝑧0

Analytic function:A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be analytic at a point 𝑧0 , if 𝑓(𝑧) is differentiable

at every point 𝑧 in the 𝜖 - neighbourhood of 𝑧0 .

i.e., 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) exist for all 𝑧 such that |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝜖, where 𝜖 > 0 then 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be analytic
at 𝑧0 .

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Note:𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at 𝑧0 means

(i) 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) exists

(ii) 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)exist at every point 𝑧 in a neighbourhood of 𝑧0 .

Definition: Let 𝐷 be a domain of complex numbers, if 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at every 𝑧𝜖𝐷, then
𝑓(𝑧) is said to be analytic in the domain 𝐷.

Definition:If𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at every point 𝑧 on the complex plane then 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be an
entire function.

Properties of analytic function:

𝑓
 If 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) are analytic then 𝑓 ± 𝑔, 𝑓. 𝑔, 𝑔 (𝑔 ≠ 0) are also analytic function.

 Analytic function of an analytic function is analytic

 An entire function of an entire function is entire
 Derivative of an analytic function is itself analytic

Cauchy – Riemann (C-R) Equations:

C-R equations are used to test the analyticity of a complex function.

Statement:The necessary and sufficient condition for the derivative of the function
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) to exist for all values of 𝑧 in domain ℝ are

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
(i) , 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑥 , 𝜕𝑦 are continuous functions of 𝑥 and 𝑦 in ℝ
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
(ii) = 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑦 = - 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥

These two are called C-R equations.

Note: The converse of above theorem is need not be true.

i.e., even though C-R equations are satisfied by 𝑓(𝑧) but 𝑓(𝑧) may not be differentiable.

Eg: 𝑓(𝑧) = √|𝑥𝑦| satisfies C-R equations at (0,0) but it is not differential at (0,0)

Laplace operator: The Laplace operator is denoted by ∇2 and defined as

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 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇2 = +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕2∅ 𝜕2∅
⟹ ∇2 ∅ = +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

Result: If 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) is analytic in a domain D, then 𝑢 and 𝑣 satisfy laplace
equation.

i.e.,∇2 𝑢 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇2 𝑣 = 0

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕 2𝑣

i.e., 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 = 0 and 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 = 0

and𝑢 and 𝑣 have continuous second order partial derivatives in D.

Harmonic function:The function which satisfy the Laplace equation is called harmonic
function.

i.e., funtion ∅ is said to be Harmonic if ∇2 ∅ = 0

𝜕 2∅ 𝜕2∅
i.e.,𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 = 0

Note:If𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) is analytic in a domain D, the 𝑢 and 𝑣 satisfy the

Laplacce equation

i.e., ∇2 𝑢 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇2 𝑣 = 0 and we have continuous second order partial derivatives in D.

Conjugate Harmonic function:Two harmonic funtions𝑢 and 𝑣 are said to be harmonic

conjugate to each other if

(i) 𝑢 and 𝑣 satisfy the C-R equations

(ii) 𝑢 and 𝑣 are real and imaginary parts of analytic function 𝑓(𝑧)
i.e.,𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Polar form of C-R equations:If𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑢(𝑟, 𝜃) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑟, 𝜃) and 𝑓(𝑧) is derivable
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
at 𝑧0 = 𝑟0 𝑒 𝑖𝜃0 then 𝜕𝑟 = 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 and 𝜕𝑟 = − 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

Problems:

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1. Show that 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒊𝒚 is everywhere continuous but it is not analytic.

Sol. To prove 𝑓 is continuous it is enough to prove that lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓( 𝑧0 )

𝑧→𝑧0

Let 𝑧0 is any point in the domain

Now lim 𝑓(𝑧) = lim 𝑥0 𝑦0 + 𝑖𝑦0

𝑧→𝑧0 𝑍→𝑧0

Now f(𝑧0 ) = 𝑥0 𝑦0 + 𝑖𝑦0

∴ lim 𝑓 (𝑧) =f(𝑧0 )

𝑧→𝑧0

Therefore 𝑓 is continuous every where

Verification of Analyticity of 𝑓(𝑧):

Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑥𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
Now 𝜕𝑥 = y,𝜕𝑦 = 𝑥 ,𝜕𝑥 = 0 , 𝜕𝑦 = 1

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Clearly 𝜕𝑥 ≠ 𝜕𝑦 and 𝜕𝑦 ≠ − 𝜕𝑥

Here 𝑓(𝑧) is not satisfying the C-R equations

Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic.

2.Show that 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛 + 𝟐𝒛̅ is not analytic anywhere in the complex plane?

Sol. Given𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 + 2𝑧̅ = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + 2(𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦) = 3𝑥 – 𝑖𝑦

But 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Therefore 𝑢 = 3𝑥 and 𝑣 = −𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= 3,𝜕𝑦 = 0 ,𝜕𝑥 = 0 , 𝜕𝑦 = −1
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Therefore ≠ 𝜕𝑦and 𝜕𝑦 ≠ − 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥

C-R equations are not satisfied.

Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic anywhere.

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 𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
3.Prove that (𝝏𝒙𝟐 + 𝝏𝒚𝟐 )|𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒇(𝒛)|𝟐 = 2|𝒇, (𝒛)|𝟐 where 𝒘 = 𝒇(𝒛) is analytic?

Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Real part of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢

|𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑓(𝑧)| = |𝑢| = 𝑢 ⟹ |𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑓(𝑧)|2 = 𝑢2

𝜕2 𝜕2
Now L.H.S = (𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 )|𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑓(𝑧)|2

𝜕2 𝜕2
= (𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 ) 𝑢2

𝜕2 𝑢2 𝜕 2𝑢 2
= + ……………….(1)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕 𝜕𝑢
Now 𝜕𝑥 (𝑢2 ) = 2u 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕2𝑢
( 2) =
2 𝑢
[ (𝑢2 )] = 𝜕𝑥 [2u ] = 2 [( ) + 𝑢 2 ] ………..(2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕2𝑢
( 2) =
2 𝑢
[ (𝑢2 )] = 𝜕𝑦 [2u ] = 2 [( ) + 𝑢 2 ] ………..(3)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

Substitute equation (2) and (3) in (1)

𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
Then L.H.S = 2 [𝑢 (𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 ) + (𝜕𝑥 ) + (𝜕𝑦 ) ]

Since 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic

𝑢is a real part of analytic function 𝑓(𝑧)

Therefore 𝑢 is Harmonic function

𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢
i.e., 𝑢 satisfies Laplace equation⟹ 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 = 0

𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
Therefore L.H.S = 2 [(𝜕𝑥 ) + (𝜕𝑦 ) ]

Now R.H.S = 2|𝑓 , (𝑧)|2

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
And 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 ⟹ 𝑓 , (𝑧) = + 𝑖 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥

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Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic ⟹ it will satisfy C-R equations

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
i.e., 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑦 = - 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
Therefore 𝑓 , (𝑧) = −i𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
⟹ |𝑓 , (𝑧)| = √( ) +( )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

,
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
⟹ |𝑓 (𝑧) |2 = ( ) +( )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
Therefore R.H.S = 2 ( ) + ( )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Therefore L.H.S = R.H.S

𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
4. Show that (𝝏𝒙𝟐 + 𝝏𝒚𝟐 )𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝒇, (𝒛)|= 0, where 𝒇(𝒛) is an analytic function?

Sol: Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦

𝑧 + ̅𝑧
We know that 𝑧 + ̅𝑧 = 2𝑥 ⟹ 𝑥 = 2

𝑧 − ̅𝑧 𝑖
𝑧 − ̅𝑧 = 2𝑖𝑦 ⟹ 𝑦 = = − (𝑧 − ̅𝑧)
2𝑖 2

Let 𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ⟹ 𝑓(𝑧 , 𝑧̅)

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑓 1 𝜕𝑓 −𝑖 1 𝜕 𝜕
Now = ( )+ ( )= ( )+ ( )= ( −𝑖 )𝑓
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑓 1 𝜕𝑓 𝑖 1 𝜕 𝜕
= + 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧̅ = 𝜕𝑥 (2)+ 𝜕𝑦 (2) = 2 (𝜕𝑥 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑦) 𝑓
𝜕𝑧̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧̅

𝜕 2𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 1 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕2 𝜕2
= = ( −𝑖 ). ( +𝑖 ) = ( + )f
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅ 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧̅ 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 4 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
⟹ (𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2) = 4 …………….(1)
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
Hence (𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 )𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑓 , (𝑧)| = 4 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅ 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑓 , (𝑧)| [from equation (1)]

𝜕2 1
= 4 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅ . 2 . 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑓 , (𝑧)|2

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 𝜕2
= 2 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑓 ′ (𝑧)𝑓 ′ (𝑧))
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅

𝜕2
= 2 [log 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) + log 𝑓 ′ (𝑧̅)]
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅

𝜕 𝑓 ′′ (𝑧̅) 𝜕 𝑓 ′′ (𝑧)
= 2[ ]
̅ + 𝜕𝑧̅ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)

= 2 (0 + 0) = 0

5. Show that the function 𝒖(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 is harmonic and find its harmonic
conjugate 𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚) and the analytic function 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒖 + 𝒊𝒗?

Sol: Given 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 and 𝜕𝑦 = −6𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
= 6𝑥and𝜕𝑦 2 = −6𝑥
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢
+ 𝜕𝑦 2 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2

Therefore 𝑢 is Harmonic function.

𝜕𝑢
Milne – Thomson’s method:Given𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 ⟹ 𝜕𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 and

𝜕𝑢
= −6𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑦

Let 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) be the harmonic conjugate of 𝑢

Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Differentiate with respect to 𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) = + 𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= – 𝑖 (from C-R equations , we have𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑦 = − )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

= (3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 ) – i (−6𝑥𝑦)

= (3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 ) + i (6xy)

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Now replace 𝑥 by 𝑧 and 𝑦 by 0

𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 3𝑧 2

Integrate on both sides,

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 3 + 𝑐

= (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)3 + 𝑐

= 𝑥 3 − 𝑖𝑦 3 + 3𝑥 2 (𝑖𝑦) − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑐

𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖 (3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 ) + 𝑐

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Therefore 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 and 𝑣 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3

Hence 𝑣 is the Harmonic conjugate of 𝑢.

Constuction of analytic function whose real (or) imaginary part is known:

Let 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) be a harmonic function then there exists a harmonic conjugate 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) and
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) such that 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic

Problems:

1.Find most general analytic (regular) function whose real part is

𝒖 = 𝒆𝒙 [(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚]

Sol: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 be analytic function

Differentiate with respect to 𝑥,

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) = +i
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝜕𝑥 – i (from C-R equations , 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑦 = - 𝜕𝑥 )
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑢
= 𝑒 𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) cos 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦] + 𝑒 𝑥 [2𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 2𝑦 sin 𝑦]
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢
= 𝑒 𝑥 [−2𝑦 cos 𝑦 + (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )(− sin 𝑦) − 2𝑥 sin 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 cos 𝑦]
𝜕𝑦

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∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) cos 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 2𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 2𝑦 sin 𝑦]
− 𝑖 𝑒 𝑥 [−2𝑦 cos 𝑦 + (𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 ) sin 𝑦 − 2𝑥 sin 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 cos 𝑦]

By Milne’s Thomson method, replace 𝑥 by 𝑧 and 𝑦 by 0

Hence 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 [𝑧 2 + 2𝑧]

Now integrate on both sides,

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑧 2 + 𝑐

= 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦]

= 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦)[(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦]

= 𝑒 𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) cos 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦] + 𝑖𝑒 𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) sin 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 cos 𝑦]

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Where 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) cos 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 sin 𝑦] and 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) sin 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 cos 𝑦]

Therefore 𝑣 is harmonic conjugate of 𝑢

2.Find the analytic function 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒖 + 𝒊𝒗 if 𝒖 = 𝒂(𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)?

Sol: Given 𝑢 = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃 )

Differentiate with respect to 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟, we get

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= 𝑢𝜃 = −𝑎 sin 𝜃, 𝜕𝑟 = 𝑢𝑟 = 0
𝜕𝜃

𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
The Cauchy-Riemann equations in polar coordinates are 𝜕𝑟 = 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 and 𝜕𝑟 = − 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
⟹𝑟 = − = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃

𝜕𝑣 1
Therefore 𝜕𝑟 = 𝑟 (𝑎 sin 𝜃 )

Integrating with respect to 𝑟,

𝑣 (𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑎 sin 𝜃. log 𝑟 + 𝑐(𝜃) ……………(1)

Differentiating (1) w.r.t. 'θ’, we get

𝜕𝑣 𝑑𝑐 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑐
= 𝑎 cos 𝜃 . log 𝑟 + 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 = 𝑟.0 ⟹ = − 𝑎 cos 𝜃 . log 𝑟
𝜕𝜃 𝑑𝜃

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Again integrating, we get

𝑐 (𝜃) = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 log 𝑟 + 𝑐1 , Where 𝑐1 is a constant.

Substituting 𝑐 (𝜃) in equation (1), we get

𝑣 (𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑎 sin 𝜃. log 𝑟 + 𝑎 sin 𝜃 log 𝑟 + 𝑐1 = 2𝑎 sin 𝜃 log 𝑟 + 𝑐1

Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃 + 2 sin 𝜃 log 𝑟) + 𝑐1

3.If𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒖 + 𝒊𝒗 is an analytic function of 𝒛 and if 𝒖 – 𝒗 = 𝒆𝒙 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚) then

find 𝒇(𝒛) in terms of 𝒛?

Sol: Given 𝑢 – 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦) ……………(1)

Differentiate equation (1) partially w.r.to 𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
− 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦) ……………………(2)
𝜕𝑥

Again differentiate equation (1) partially w.r.to 𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
− 𝜕𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (−cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦) = −𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + sin 𝑦) ……….(3)
𝜕𝑦

Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic

Therefore it satisfies C-R equations

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
i.e., 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
equation (3) ⟹ + = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + sin 𝑦) ………….(4)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢
equation (2) + equation (4) ⟹ 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦

𝜕𝑣
equation (4) – equation (2) ⟹ 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Now 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑖 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑥

= 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑧 by integrating we get 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑐

COMPLEX INTEGRATION

Introduction: Here we discuss the idea of line integral of a complex valued function 𝑓(𝑧) of
a complex variable 𝑧 in a simple way. It is intresting to note that some definite integrals

75
involving real variables can be evaluated simply using the integral theory of complex
variables and also we discuss Cauchy’s integral theorem and their applications.

Piecewise continuous : real valued function ‘ 𝑓 ’ is said to be piecewise continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏],
if [𝑎, 𝑏] can be divided into a finite number of subintervals in which the function is
continuous.

Continuous Arc: A set of points (𝑥, 𝑦) , 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡)(𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏)where 𝑥 (𝑡),

𝑦(𝑡)continuous functions of the real variable are‘𝑡’ is called a continuous arc.

Path:A continuous complex valued function ′𝛾′ defined on [𝑎, 𝑏] is called a path (or) arc in
the argand plane

Where 𝛾(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏

Note:A path is closed if 𝛾 (𝑎) = 𝛾 (𝑏)

Simple Path (Zordan Arc):A path is said to be simple if it does not intersect itself

i.e., 𝛾 (𝑡1 ) ≠ 𝛾(𝑡2 ) for any 𝑡1 , 𝑡2 𝜖 (𝑎, 𝑏)

Smooth Path:The path 𝛾(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑡𝜖 (𝑎, 𝑏) is said to be smooth, if 𝑥 ′ (𝑡), 𝑦 ′ (𝑡)
are continuous and donot vanish simultaneously for any value of ‘𝑡’.

Piecewise smooth:A path 𝛾 is said to be piecewise smooth if thereexists a partition ‘P’ of

[𝑎, 𝑏] thereexists 𝑎 = 𝑡1 < 𝑡2 < ⋯ … … < 𝑡𝑛−1 < 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑏 and 𝛾 is smooth on each
subinterval [𝑡𝑖−1 , 𝑡𝑖 ], 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛.

Note:For a piecewise smooth 𝛾 ′ (𝑡) exist at 𝑡0, 𝑡1,………… 𝑡𝑛 also at 𝑡0, 𝑡1,………… 𝑡𝑛 the right and left
derivative exist but may not be equal at these points, we define 𝛾 (𝑡𝑖 ) = 0, 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛

Contour: A piecewise smooth curve is called contour. If a contour is closed and does not
intersect itself, it is called a closed contour.

Note: The length of the contour is sum of lengths of the smooth arcs constituting the contour.

Contour integration: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a piecewise continuous function defined on a contour

𝛾 (𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏 then the integral of 𝑓(𝑧) along 𝛾 (𝑡) is define by
𝑏
∫𝛾 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑎 𝑓 [𝛾(𝑡)]. 𝛾 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡

This integral is called a contour (or) complex integral

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Note: Re∫𝛾 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 ≠ ∫𝛾 𝑅𝑒 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧

Line integral: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a function of complex variable defined in a domain D. Let C be
an arc in the domain joining from 𝑧 = 𝛼to 𝑧 = 𝛽. Let C be defined by 𝑥 =
𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑎≤𝑡≤𝑏

Where 𝛼 = 𝑥(𝑎) + 𝑖𝑦(𝑎)and 𝛽 = 𝑥(𝑏) + 𝑖𝑦(𝑏).

Let 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) be having continuous first order derivatives in [𝑎, 𝑏]. We define

∮ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓[𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖𝑦(𝑡)][𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖𝑦(𝑡)]𝑑𝑡

𝑎

Problems:

1. Evaluate ∫(𝟐𝒚 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝒅𝒙 + (𝟑𝒙 − 𝒚)𝒅𝒚 along the parabola 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒕, 𝒚 = 𝒕𝟐 + 𝟑

joining (𝟎, 𝟑) and (𝟐, 𝟒).

Sol: At 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 3, 𝑡 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 4, 𝑡 = 1

Substituting for 𝑥 and 𝑦 in terms of 𝑡, we get

1 1

𝐼 = ∫[2(𝑡 2 + 3) + 4𝑡 2 ] 2𝑑𝑡 + ∫[6𝑡 − 𝑡 2 − 3]2𝑡𝑑𝑡

𝑡=0 𝑡=0

= ∫(24𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 3 − 6𝑡 + 12)𝑑𝑡
0

1
24𝑡 3 2𝑡 4 6𝑡 2 1 33
=[ − − + 12𝑡] = 8 + 12 − 2 − 3 = .
3 4 2 0 2

2. Evaluate ∮(𝒙 + 𝒚)𝒅𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒅𝒚 along 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙 between (𝟎, 𝟎) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟑, 𝒂)?

Sol: Let 𝐼 denote the given integral

Since 𝑦 = 3𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑑𝑥

Substituting for y and dy in terms of 𝑥, we have

3 3 3
2(
𝑥2 𝑥4 3)
𝐼 = ∫(𝑥 + 3𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 3𝑥 )(3𝑑𝑥) = ∫(4𝑥 + 9𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (4. + 9. )
2 4 0
0 0

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 9
= 2(9) + (81)
4

729 801
= 18 + =
4 4

𝟏+𝒊
3. Evaluate ∫𝟎 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒊𝒚)𝒅𝒛 along the paths (𝒊)𝒚 = 𝒙 (𝒊𝒊)𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐

Sol: (𝑖) Along OB whose equation is 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑥 varies from 0 to 1

1+𝑖 (1,1)
Therefore ∫0 (𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑦)𝑑𝑧 = ∫(0,0) (𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑦)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)

1
Therefore ∫𝑂𝐵(𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑦)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑥=0(𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑥 )(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑥)

1 1
2
𝑥3 𝑥2
( ) )
= 1 + 𝑖 ∫(𝑥 − 𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (1 + 𝑖) [ − 𝑖 ]
3 2 0
0

1 𝑖
= (1+i) [3 − 2]

(𝑖𝑖)Along the parabola whose equation is 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥

1+𝑖 (1,1)
Now ∫0 (𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑦)𝑑𝑧 = ∫(0,0) (𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑦)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)

1
Therefore ∫𝑂𝑐(𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑦)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑥=0(𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑥 2 )(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑑𝑥)

= (1 − 𝑖 ) ∫ 𝑥 2 (1 + 2𝑖𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑥=𝑜

= (1 − 𝑖 ) ∫ (𝑥 2 + 2𝑖𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥
𝑥=𝑜

1
𝑥3 𝑥4 1 𝑖
= (1 − 𝑖 ) [ +𝑖 ] = (1 − 𝑖 ) [ + ]
3 2 0 3 2

𝟐+𝒊
4. Evaluate ∫𝟏−𝒊 (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 + 𝒊𝒚)𝒅𝒛 along the straight line joining (𝟏, −𝒊) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟐, 𝒊)?

Sol: We have 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⟹ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦

Equation of the line joining the two points (1, −1) and (2,1) is

1 − (−1)
𝑦+1 = (𝑥 − 1)
2−1

78
 i.e., 𝑦 + 1 = 2(𝑥 + 1) or 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3

Therefore 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑖(2𝑥 − 3) = (1 + 2𝑖)𝑥 − 3𝑖

⟹ 𝑑𝑧 = (1 + 2𝑖 )𝑑𝑥

Also 𝑥 varies from 1to 2.

2+𝑖 2
Hence ∫1−𝑖 (2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑖𝑦)𝑑𝑧 = ∫1 [2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑖 (2𝑥 − 3)](1 + 2𝑖 )𝑑𝑥

= (1 + 2𝑖 ) ∫[2(1 + 𝑖 )𝑥 + (1 − 3𝑖 )𝑑𝑥]
1

= (1 + 2𝑖 )[(1 + 𝑖 )𝑥 2 + (1 − 3𝑖 )𝑥 ]12

= (1 + 2𝑖 )[(1 + 𝑖 )4 + (1 − 3𝑖 )2 − (1 + 𝑖 ) − (1 − 3𝑖 )]

= (1 + 2𝑖 )(4) = 4 + 8𝑖

The Cauchy-Goursat Theorem:If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at all points interior to and on
a simple closed curve C, then ∮ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0.

This is called Cauchy-Goursat theorem.

Cauchy’s (Integral) Theorem: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) be analytic on and within a
simple closed contour c and let 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) be continuous there. Then

∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0.

Proof:We have 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ⟹ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦

Therefore 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦) = (𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖(𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦)

Hence ∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∮(𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖 ∮(𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦)

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= ∬ [− − ] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∬ [ − ] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 … … … (1)
𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
Since 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) is continuous, the four partial derivatives , , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 are also continuous
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

in the region R enclosed by C. Hence we can apply Green’s theorem.

Using Green’s theorem in plane, assuming that R is the region bounded by C.

79
 It is given that 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic on and within c.

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Hence 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑥 …………………………(2)

Therefore Using (2) in (1), we have

∮ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∬ 0𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∬ 0𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0

𝑅 𝑅

Hence the theorem follows.

Simple connected domain: A domain D is said to be simply connected if every simple

closed curve that is in D can be shrink to a point without leaving the domain.

(or)

A simply connected domain is a domain without holes

Note: Every disc is simple connected domain

Eg: 𝐴 = {𝑧𝜖ℂ/|𝑧| < 1}, Disc with centre(0,0) and radius 𝑟 = 1

Multiply connected domain: A domain D is said to be multiply connected if it is not simply

connected.

(or)

A multiply connected domain is a domain with holes.

Eg: The region between two concentric circles is a multiply connected

T = {𝑧𝜖ℂ/1 < |𝑧| < 2}

Cauchy-Goursat Theorem For A Multiply Connected Region:

Statement: Let c denote a closed contour and 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … … … 𝑐𝑘 be a finite number of closed

contours interior to c such that the interiors of the 𝑐𝑗′ 𝑠 do not have any points in common.

Let R be the region consisting of points on and within c except the interior points of
𝑐𝑗 . If B denotes the positively oriented boundary of the region R, then

80
 ∫𝐵 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0 , where 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the region 𝑅.

Result:The above theorem can also be stated as

If ‘c’ is a simple closed contour and 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … … … 𝑐𝑛 are closed contours within 𝑐

and if 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within c but on and outside the 𝑐𝑖′ 𝑠 then

∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ⋯ … … … … . ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧

𝑐 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐𝑛

Where the integrals are all taken in the anticlockwise sense around the curves.

Result:Let ‘𝑐’ be a simple closed curve. Let 𝑓(𝑧) be analytic on and within ‘𝑐’ everywhere
except at 𝑧 = 𝑎

∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑐1

Cauchy’s Integral Formula:

Statement: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be an analytic function everywhere on and within a closed contour 𝑐.
If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is any point within 𝑐, then

1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧−𝑎)

Where the integral is taken in the positive sense around 𝑐.

Proof:Let 𝑓(𝑧) be analytic within a closed contour. Let 𝑧 = 𝑎 be within 𝑐. Choose a suitably
small positive number 𝑟0 and describe a circle 𝑐0 with centre at a and radius 𝑟0 so that this
𝑓(𝑧)
circle 𝑐0 is entirely within 𝑐.Then 𝑧−𝑎 is analytic within 𝑐 except at 𝑧 = 𝑎.

𝑓(𝑧)
Therefore 𝑧−𝑎 is analytic in the region between 𝑐and 𝑐0 .

c
81
𝑐0
Therefore by generalization to cauchy’sthorem, we get

𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
(𝑧 − 𝑎 ) (𝑧 − 𝑎 )
𝑐 𝑐0

[𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑎)] + 𝑓(𝑎)

= ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−𝑎
𝑐0

𝑑𝑧 𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑎)
= 𝑓(𝑎) ∫ +∫ 𝑑𝑧 … … … . . (1)
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎 𝑐 𝑧−𝑎

Where the integrals around 𝑐0 are all taken in the positive sense,

on 𝑐0 : 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟0 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 and 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑟0 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃.

𝑑𝑧 2𝜋 𝑖𝑟0 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 2𝜋
Hence, ∫𝑐 = ∫𝜃=0 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑖 ∫0 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋𝑖 … … … … … … … … … . (2)
0 𝑧−𝑎 𝑟0 𝑒 𝑖𝜃

For every positive 𝑟0 .

Also 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous at 𝑎. Hence, to each 𝜖 > 0, there corresponds a positive 𝛿 such that

|𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑎)| < 𝜖 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝛿.

Let us take 𝑟0 = 𝛿. Then 𝑐0 is |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = 𝛿.

𝑓(𝑧)−𝑓(𝑎) |𝑓(𝑧)−𝑓(𝑎)| 𝜖
Hence, |∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧| ≤ ∫𝑐 |𝑑𝑧| < ∫𝑐 |𝑑𝑧|
0 𝑧−𝑎 0 |𝑧−𝑎| 𝛿 0

82
 𝜖
< (2𝜋𝛿 ) 〈∫ |𝑑𝑧| = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑐0 〉
𝛿 𝑐0

< 2𝜋𝜖

Hence, the second integral on the R.H.S of (1) can be made arbitrarily small by taking
𝑟0 sufficiently small. Thus,

𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑎)

∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(𝑎) + ∫ 𝑑𝑧
(𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑐0 𝑧−𝑎
𝑐

L.H.S and the first term on the R.H.S are independent of 𝑟0 and the second integral on the
R.H.S can be made arbitrarily small. Further the second integral must also be independent of
𝑟0 .

Hence, it must be 0. Thus,

𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(𝑎)
(𝑧 − 𝑎 )
𝑐

1 𝑓(𝑧)
i.e., (𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝑐 (𝑧−𝑎)
𝑑𝑧 .

Hence the theorem follows.

Generalization Of Cauchy’s Integral Formula:

Statement: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and within a simple closed curve 𝑐 and if 𝑎 is any point
within 𝑐, then

𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛+1

Morera’s Theorem:

If a function 𝑓 is continuous throughout a simply connected domain 𝐷 and if

∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0 for every closed contour 𝑐in 𝐷, the 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in 𝐷.

Problems:

𝒛𝟐 −𝒛+𝟏 𝟏
1.Evaluate ∫𝒄 𝒅𝒛 where 𝑪: |𝒛| = 𝟐 taken in anticlockwise sense.
𝒛−𝟏

83
 𝑧 2−𝑧+1
Sol: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧−1

Since 𝑧 = 1 is outside 𝑐, 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside 𝑐.

By Cauchy’s theorem, ∫𝑐 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0.

𝟏
2.Prove that ∫𝒄 𝒅𝒛 = 𝟐𝝅𝒊, where C is |𝒛 − 𝒂| = 𝒓.
𝒛−𝒂

Sol: Let 𝐴 be the fixed complex number ‘𝑎’ and P a variable point 𝑧 on the circle.

Then 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑧 − 𝑎. Let AP make an angle 𝜃 with x-axis. Then 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 .

Therefore 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

This is the parametric equation to the circle C and 𝜃 varies from 0 to 2𝜋, 𝑟 being
constant.

y Z plane

P
r 𝜃
A
a

𝑑𝑧 2𝜋 𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Hence ∫𝑐 = ∫0 𝑑𝜃
𝑧−𝑎 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

2𝜋
= ∫0 𝑖𝑑𝜃

= 𝑖(𝜃)2𝜋
0

= 2𝜋𝑖.

84
3.Consider the region 𝟏 ≤ |𝒛| ≤ 𝟐. If B is the positively oriented boundary of this region
𝒅𝒛
then show that ∫𝑩 = 𝟎.
𝒛𝟐 (𝒛𝟐 +𝟏𝟔)

1
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 (𝑧 2+16)

|𝑧| = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑧| = 2are two circles with centre at (0,0) and radii equal to 1 and 2
respectively

The singular points of 𝑓(𝑧) are obtained by equating 𝑧 2 (𝑧 2 + 16) = 0

⟹ 𝑧 = 0 (𝑜𝑟)𝑧 2 + 16 = 0

⟹ 𝑧 = 0 (𝑜𝑟)𝑧 = ±4𝑖

𝑧 = 0,4𝑖, −4𝑖are called singular points, which are outside of the region.

By Cauchy’s integral therorem,

𝑑𝑧
∫𝐵 = 0.
𝑧 2 (𝑧 2+16)

4.If 𝑩 is the positively oriented boundary of the region between the circle |𝒛| = 𝟒 and
𝒛+𝟐
the square with sides along the lines 𝒙 = ±𝟏 and 𝒚 = ±𝟏, then evaluate ∫𝑩 𝒛 𝒅𝒛?
𝐬𝐢𝐧( )
𝟐

𝑧+2
Sol: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧
sin( )
2

The given region is between |𝑧| = 4 and the square = ±1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = ±1,

|𝑧| = 4is the circle with centre (0,0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 4

85
 𝑧
The singular points of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by sin (2) = 0

𝑧
⟹ 2 = 𝑛𝜋, n is an integer

i.e. , 𝑧 = 2𝑛𝜋

𝑧 = 0,±2𝜋, ±4𝜋, … … … ….

Which are called singular points.

Here 𝑧 = 0 lies inside of the square and all remaining points lies outside of the circle.

Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within 𝐵.

By Cauchy’s theorem,

𝑑𝑧
∫ = 0
𝐵 𝑧 2 (𝑧 2 + 16)

𝒛𝟐 +𝟒
5.Evaluate∫𝒄 𝒅𝒛 where 𝒄 is (𝒂)|𝒛| = 𝟓 (𝒃)|𝒛| = 𝟐 taken in anticlockwise?
𝒛−𝟑

Sol: (𝑎)|𝑧| = 5 is the circle with centre at (0,0) and radius 5 units.

Given function is analytic everywhere except at 𝑧 = 3 and it lies inside 𝐶.

𝑧2 + 4 𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑧−3 𝑐 𝑧−𝑎

Where (𝑧) = 𝑧 2 + 4, 𝑎 = 3 and 𝑐 is |𝑧| = 5 taken in anticlockwise sense.

Using Cauchy’s integral formula

𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖[𝑧 2 + 4]𝑧=𝑎=3
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎

= 2𝜋𝑖(9 + 4) = 26𝜋𝑖

(𝑏)|𝑧| = 2is the circle with centre at (0,0) and radius equal to 2. The point 𝑧 = 3 is outside
this curve.

𝑧 2 +4
Therefore the function is analytic on and within 𝑐: |𝑧| = 2.
𝑧−3

𝑧 2 +4
Hence by Cauchy’s theorem ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑧−3

86
 𝒆𝟐𝒛
6.Evaluate∫𝒄 (𝒛−𝟏)(𝒛−𝟐)
𝒅𝒛 where 𝒄 is the circle |𝒛| = 𝟑.

Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 2𝑧

1 1 1
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
= 𝑧−2 − 𝑧−1using partial fractions.

𝑒 2𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧
Therefore ∫𝑐 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧 − ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−2 𝑧−1

The points 𝑧 = 1,2 lies inside 𝑐.

Because 𝑒 2𝑧 is analytic everywhere, according to Cauchy’s integral formula,

𝑒 2𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧
∫ 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = [2𝜋𝑖𝑒 2𝑧 ]𝑧=2 − [2𝜋𝑖𝑒 2𝑧 ]𝑧=1 = 2𝜋𝑖[𝑒 4 − 𝑒 2 ]
𝑐 𝑧−2 𝑐 𝑧 − 1

𝒆𝒛
7.Use Cauchy’s integral formula to evaluate ∫𝒄 𝟐 𝒅𝒛 where C is the circle |𝒛| = 𝟒.
(𝒛𝟐 +𝝅𝟐 )

𝑒𝑧 𝑒𝑧
Sol:(𝑧 2 = (𝑧+𝜋𝑖)2(𝑧−𝜋𝑖)2
+𝜋2 )2

𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 is analytic within the circle |𝑧| = 4 and the two singular points 𝑧 = ±𝜋𝑖 lies inside
𝐶.

1 1
Let (𝑧 2+𝜋2 )2 = (𝑧+𝜋𝑖)2 (𝑧−𝜋𝑖)2

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
= 𝑧+𝜋𝑖 + (𝑧+𝜋𝑖)2 + 𝑧−𝜋𝑖 + (𝑧−𝜋𝑖)2

Solving for 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷, we get

7 −1 −7 −1
𝐴 = , 𝐵 = 4𝜋2 , 𝐶 = 2𝜋3 𝑖 , 𝐷 = 4𝜋2
2𝜋3 𝑖

𝑒𝑧 7 𝑒𝑧
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 (𝑧 2 + 𝜋 2 )2 2𝜋 3 𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 + 𝜋𝑖 )
1 𝑒𝑧 7 𝑒𝑧 1 𝑒𝑧
− ∫ 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑑𝑧
4𝜋 2 𝑐 (𝑧 + 𝜋𝑖 )2 2𝜋 3 𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝜋𝑖 ) 4𝜋 2 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝜋𝑖 )2

Therefore by Cauchy’s integral formula,

𝑒𝑧 7 1 7
∫ 2 2 2
𝑑𝑧 = 3 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 (−𝜋𝑖 ) − 2 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 ′ (−𝜋𝑖 ) − 3 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝜋𝑖 )
𝑐 (𝑧 + 𝜋 ) 2𝜋 𝑖 4𝜋 2𝜋 𝑖
1
− 2𝜋𝑖𝑓 ′ (𝜋𝑖 )
4𝜋 2
87
 7 −𝑖𝜋 𝑖 −𝑖𝜋 7 𝑖𝜋 𝑖 𝑖𝜋 𝑖
= 𝑒 − 𝑒 − 𝑒 − 𝑒 =
𝜋2 2𝜋 𝜋2 2𝜋 𝜋

(𝟐𝒛𝟐 −𝒛−𝟐)
8.Find𝒇(𝟐) and 𝒇(𝟑) if 𝒇(𝒂) = ∫𝒄 𝒅𝒛 where 𝑪 is the circle |𝒛| = 𝟐. 𝟓 using
𝒛−𝒂

Cachy’s integral formula?

(2𝑧 2−𝑧−2)
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑎) = ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−𝑎

(𝑖)𝑎 = 2lies inside the circle 𝐶: |𝑧| = 2.5

Let ∅(𝑧) = 2𝑧 2 − 𝑧 − 2

1 ∅(𝑧)
By Cauchy’s integral formula, ∅(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−𝑎

∅ (𝑧 )
⟹ 2𝜋𝑖∅(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑐 𝑧−𝑎

⟹ 𝑓(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖∅(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖(2𝑎2 − 𝑎 − 2)

Therefore 𝑓(2) = 2𝜋𝑖(8 − 2 − 2) = 8𝜋𝑖

(2𝑧 2−𝑧−2)
(𝑖𝑖)Taking 𝑎 = 3, we get, 𝑓 (3) = ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−3

Now, the point 𝑧 = 3 lies outside 𝐶. Hence the integrand is analytic within and on 𝐶.

(2𝑧 2 −𝑧−2)
Therefore by Cauchy’s theorem, 𝑓(3) = ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧 = 0.
𝑧−3

𝒛𝟑 𝒆−𝒛 𝟏
9. Evaluate using Cauchy’s theorem ∫𝒄 (𝒛−𝟏)𝟑
𝒅𝒛 where 𝑪 is |𝒛 − 𝟏| = 𝟐.

1
Sol: Given curve is |𝑧 − 1| = 2.

This is clearly a circle 𝐶 with centre at 1 and radius 0.5 units.

The integrand has only one singular point at 𝑧 = 1 and it lies inside 𝐶.

Consider the function 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 3 𝑒 −𝑧

88
This function is analytic at all points inside 𝐶.

Hence by Cauchy’s integral formula,

𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛+1

In this, take 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑛 = 2.

Then
2! 𝑧 3 𝑒 −𝑧
𝑓 ′′ (1) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧 − 1)3

𝑧 3 𝑒 −𝑧
∴∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜋𝑖𝑓 ′′ (1)
𝑐 (𝑧 − 1)3

𝑑 2 3 −𝑧
= 𝜋𝑖 { [𝑧 𝑒 ]}
𝑑𝑧 2 𝑧=1

𝑑
= 𝜋𝑖 { [3𝑧 2 𝑒 −𝑧 − 𝑧 3 𝑒 −𝑧 ]}
𝑑𝑧 𝑧=1

= 𝜋𝑖[6𝑧𝑒 −𝑧 − 3𝑧 2 𝑒 −𝑧 − (3𝑧 2 𝑒 −𝑧 − 𝑧 3 𝑒 −𝑧 )]𝑧=1

= 𝜋𝑖[𝑧 3 𝑒 −𝑧 − 6𝑧 2 𝑒 −𝑧 + 6𝑧𝑒 −𝑧 ]𝑧=1

= 𝜋𝑖[𝑒 −1 − 6𝑒 −1 + 6𝑒 −1 ] = 𝜋𝑖𝑒 −1

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝅𝒛𝟐 +𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝅𝒛𝟐

10. Evaluate ∫𝒄 (𝒛−𝟏)(𝒛−𝟐)
𝒅𝒛, where 𝒄 is the circle |𝒛| = 𝟑 using Cauchy’s integral

formula.

89
Sol: 𝑓 (𝑧) = sin 𝜋𝑧 2 + cos 𝜋𝑧 2 is analytic within the circle |𝑧| = 3 and the singular points
𝑎 = 1,2 lie inside 𝑐.

𝑓(𝑧) 1 1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)

∴∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ [ − ] 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2) 𝑐 𝑧−2 𝑧−1 𝑐 𝑧−2 𝑐 𝑧−2

= 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(2) − 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(1) (using Cauchy’s integral formula)

= 2𝜋𝑖[(sin 4𝜋 + cos 4𝜋) − (sin 𝜋 + cos 𝜋)]

= 2𝜋𝑖[1 − (−1)] = 4𝜋𝑖

sin 𝜋𝑧 2 +cos 𝜋𝑧 2
i.e., ∫𝑐 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
𝑑𝑧 = 4𝜋𝑖

Assignment questions:

𝑥−𝑖𝑦
1.Find whether 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑥 2+𝑦 2 is analytic or not.

2.Show that the real and imaginary parts of the function 𝑤 = log 𝑧 satisfy the C-R equations
when 𝑧 is not zero.

3.Prove that the function 𝑓(𝑧) defined by

𝑥 3 (1 + 𝑖 ) − 𝑦 3 (1 − 𝑖 )
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = { 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , (𝑧 ≠ 0)
0, (𝑧 = 0)

Is continuous and the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at the origin, yet 𝑓 ′ (0) does
not exist.

4.Find 𝑘 such that 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑘𝑥𝑦 2 may be harmonic and find its conjugate.

5.Evaluate ∫𝑐 (𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 where 𝐶 is the boundary of the first quadrant of

the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4.

6.Verify Cauchy’s theorem for the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 3𝑧 2 + 𝑖𝑧 − 4 if 𝑐 is the square with the
vertices at 1 ± 𝑖, −1 ± 𝑖.

𝑧 3 −sin 3𝑧
7.Evaluate ∫𝑐 𝜋 3
𝑑𝑧 with 𝐶: |𝑧| = 2 using Cauchy’s integral formula.
(𝑧− )
2

log 𝑧 1
8.Evaluate ∫𝑐 (𝑧−1)3
𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶: |𝑧 − 1| = 2 using Cauchy’s integral formula.

90
 𝑧4
9.Using Cauchy’s integral formula, evaluate ∫𝑐 (𝑧+1)(𝑧−𝑖)2
𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶 is the ellipse

9𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 36.

𝑑𝑧
10.Evaluate ∫𝑐 (𝑧 2+4)2
where 𝐶: |𝑧 − 𝑖 | = 2.

𝑒𝑧
11.Evaluate ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶: |𝑧 − 1| = 3.
𝑧(𝑧+1)

𝑧 2 −𝑧+1 1
12.Evaluate ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧 where 𝑐 is (𝑖) |𝑧| = 1(𝑖𝑖)|𝑧| = taken in anticlockwise sense.
𝑧−1 2

91
 UNIT –IV
Singularities and Residues
Introduction: In this unit, we discuss the method of expanding a given function about a point
‘𝑎’ in powers of ‘𝑧 − 𝑎’, as we proceed, we recognize that this theory enables us in
evaluating certain real & complex integrals easily. Here we discuss Taylor’s series & Laurent
series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧)about point ‘a’.
In this unit we also discuss about Residue Theorem which is useful to evaluate certain
real integrals.
Sequence: A sequence {𝑍𝑛 } is a function from 𝑁 𝐶 i.e., 𝑍𝑛 : 𝑁 𝐶
Series: Let {𝑍𝑛 }∞𝑛=1 be a sequence, the nth partial sum of sequence is called series and it is
denoted by ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑍𝑛
Power Series: Let {𝑍𝑛 }∞𝑛=1 be a sequence of complex no’s the series ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛 is
called a power series of 𝑧0 .
 The Series ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is a power series about the origin.
 If a series ∑∞𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 converges at every point of circle ‘C’ & diverges at every point
outside the circle ‘C’, then such a Circle ‘C’ is said to be circle of convergence of the
series ∑∞𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 . The Radius R of the Circle ’C’ called the radius of convergence of the
series ∑∞𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 .
1 𝑎𝑛+1 1
 The formula to find radius of convergence (R) is = 𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑢𝑝 | | (or) =
𝑅 𝑎𝑛 𝑅
1⁄
𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑢𝑝|𝑎𝑛 | 𝑛.

1. Find the circle of convergence of the series ∑∞𝒏=𝟏(𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒛)𝒏 𝒛𝒏

Sol. We have ∑∞𝑛=1(log 𝑧) 𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 = ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
on comparing 𝑎𝑛 = (log 𝑧) 𝑛
1 1⁄
we know that 𝑅 = 𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑢𝑝|𝑎𝑛 | 𝑛

1⁄
= 𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑢𝑝|(log 𝑧) 𝑛 | 𝑛

1
=∞
𝑅

𝑅=0
Radius of Convergence =0
i.e., Circle with zero radius.
Hence the circle of convergence is |𝑧| = 0

(−𝟏)𝒏−𝟏𝒛𝟐𝒏−𝟏
2. Find the circle of convergence of the series ∑∞𝒏=𝟏 (𝟐𝒏−𝟏)!

92
 (−1)𝑛−1 (−1)𝑛
Sol. We have 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛+1 =
(2𝑛−1)! (2𝑛+1)!

1 𝑎𝑛+1
= 𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑢𝑝 | |
𝑅 𝑎𝑛

(2𝑛−1)!
= 𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ 𝑆𝑢𝑝 |(2𝑛+1)(2𝑛)(2𝑛−1)!|
1
= 𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ |(2𝑛+1)(2𝑛)|

=0
∴ 𝑅 → ∞, Circle with ∞ radius
∴The given series is convergent everywhere in the complex plane.
Taylor’s Theorem:
Let 𝑓(𝑧) be analytic at all points within a circle C with center at ‘a’ & radius r. then at each
point ‘z’ within ‘C’.
𝑓′′ (𝑎) 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑧 − 𝑎) + (𝑧 − 𝑎 )2 + (𝑧 − 𝑎)3 + … … .. _(1)
2! 3!

𝑖.e., the series on the right hand side in (1) converges to f(z) whenever |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑟

- The expansion in (1) on the R.H.S is called the Taylor’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) in
power of (𝑧 − 𝑎) (or) Taylor’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) about z =a (around z = a)
Maclaurin’s Series:
Taylor’s series expansion about a=0 is called Macluarin’s Series i.e.,
𝑓′′ (0) 𝑓′′′ (0)
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)(𝑧) + (𝑧 )2 + (𝑧)3 + … … .. _(2)
2! 3!

which is called Maclaurin’s Theorem.

Note: Suppose we want Taylor’s Series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) around 𝑧 = 𝑎. Then 𝑓(𝑧) must be
analytic at 𝑧 = 𝑎 & within circle C: |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑅, where 𝑅 is as large as possible.
Expansion of some standard functions:
𝑧2 𝑧3 𝑧4 𝑧𝑛
1. 𝑒 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑧 + 2! + + +……………= ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑛! ∀ 𝑧 i.e., |𝑧| < ∞
3! 4!
𝑧3 𝑧5
2. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 = 𝑧 − 3! + 5! − … … … ..
𝑧2 𝑧4
3. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 = 1 − 2! + 4! − … … … ..
𝑧 2𝑛+1
4. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧 = ∑∞𝑛=1 (2𝑛+1)!

Important Note: To obtain Taylor’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) around about 𝑧 = 𝑎, then put
𝑧 − 𝑎 = 0. Then
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑤 + 𝑎) = 𝜙(𝑤) (say)
now write the Maclaurin’s series expansion of 𝜙(𝑤).
Finally substitute𝑤 = 𝑧 − 𝑎, then we get required Taylor’s Series.

93
Problems on Taylor’s Series Expansion of 𝒇(𝒛):
1. Expand 𝒆𝒛 as Taylor’s series about 𝒛 = 𝟏
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 , 𝑧 = 1
Let 𝑧 − 1 = 𝑤 ⇒ 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑤
Now, write Maclaurin’s series for 𝜙(𝑤)
𝜙 ′′ (0) 𝜙 ′′′ (0)
i.e., 𝜙(𝑤) = 𝜙(0) + 𝜙 ′ (0)(𝑤) + (𝑤 )2 + (𝑤 ) 3 + … … … …
2! 3!

𝜙(𝑤) = 𝑒. 𝑒 𝑤 𝜙′(𝑤) = 𝑒. 𝑒 𝑤 𝜙′′(𝑤) = 𝑒. 𝑒 𝑤

𝜙 (0) = 𝑒 𝜙′(0) =e 𝜙 ′′(0) = 𝑒
𝑤2
∴ 𝜙(𝑤) = 𝑒 + 𝑒𝑤 + 𝑒 + …………
2!
𝑤2
𝜙(𝑤) = 𝑒[1 + 𝑤 + + … … … …]
2!

Now replace 𝑤 by 𝑧 − 1
(𝑧−1)2
𝜙(𝑧 − 1) = 𝑒[1 + (𝑧 − 1) + + … … … …]
2!

which is the Taylor’s series of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 about 𝑧 = 1.

𝟏
2. Find Taylors series of 𝒇(𝒛) = (𝟏+𝒛)𝟐 about 𝒛 = −𝒊

Sol: We know that Taylor’s Theorem for 𝑓(𝑧) is

𝑓′′ (𝑎) 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑧 − 𝑎) + (𝑧 − 𝑎 )2 + (𝑧 − 𝑎)3 + … … .. _(1)
2! 3!

𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎 = −i

′(
𝑓 ′′ (−𝑖 ) 2
𝑓 ′′′ (−𝑖 )
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓 (−𝑖 ) + 𝑓 −𝑖 )(𝑧 + 𝑖 ) + (𝑧 + 𝑖 ) + (𝑧 + 𝑖 )3 +
2! 3!
1 𝑖
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ⇒ 𝑓 (−𝑖 ) = 2
(1+𝑧)2

−2 −1 .2!
𝑓′(𝑧) = ⇒ 𝑓′(−𝑖 ) = (1−𝑖)3
(1+𝑧)3

6 3!
𝑓′′(𝑧) = ⇒ 𝑓′′(−𝑖 ) = (1−𝑖)4
(1+𝑧)4

Sub. All above in (1) then

𝑖 −1 .2! 3!
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = + (1−𝑖)3 (𝑧 + 𝑖 ) + (1−𝑖)4 (𝑧 + 𝑖 )2 + ………………….
2
𝒛
3. Expand (𝒛+𝟏)(𝒛−𝟐) about 𝒛 = 𝟏 (or)
𝒛
Write the Taylor’s series expansion of (𝒛+𝟏)(𝒛−𝟐) about 𝒛 = 𝟏
𝑧
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+1)(𝑧−2) & a=1

94
 𝑧 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)
= 𝑧+1 + 𝑧−2 (by partial fractions)

𝑧 𝐴(𝑧−2)+𝐵(𝑍+1)
(𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)
= (𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)
⇒ 𝑧 = 𝐴(𝑧 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑍 + 1)

on solving it 𝐴 = 1/3 , 𝐵 = 2/3

𝑧 2 1
(𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)
= +
3(𝑧+1) 3(𝑧−2)
2 1
∴ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 3(𝑧+1) + 3(𝑧−2)

Now let 𝑧 − 1 = 𝑤 ⇒ 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑤
2 1
= +
3(𝑤+2) 3(𝑤−1)

1 𝑤 −1 1
=3 [1 + 2 ] − [1 + 𝑤]−1
3
1 𝑤 𝑤2 𝑤3 1
= 3 [1 − + − + … … … . . ]- 3 [1 + 𝑤 + 𝑤 2 + 𝑤 3 + ⋯ ]
2 4 8
𝑤
( if | 2 | < 1 ⇒ |𝑤| < 1 ; |𝑤| < 2 ⇒ |𝑤| < 1 )
1 𝑧−1 (𝑧−1)2 (𝑧−1)3 1
𝑓 (𝑧) = 3 [1 − + − + … . . ]- 3 [1 + (𝑧 − 1) + (𝑧 − 1)2 + … . . ]
2 4 8

i.e., this series is valid in the region |𝑧 − 1| < 1

Assignment Questions:
𝑧
1. Find the Taylor’s series for 𝑧+2 above 𝑧 = 1. Also find the region of convergence.

2. Expand log 𝑧 by Taylor’s Series about 𝑧 = 1

1
3. Obtain the expansion of (𝑧−1)(𝑧−3) in a Taylor’s series in power of (𝑍 − 4) and determine

the region of convergence.

1
4. Expand 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 −𝑧−6 about (𝑖) 𝑧 = −1 (𝑖𝑖) 𝑧 = 1
2𝑧 3 +1
5. Find the Taylor’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) = about point (𝑖) 𝑧 = −𝑖 (𝑖𝑖) 𝑧 = 1
𝑧 2 +𝑧

Laurent’s series Expansion: we have seen under Taylors series that if 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at
𝑧 = 𝑎, we can have a series expansion of 𝑓 (𝑧) in non-negative powers of (𝑧 − 𝑎) which is
valid in a region given by |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑅 for suitable 𝑅.
Laurent’s theorem gives a procedure to expand a given function in powers of (𝑧 − 𝑎).
The series expansion may have positive as well as negative powers.
Laurent’s Theorem:

95
 Let C1 and C2 be two circular given by |𝑧′ − 𝑧0 | = 𝑟 and |𝑧′ − 𝑧0 | < 𝑅 respectively
where 𝑟 < 𝑅.
Let 𝑓(𝑧) be analytic on C1 and C2 throughout the region between the two circles. Let Z
be any point in the ring shaped region between the two circles C 1 and C2 .
then
𝑏
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + ∑𝑛=1 (𝑧−𝑧 )𝑛
0

which is called Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) about z=𝑧0 .

1 𝑓(𝑧 ′)
where 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝑐 𝑑𝑧′
1 (𝑧 ′−𝑧0)𝑛+1

1 𝑓(𝑧 ′ )
and 𝑏𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝑐 𝑑𝑧′
2 (𝑧 ′−𝑧0)−𝑛+1

where integrals are taken around C1 and C2 in the anti clockwise direction.
Problems:
𝟏
1. Find Laurent’s series for 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛𝟐 (𝟏−𝒛) & Find the region of convergence (or) Find
𝟏
two Laurent’s series expansion in powers of 𝒛 for 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛𝟐 (𝟏−𝒛) & specify the

regions in which these expansions are valid.

1
Sol: Given 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2 (1−𝑧)

The singular points are z=0 and z=1

1 1
Now 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 (1−𝑧) = 𝑧 2 (1 − 𝑧)−1
1
=𝑧 2[1+z+𝑧 2 + ……….] valid only if 𝑧 ≠ 0 & |𝑧| < 1
1 1
= 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1 + z + 𝑧 2 + … … …. is valid only if 0 < |𝑧| < 1

= ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑧
𝑛−2
if 0 < |𝑧| < 1
which is one Laurents series expansion in powers of Z.
1 −1
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2(1−𝑧) = 𝑧 2 (𝑧−1)

−1 −1 −1 1 −1
= 1 = 1 = (1 − 𝑧 )
𝑧 2 .𝑧 (1− ) 𝑧 3 (1− ) 𝑧3
𝑧 𝑧

1 1 1
= − (𝑧 3 + 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 5 + … … … … . . ) if |𝑧| > 1

= - ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑧
−𝑛−3
if |𝑧| > 1
= - ∑∞
𝑛=0(𝑧 − 0)
−𝑛−3
if |𝑧| > 1
Only principal part analytic part is not there
This is the another Laurent’s series expansion in powers of z.
𝟏
2. Expand 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛𝟐 −𝟑𝒛+𝟐 in the region (i) 𝟏 < |𝒛| < 2 (ii) 𝟎 < |𝒛 − 𝟏| < 1

96
 1 𝟏 𝑨 𝑩
Sol: 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2−3𝑧+2 = (𝒛−𝟏)(𝒛−𝟐) = 𝒛−𝟏 + 𝒛−𝟐

A=-1, B=1
−𝟏 𝟏
∴ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝒛−𝟏 + 𝒛−𝟐

The singular points of f(z) are Z=1,2

(i) Consider 1 < |𝑧| < 2
i.e., 1 < |𝑧| , |𝑧| < 2
1 𝑧
| |<1 , | |<1
𝑧 2
1 1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = − 𝑧−1
𝑧−2
1 1
= 𝑧 − 1
−2(1− ) 𝑧(1− )
2 𝑧

1 𝑧 −1 1 1 −1
= −2 (1 − 2) − 𝑧 (1 − 𝑧)

1 𝑧 𝑧 2 𝑧 3 1 1 1 2
= (1 + + ( ) + ( ) + … … . ) − (1 + + ( ) + … … … . )
−2 2 2 2 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧

1 𝑧
valid only if |𝑧 | < 1 , |2| < 1

1 𝑧 𝑛 1 𝑛+1
= −2 ∑∞ ∞
𝑛=0 (2) - ∑𝑛=0 (𝑧 ) if 1 < |𝑧| < 2

This is the Laurent’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) about z=0 (or) in powers of Z in the region
1 < |𝑧 | < 2
(ii) Consider 0 < |𝑧 − 1| < 1
−𝟏 𝟏
We have 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝒛−𝟏 + 𝒛−𝟐

The function 𝑓 (𝑧) is analytic

in the ring shaped region 0 < |𝑧 − 1| < 1
−𝟏 𝟏
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝒛−𝟏 + (𝒛−𝟏)−𝟏
−𝟏
= − (𝟏 − (𝒛 − 𝟏))−𝟏
𝒛−𝟏
−𝟏
= − ( 𝟏 − ( 𝒛 − 𝟏) + ( 𝒛 − 𝟏) 𝟐 + … … … )
𝒛−𝟏

= −(𝟏 − 𝒛)−𝟏 − ∑∞
𝑛=0(𝑧 − 1)
𝑛

Principal part + Analytic part

This is the Laurent’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) about 𝑧 = 1 (or) in powers of (𝑧 − 1) in the
region 0 < |𝑧 − 1| < 1
𝟏
3. Expand (𝒛𝟐 +𝟏)(𝒛𝟐 +𝟐) in positive & negative powers of z if 1 < |𝑧| < √2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Sol. Given 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝒛𝟐 +𝟏)(𝒛𝟐 +𝟐) = (𝒛𝟐 +𝟏) − (𝒛𝟐 +𝟐)

Given region is 1 < |𝑧| < √2

97
 i.e., 1 < |𝑧| , |𝑧| < √2
1 𝑧
| |<1 , | |<1
𝑧 2 √
1 𝑧2
| 2| < 1 , | | < 1
𝑧 2

1 1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = − 2
(𝑧 2 + 1) (𝑧 + 2)
1 1
= 1 − 𝑧2
𝑧 2(1+ 2 ) 2(1+ )
𝑧 2

−1 −1
1 1 1 𝑧2
= 𝑧 2 (1 + 𝑧 2 ) − 2 (1 + )
2
1 1 1 1 1 𝑧2 𝑧4 𝑧6
= [1 − + 𝑧4 − + … … … . ] − 2 [1 − + 22 − + …………..]
𝑧2 𝑧2 𝑧6 2 23

1 2𝑛+2 𝑧 2𝑛
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0(−1) (𝑧 ) + ∑∞
𝑛=0(−1)
𝑛+1
2𝑛+1

Principal part of Laurent’s series Analytic part of Laurent’s series

Assignment Problems:
7𝑧−2
1. Obtain all the Laurent’s series of the function (𝑧+1)𝑧(𝑧−2) about 𝑧 = −1
1
2. Expand 𝑧(𝑧 2−3𝑧+2) in the region (a) 1 ≤ |𝑧| ≤ 2 (b) 0 ≤ |𝑧| ≤ 1 (c) |𝑧| ≥ 2

𝑧 2−6𝑧−1
3. Find the Laurent’s series expansion of the function 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)(𝑧−3)(𝑧+2)
in the

region 3 ≤ |𝑧 + 2| ≤ 5

Contour Integration
We have studied the functions which are analytic in a given region. But there are
several functions which are not analytic at certain points of its domain. Such exceptional
points are called the ‘singularities’ of the function & a type of a singular point is called a
‘Pole’. Now we study above different types of singularities & finding residues of a function
at a pole. Also we prove Residue theorem which is useful to evaluate certain real integrals.
Definition:
Zero (or) root of analytic function: It is a value of Z such that 𝑓 (𝑧) = 0 (or) A point ‘a’ is
called a zero of an analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) if 𝑓(𝑎) = 0.

98
Ex: 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 − 1, here 𝑓(1) = 0 ∴ ‘1’ is called zero (or) root of 𝑓(𝑧)
Zero of nth order : Let 𝑓(𝑧) be analytic function, if the root ‘a’ of 𝑓 (𝑧) repeated ‘n’ times
then ‘𝑎’ is called root (or) zero of the nth order. & we write it as 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 𝜙(𝑧) where
𝜙(𝑧) ≠ 0.
Examples:
1. 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧 − 1)3 , 𝑓(1) = 0, Hence ‘1’ is called zero of 3rd order.
1
2. 𝑓 (𝑧) = 1−𝑧, then 𝑓(∞) = 0, Hence ‘∞’ is called zero of order 1, it is a simple pole.

3. 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧, the zeros of f(z) are z=0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±4𝜋 … … … ..
4. 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑧 has no zeros (∵ 𝑒 𝑧 ≠ 0)
Singular Point: A singular point of a function 𝑓(𝑧) is the point at which the function 𝑓(𝑧) is
not analytic.
(or)
A point ‘𝑎’ is said to be a singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) if 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic at ‘𝑎’
Singularities are classical into two types:
(i) Isolated Singularity
(ii) Non- isolated singularity
Isolated singularity: A point 𝑧 = 𝑎 is called an isolated singularity of an analytic function
𝑓(𝑧) if (i) 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic at ‘𝑎’
(𝑖𝑖) 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the deleted neighborhood of 𝑧 = 𝑎
𝟏
Ex.1. 𝒇(𝒛) =
𝒛−𝟏

Here 𝑧 = 1 is a singularity of 𝑓(𝑧)

Further 𝑧 = 1 is a isolated singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the deleted

neighborhood of 𝑧 = 1.

𝟏
Ex. 2. 𝒇(𝒛) =
(𝒛−𝟏)(𝒛−𝟐)

Here 𝑧 = 1, 2 are singularities of 𝑓(𝑧)

Further 𝑧 = 1,2 are isolated singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the deleted
neighborhood of 𝑧 = 1,2.

𝒆𝒛
Ex.3. 𝒇(𝒛) =
𝒛𝟐 +𝟏

Here 𝑧 = ±𝑖 are two isolated singular points of 𝑓(𝑧)

99
 𝟐
Ex.4. 𝒇(𝒛) =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒛

The isolated singular points are z = ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±4𝜋 … … … ..

Non-Isolated Singularity: A Singularity which is not isolated is called a non isolated

singularity.

i.e., A singularity ‘𝑎’ of 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be a non-isolated singularity if every neighborhood of

‘𝑎’ contains a singularity other than‘𝑎’.

𝟏
Ex. 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧( )
𝒛

1 1 1
sin (𝑧) = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = ±𝑛𝜋 ⇒z=𝑛𝜋 , n=±1, ±2, ±3, ±4 … … … ..

1
The singularities of 𝑓 (𝑧) are 𝑛𝜋 , n=±1, ±2, ±3, ±4 … … … ..

1
It may be noted that 𝐿𝑡𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝜋 = 0

i.e., z=0 is the limit sequence of singularity.

1
∴ Every neighborhood of ‘0’ contains a singularity 𝑛𝜋 for sufficiently large ‘n’

∴ z=0 is a non- isolated singularity.

Note: If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is an isolated singularity of 𝑓(𝑧), then f(z) is analytic in deleted

neighborhood say 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑅, R > 0

∴ 𝑓(𝑧) has Laurent’s expansion which is valid in the annulus 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑅

We know that the Laurent’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) is

𝑏
𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + ∑𝑛=1 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛 valid in 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑎 | < 𝑅

𝑏
In this expansion ∑∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) is called the analytic part and ∑𝑛=1 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛 is called the

Principal part of the expansion.

1. Removable Singularity: If the principle part of the Laurent’s expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) around
the singular point 𝑧 = 𝑎contains no terms. Then singularity is said to be a ‘Removable
Singularity” of 𝑓(𝑧).

In this case 𝑓(𝑧)= ∑∞

𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
𝑛

100
 In this case the singularity can be removed by appropriately defining the function 𝑓(𝑧) at
𝑧 = 𝑎 in such a way that it becomes analytic at 𝑧 = 0, such a singularity is called removable
singularity.

Note: If 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a removable singularity.

𝟏−𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝒛
Ex.1: If 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛

Hence 𝑧 = 0 is isolated singularity of 𝑓(𝑧)

1−𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑧 0
𝐿𝑡𝑧→0 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→0 (0 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚)
𝑧

sin 𝑧
= 𝐿𝑡𝑧→0 (𝐿 ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒)
1

= 0 (finite)

∴ 𝑧 = 0 is called removable singularity of 𝑓(𝑧)

𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒛
Ex.2: If 𝒇(𝒛) =
𝒛

z=0 is removable singularity

2. Pole: If the principal part of Laurent’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) around singular point 𝑧 =
𝑎. Then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is called a pole.
- If 𝑏𝑚 ≠ 0 & 𝑏𝑘 = 0 for 𝑘 = 𝑚 + 1, 𝑚 + 2, … … … …
Then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is called a ple of order ‘𝑚’
- A pole of order 1 is called a simple pole.

𝒛𝟐
Ex: 𝒇(𝒛) = (𝒛−𝟏)(𝒛+𝟐)𝟐

Here, 𝑧 = 1 , −2 are isolated singular points

Hence 𝑧 = 1 is a simple pole

𝑧 = −2 is a pole of order 2

Essential Singularity: If the principle part of the Laurent’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧)around
𝑧 = 𝑎 (Singular point) contains infinitely many terms then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is called an Essential
singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).

Example for Removable singularity, pole, Essential singularity:

101
 𝐳𝟐 −𝟐𝐳+𝟑 z(z−2)+3 3
Ex 1: 𝐟(𝐳) = = =𝑧+
𝐳−𝟐 z−2 𝑧−2

Hence 𝑧 = 2 is a singular point & it is Isolated

f(z) = 𝑧 + 3(𝑧 − 2)−1

which is Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) around 𝑧 = 2. It contains only one –ve
power of order one.

∴ 𝑧 = 2 is called a simple pole.

𝟏⁄ 𝟏
Ex 2: 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒆 𝒛 = −𝟏
𝒆 ⁄𝒛

−1⁄
The singular point are given by 𝑒 𝑧 =0

1
⇒𝑧=∞

⇒𝑧=0

𝑧 = 0 is the Singular point of 𝑓(𝑧) & it is Isolated.

1⁄ 1 1 1 2 1 1 3
Now 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧= 1 + 𝑧 +2! (𝑧) + 3! (𝑧) + … … … … .. if 0 < |𝑧| < ∞

1
= ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑛! (𝑧 − 0)
−𝑛

which is Laurent’s Series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) above 𝑧 = 0 & It contains infinitely

many –ve powers of (𝑧 − 0) (principle part contains Infinite no. of terms)

∴ 𝑧 = 0 is called Essential Singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).

Singularity at Infinity: Let the function is f(z), to find the singularitites of f(z) at z=∞ then
1
put 𝑧 = in 𝑓(𝑧).
𝑡

1
Then 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓 ( 𝑡 ) = 𝐹(𝑡) [say]

Now the singularity of 𝐹(𝑡) at 𝑡 = 0 is the singularity of 𝐹(𝑧) at 𝑧 = ∞

Laurent’s Theorem:
Let C1 and C2 be two circular given by |𝑧′ − 𝑎| = 𝑟1 and |𝑧′ − 𝑎| < 𝑟2 respectively
where 𝑟2 < 𝑟1 .

102
 Let f(z) be analytic on C1 and C2 throughout the region between the two circles. Let Z
be any point in the ring shaped region between the two circles C 1 and C2 . then
𝑏
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + ∑𝑛=1 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛 which is called Laurent’s series expansion of f(z)

about z=a.
1 𝑓(𝑧 ′) 1 𝑓(𝑧 ′)
where 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝑐 𝑑𝑧′ and 𝑏𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝑐 𝑑𝑧′
1 (𝑧 ′−𝑎)𝑛+1 2 (𝑧 ′−𝑎)−𝑛+1

where the integrals are taken around C1 and C2 in the anti clockwise direction.
Residue at a pole: Let 𝑧 = 𝑎 be the pole of a function 𝑓(𝑧) then residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is
1
denoted by 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑎 [𝑓(𝑧)] and it is defined as the coefficient of 𝑧−𝑎 in the Laurent’s series

expansion i.e., 𝑏1 is the residue

1
i.e., 𝑏1 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐

∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) = 2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑏1 =2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑎 [𝑓 (𝑧)]

- if 𝑧 = 𝑎 is the simple pole of 𝑓(𝑧)

then 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑎 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓 (𝑧)

- if 𝑧 = 𝑎 is the pole of order ‘𝑚’ of 𝑓(𝑧)

1 𝑑𝑚
then 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑎 [𝑓(𝑧)] = (𝑚−1)! 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎 [𝑑𝑧 𝑚−1 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 . 𝑓(𝑧)]

Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

Statement: Let C be any positively oriented simple closed contour. Let f(z) is analytic on &
with in ‘C’ except at a finite number of poles 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … … 𝑧𝑛 within ‘c’ and 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , … … 𝑅𝑛 be

the residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at these poles, then ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 [𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + … … +𝑅𝑛 ]
(or)

∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖[ 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝐶]

𝑐

Proof: Let 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … … 𝑐𝑛 be the circles with center at 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … … 𝑧𝑛 respectively

The raddi so small therefore all circle 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … … 𝑐𝑛 are entirely lie in C

and They do not overlap.

103
 Now f(z) is analytic within the region enclosed by the curve ‘c’ between these circles.

∴ By Cauchy’s theorem for multiply connected regions we have

∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑐1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝑐2 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + ⋯ … … … . . + ∫𝑐2 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 ________ (1)

But by definition we have

1
2𝜋𝑖
∫𝑐1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧1 [𝑓(𝑧)]

.
.
.
.
1
2𝜋𝑖
∫𝑐𝑛 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧𝑛 [𝑓(𝑧)]

∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧1 [𝑓(𝑧)] + 2𝜋𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧2 [𝑓(𝑧)]+ …………..+ 2𝜋𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧𝑛 [𝑓(𝑧)]

= 2𝜋𝑖 {𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧1 [𝑓(𝑧)] + 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧2 [𝑓(𝑧)] + … … … … . . + 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑧𝑛 [𝑓(𝑧)]}

= 2𝜋𝑖 [𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + … … +𝑅𝑛 ]

= 2𝜋𝑖[ 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝐶]

Hence Proved

Problems related to poles & Residues:

𝒆𝒛
1. Expand 𝒇(𝒛) = as a Laurent’s series about 𝒛 = 𝟏 & hence find the residue at
(𝒛−𝟏)𝟐

that point.

𝑒𝑧
Sol: Given 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧−1)2 & 𝑧 = 1

It is required to find Laurent’s series expansion around 𝑧 = 1

(i.e., in powers of ( 𝑧 − 1))
𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧 − 1)−2 𝑒 (𝑧−1)+1 = (𝑧 − 1)−2 𝑒 (𝑧−1) . 𝑒
(𝑧−1)2
= 𝑒. (𝑧 − 1)−2 [1 + (𝑧 − 1) + + …………]
2!
𝑒 (𝑧−1)2
= (𝑧−1)2 [1 + (𝑧 − 1) + 2!
+ …………]
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒(𝑧−1)
= + (𝑧−1) +2!+ + …………
(𝑧−1)2 9

104
 𝑒 𝑒(𝑧−1) 𝑒 𝑒
= [2! + + … … … … . . ] + [(𝑧−1) + (𝑧−1)2 + ⋯ … … … … ]
9

+𝑣𝑒 powers of (𝑧 − 1) −𝑣𝑒 powers of (𝑧 − 1)

Analytical part Principle part

𝑒𝑧
Given 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧−1)2 , 𝑧 = 1 is a pole order 2
1
& Residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 1 is coefficient of in Laurent’s series expansion
(𝑧−1)

i.e., 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=1 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝑒

𝒛 𝒛
2. Find the poles of the function (i) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒛 (ii) 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒛 (iii) 𝒛𝟐 −𝟑𝒛+𝟐

𝒛
Sol. (i) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒛

Poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by denominator = 0

i.e., cos 𝑧 = 0

𝜋
i.e., = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 , 𝑛 = 0 ± 1, ±2 … … ..

𝜋 3𝜋
∴ The poles are 𝑧 = ± 2 ,± , …..,which are poles of order 1( simple poles).
2

(ii) 𝑓(𝑧) = cot 𝑧

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧
𝑓(𝑧) = cot 𝑧 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
Poles are given by 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 = 0
i.e., 𝑧 = 𝑛𝜋 where 𝑛 = 0 ± 1, ±2 … … ..

∴ The poles are 𝑧 = 0, ±𝜋,± 2𝜋, ,± 3𝜋 ………., which are poles of order 1( simple poles).

𝒛
(iii) 𝑓(𝑧)=𝒛𝟐 −𝟑𝒛+𝟐

Poles are given by 𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 + 2 = 0

𝑧 = 1,2 are called poles, which are simple poles.

𝒛𝟑
3. Find the poles of the function 𝒇(𝒛)=(𝒛−𝟏)𝟒 (𝒛−𝟐)(𝒛−𝟑) and residues at the poles.

𝑧3
Sol: Given 𝑓(𝑧)=(𝑧−1)4 (𝑧−2)(𝑧−3)

105
The poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by (𝑧 − 1)4 (𝑧 − 2)(𝑧 − 3) = 0
⇒ 𝑧 = 1, 2, 3
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 = 1 is a pole of order 4, 𝑧 = 2, 3 are poles of order 1.
i) Residue at pole 𝑧 = 2
w.k.t If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is apole of order 1 then
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑎 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓 (𝑧)
𝑧3 8
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=2 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→2 (𝑧 − 2)𝑓(𝑧)= 𝐿𝑡𝑧→2 (𝑧 − 2) (𝑧−1)4(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3)=1(−1) = −8

ii) Residue at pole 𝑧 = 3

𝑧3 27 27
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=3 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→3 (𝑧 − 3)𝑓(𝑧)= 𝐿𝑡𝑧→3 (𝑧 − 3) (𝑧−1)4(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3)= 16.1 = 16

iii) Residue at pole 𝑧 = 1

Here z=1 is apole of order ‘4’
w.k.t if 𝑧 = 𝑎 is pole of order ‘m’ then
1 𝑑𝑚
then 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑎 [𝑓(𝑧)] = (𝑚−1)! 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎 [𝑑𝑧 𝑚−1 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 . 𝑓(𝑧)]

here 𝑚 = 4, 𝑎 = 1

1 𝑑3 𝒛𝟑
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=1 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 3! 𝐿𝑡𝑧→1 [𝑑𝑧 3 (𝑧 − 𝑎)4 . (𝒛−𝟏)𝟒 (𝒛−𝟐)(𝒛−𝟑)]

1 𝑑3 𝒛𝟑
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=1 [𝑓 (𝑧)] = 6 𝐿𝑡𝑧→1 [𝑑𝑧 3 . (𝒛−𝟐)(𝒛−𝟑)] _______ (1)

𝑑3 𝒛𝟑
Let us find out 𝑑𝑧 3 [(𝒛−𝟐)(𝒛−𝟑)]

𝑧3 𝐶 𝐷
(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3)
= 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵 +𝑧−2 + 𝑧−3

Hence 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = 5, 𝐶 = −8, 𝐷 = 27
𝑧3 8 27
(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3)
= 𝑧 + 5 - 𝑧−2 + 𝑧−3

𝑑3 𝒛𝟑 48 162
By solving 𝑑𝑧 3 [(𝒛−𝟐)(𝒛−𝟑)] = − _______ (2)
(𝑧−2)4 (𝑧−3)4

Sub. (2) in (1)

1 48 162
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=1 [𝑓 (𝑧)] = 6 𝐿𝑡𝑧→1 (𝑧−2)4 − (𝑧−3)4

1 162
= 6 [48 − ]
16
101
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=1 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 16

106
 𝟏
4. Find the Residues of 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛(𝒆𝒛 −𝟏)

1
Sol. Given 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧(𝑒 𝑧−1)

The poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by 𝑧(𝑒 𝑧 − 1) = 0

𝑧 = 0 or 𝑒 𝑧 − 1 = 0
𝑒 𝑧 = 1 ⇒ 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 2𝑛𝜋𝑖 , 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2 … ….
𝑧 = 2𝑛𝜋𝑖
∴ The poles are = 0, 2𝑛𝜋𝑖 , 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2 … ….
When 𝑛 = 0 then 𝑧 = 0,0
∴ 𝑧 = 0 is apole of order 2
1 1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = = 𝑧2 𝑧3
𝑧(𝑒 𝑧 −1) 𝑧[(1+𝑧+ + + ……………….)−1]
2 3!

1
= 𝑧 𝑧2
𝑧×𝑧[1+ + +⋯…………….]
2 3!

−1
1 𝑧 𝑧2
= 𝑧 2 [1 + (2 + + ⋯ … … … … … )]
3!
2
1 𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧 𝑧2
= 𝑧 2 [1 − (2 + 3! + ⋯ … … … … … ) + (2 + 3! + ⋯ … … … ) … … … . . ]
1 𝑧 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑧 2 [1 − 2! + (4 − 6) 𝑧 2 + (− 24 + 6 − 8) 𝑧 3 + … … . . ]

1 1 1 1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = − 2𝑧 + 12 + 360 𝑧 2 + ………….
𝑧2

Which is a Laurent’s series Expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) in powers of 𝑧.

1 1
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=0 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 = −2
𝑧

Assignment Questions:

Find the poles & the corresponding residues of

𝑒𝑧
(1) 𝑓 (𝑧) = (1+𝑧)2
𝑧2
(2) 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 4 −1
𝑧 2 +2𝑧
(3) 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧+1)2(𝑧 2 +4)
𝑧𝑒 𝑧
(4) 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧−1)3
𝑧2
(5) 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+1)2 (𝑧+2)

107
Problems related to evaluation of integrals using residue theorem:

𝟒−𝟑𝒁
1.Evaluate ∮ dz where ‘C’ is the circle|𝒛| = 𝟑/𝟐 using residue theorem.
𝒁(𝒁−𝟏)(𝒁−𝟐)

4−3𝑍
Sol: let f(z) = 𝑍(𝑍−1)(𝑍−2)

The poles of f(z) are given by 𝑧(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2) = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 0,1,2

𝑧 = 0,1,2 are the poles of order 1.

3 3
The given curve 𝑐 is |𝑧| = 2 ⇒ |𝑧 − 0| = 2

⇒ |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 0| = 3/2

⇒ |(𝑥 − 0) + 𝑖𝑦|=3/2
⇒ √(𝑥 − 0)2 + 𝑦 2 =3/2
⇒ (𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 =1.5
which is a circle with center (0,0) & 𝑟 = 1.5
The poles 𝑧 = 0,1 are only lies inside the curve ′𝑐′

We required to find the residues at the poles 𝑧 = 0, 1

Residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 0 :

w.k.t 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧=𝑎 = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓(𝑧)

4−3𝑍
𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧=0 = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→0 (𝑧 − 0) 𝑍(𝑍−1)(𝑍−2) = 4/2 = 2 ⇒ 𝑅1 = 2

Residue of f(z) at z=1 :

4−3𝑍
𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧=1 = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→1 (𝑧 − 1) 𝑍(𝑍−1)(𝑍−2) =1/1(-1) = -1 ⇒ 𝑅2 = −1

∴ By Cauchy Residue theorem:

4 − 3𝑍
∮ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
𝑍(𝑍 − 1)(𝑍 − 2)

= 2𝜋𝑖(2 − 1)

= 2𝜋𝑖

Note: ∫ f(z)dz = 2πi(sum of residues )

108
 𝟏 𝒅𝒛
2. Obtain the Laurent’s Series for the function 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒛 & evaluate ∫ 𝒛𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒛

where ‘C’ is the circle |𝒛 − 𝟏| = 𝟐

𝟏
Sol : Given 𝒇(𝒛) =
𝒛𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒛

𝟏 𝑧3 𝑧5
= 𝒛 𝟑 𝒛𝟓
( since 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧 = 𝑧 + + + ⋯)
𝒛𝟐 (𝒛+ + +⋯…… ) 3! 5!
𝟑! 𝟓!

𝟏
= 𝑧2 𝑧4
𝑧 3 [1+( + +⋯ )]
3! 5!

−1
1 𝑧2 𝑧4
= [1 + ( + 5! + ⋯ )]
𝑧3 3!

1 𝑧2 𝑧4 𝑧2 𝑧4
= 𝑧 3 [1 − ( + 5! + ⋯ ) + ( 3! + 5! + ⋯ )2 … . ]
3!

[since (1 + 𝑥)−1 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 …]

1 𝑧2 𝑧4 𝑧4
= 𝑧 3 [1 − − 120 + 36 … . ]
6

1 𝑧2 1 1
= 𝑧 3 [1 − + (36 − 120)𝑧 4 … . ]
6

1 1 7
f(z) = 𝑧 3 − 6𝑧 + 360 𝑧 4 … is called L.S exp of f(z) about 0

The highest power of (z-0) is 3

Therefore 𝑧 = 0 is a pole of circle 3

The given circle c is |𝑧 − 1| = 2; |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 1| = 2;

|𝑥 − 1 + 𝑖𝑦| = 2; √(𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑦 2 =2 at (1,0) 𝑟 = 2

The pole 𝑧 = 0 lies inside 𝑐

1
𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧=0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝐿. 𝑆 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = −1/6
𝑧

By residue theorem ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 )

𝑑𝑧 1 𝜋𝑖
∫ = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑅1 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 (− ) = −
𝑧2 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧 6 3

𝒅𝒛
3. Evaluate ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒛 , where c is the circle |𝒛| = 𝟒 using residue theorem .

109
 1
Sol: Given 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧

The poles of 𝑓 (𝑧) are given by 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧 = 0

Z = ± nπi , n= 0, ±1, ±2,…..

Z = 0, πi, -πi, 2πi, -2πi …..

Which are the poles of order 1

[(0,0) (0, 𝜋), (0, −𝜋), (0,2𝜋), (0, −2𝜋) … . ]

The given curve ‘C’ is |z| = 4 which is a circle with center (0,0) & 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟 = 4

Here the only poles lies inside the curve “c” are z=0, πi, -πi,

Residue at z=0:

𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧=0 = 𝑙𝑡 𝑧→0 (𝑧 − 0)𝑓(𝑧)

1
= 𝑙𝑡 𝑧→0 𝑧. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧

0
= 0 is indeterminant form

1
= 𝑙𝑡 𝑧→0 (L-hospital rule )
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑧

1 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1

𝑅1 = 1

Residue at z= πi

𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧=𝜋𝑖 = 𝑙𝑡 𝑧→𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝜋𝑖)𝑓(𝑧)

1
= 𝑙𝑡 𝑧→𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝜋𝑖 ). (𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧)

(𝜋𝑖−𝜋𝑖) 0
= = 0 (indeterminant form )
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝜋𝑖)

= 𝑙𝑡𝑧→𝜋𝑖 ( 1
)=(
1
)=
1
= −1
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝜋𝑖) −1

𝑅2 = −1

Similarly Residue at z= -πi is 𝑅3 = −1

110
By residue theorem ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 )

1
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(1 − 1 − 1 ) = −2𝜋𝑖
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧

Evaluation of Real Definite Integrals by Contour Integration:

In this section, we consider the evaluation of certain types of real definite integrals. These
integrals often arise in physical problems. To evaluate these integrals, we apply Residue
theorem which is simple than the usual methods of integration. The process of evaluating a
definite integral by making the parts of integration about a suitable contour (curve) in the
complex plane is called contour integration.

𝟐𝝅
Type I: Integrals of the type ∫𝟎 𝑭(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)𝒅𝜽

Procedure: put 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Differentiate on both sides w.r.t ′𝜃 ′
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ⇒ 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑑𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑑𝜃 𝑖𝑧
1
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑧+
𝑧
We know that 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = =
2 2
1
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 −𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑧−
𝑧
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =
2𝑖 2𝑖

Also since 0≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋 ⇒ 𝜃 travels on the entire unit circle & |𝑧| = |𝑒 𝑖𝜃 | = 1

2𝜋 1 1 1 1 𝑑𝑧
∴ ∫0 𝐹 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑑𝜃= ∫𝐶 𝐹 [2 (𝑧 + 𝑧 ) , (𝑧 − 𝑧 )] 𝑖𝑧 = ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 (say) ____ (1)
2𝑖

Where ‘C’ is the unit circle |𝑧| = 1

By Residue Theorem : ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2πi×[𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 ] ______ (2)

111
 From (1) & (2)
2𝜋
∴ ∫0 𝐹 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = 2πi×[𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 ]

Problems:

𝝅 𝒅𝜽 𝝅
1. Show by the method of residues ∫𝟎 = (a>b>0)
𝒂+𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 √𝒂𝟐−𝒃𝟐
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝜽 𝟐𝝅
Show that ∫𝟎 =
𝒂+𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 √𝒂𝟐 −𝒃𝟐

𝜋 𝑑𝜃 1 2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
Sol: we can write ∫0 = ∫ _______ (1)
𝑎+𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 0 𝑎+𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Let C be the unit circle i.e., C: |𝑧| = 1

Put 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃

Differentiate on both sides

𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑖𝑧 ⇒ 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑑𝜃 𝑖𝑧
1
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑧+
𝑧 𝑧 2 +1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = =
2 2 2𝑧

Substitute all above values in equation (1) than

𝜋
𝑑𝜃 1 2𝜋 𝑑𝜃 1 1 𝑑𝑧
∫ = ∫ = ∫ 2
0 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 0 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 𝐶 𝑧 + 1 𝑖𝑧
𝑎 + 𝑏 [ 2𝑧 ]

1 2
= 2𝑖 ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧 ______ (2)
𝑏𝑧 2+2𝑎𝑧+𝑏

1
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑏𝑧 2+2𝑎𝑧+𝑏

The poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by 𝑏𝑧 2 + 2𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏 = 0

−𝑎±√𝑎 2 −𝑏2
∴ The poles of f(z) are 𝑧 = 𝑏

Which are poles of order ‘1’.

−𝑎+√𝑎 2 −𝑏2 −𝑎− √𝑎 2−𝑏2

Let α = and β =
𝑏 𝑏

1 1
Since a>b>0 ⇒ |β| > 1 ⇒ 1 > |β| ⇒ |β| < 1
𝑐 𝑏
But we know that product of the roots 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 1

i.e., α.β=1

112
 ⇒ |α. β| = 1
1
⇒ |α | = <1
|𝛽 |
⇒ |α | < 1
∴ ′𝛼′ lies inside the unit circle ‘c’

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝛼:

𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝛼 [𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝛼 (𝑧 − 𝛼 )𝑓(𝑧)

1
= 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝛼 (𝑧 − 𝛼 ) 𝑏𝑧 2+2𝑎𝑧+𝑏
1
= 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝛼 (𝑧 − 𝛼 ) 𝑏(𝑧−𝛼)(𝑧−𝛽)
1
= 𝑏(𝛼−𝛽)

1 2√𝑎 2 −𝑏2
= ((∵ 𝛼 − 𝛽 = )
2√𝑎 2 −𝑏2 𝑏

By Residue theorem
1
∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑐 = 2πi×[𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 ]
𝑏𝑧 2+2𝑎𝑧+𝑏
1
= 2πi × __________ (3)
2√𝑎 2 +𝑏2

Sub. (3) in (2)

𝜋 𝑑𝜃 1 1 1 1 𝜋
∫0 = 𝑖 ∫𝑐 𝑑𝑧= 𝑖 ×πi × 2πi × =
𝑎+𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑏𝑧 2 +2𝑎𝑧+𝑏 2√𝑎 2 +𝑏 2 √𝑎 2 +𝑏2
∞ 𝒙𝟐
2. Evaluate ∫−∞ (𝒙𝟐 +𝟏)(𝒙𝟐 +𝟒) 𝒅𝒙 using Residue theorem.

Sol: To evaluate the given integral, we consider

𝑧2
∫𝑐 (𝑧 2+1)(𝑧 2+4)
𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑐 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧

Where 𝐶 is the contour consisting of the semi-circle 𝐶𝑅 of radius 𝑅 together with the
part of the real axis from – 𝑅 to 𝑅.

Observe that the integrand has simple poles at 𝑧 = ±𝑖, 𝑧 = ±2𝑖.

But 𝑧 = 𝑖, 𝑧 = 2𝑖 are the only two poles lie inside 𝐶.

The residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑖 is given by

𝑧2
lim[(𝑧 − 𝑖 )𝑓(𝑧)] = lim [(𝑧 − 𝑖 ) ]
𝑧→𝑖 𝑧→𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑖 )(𝑧 + 𝑖 )(𝑧 2 + 4)

113
 𝑧2 −1 −1
= lim (𝑧+𝑖)(𝑧 2+4) = (2𝑖)(3) =
𝑧→𝑖 6𝑖

The residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 2𝑖 is given by

𝑧2
lim [(𝑧 − 2𝑖 )𝑓(𝑧)] = lim [ ]
𝑧→2𝑖 𝑧→2𝑖 (𝑧 + 2𝑖 )(𝑧 2 + 1)

−4 1
= (−4+1)(4𝑖) = 3𝑖

Thus by Residue theorem,

∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐶 )

𝑐

−1 1 1 1 2𝜋 𝜋
= 2𝜋𝑖 ( + ) = 2𝜋 ( − ) = =
6𝑖 3𝑖 3 6 6 3

𝑅 𝜋
i.e., ∫−𝑅 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 3 (since on real axis 𝑧 = 𝑥) ____(1)
𝑅

Hence by making 𝑅 → ∞, equation (1) becomes

∞ 𝜋
∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + lim ∫𝑐𝑅 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 3 ____(2)
𝑧→∞

When 𝑅 → ∞, |𝑧| → ∞

∴ ∫𝑐 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0 _____(3)
𝑅

From (2) and (3), we have

∞
𝜋
∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 =
−∞ 3

∞ 𝑥2 𝜋
i.e., ∫−∞ (𝑥 2+1)(𝑥 2+4) 𝑑𝑥 = 3

Assignment Questions

2𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2𝜋
1. Prove that ∫0 = [𝑎 − √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 ] where a > b > 0
𝑎+𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑏2

2𝜋 𝑑𝜃 2𝜋
2. Show that∫0 = , a>b>0 using Residue theorem.
𝑎+𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 √𝑎 2 −𝑏2

2𝜋 cos 2𝜃
3. Evaluate ∫0 𝑑𝜃 using Residue theorem.
5+4 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

114
 2𝜋 1+4 cos 𝜃
4. Show that ∫0 𝑑𝜃 = 0
17+8 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

2𝜋 1
5. Evaluate ∫0 𝑑𝜃 using Residue Theorem.
5−3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

∞
Type II: Integrals of the type ∫−∞ 𝒇(𝒙)dx [Integration around semi circle]

∞ ∞
To solve the integrals of the type ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)dx, we consider ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)dz

Where ‘C’ is the closed contour.

𝐶 = 𝐶𝑅 𝑈 real axis from –R to R [𝐶𝑅 is the semi circle in upper half plane with radius R]

If 𝑓(𝑧) has no poles on real axis &on circumference of a circle. But 𝑓(𝑧) has some poles
Inside curve ‘C’. Then by Residue theorem

∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)dz = 2𝜋𝑖 × [𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 Interior poles]

𝑅
∫𝐶𝑅 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫−𝑅 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑖 × [𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 Interior poles]

Here we show that ∫𝐶 |𝑓 (𝑧)|𝑑𝑧 → 0 as 𝑅 → ∞

𝑅

∞
∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑖 × [𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 Interior poles]
−∞

Note: Radius 𝑅 is taken so large these are the singularities of 𝑓(𝑧) lie within semicircle 𝐶𝑅 .

∞ 𝒅𝒙
1. Evaluate ∫𝟎 𝟐
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )

𝟏
Sol: Here 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝟐
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )

115
 𝟏 𝟏
𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = 𝟐 = 𝟐 = 𝑓 (𝑥 )
((−𝒙) 𝟐+𝒂𝟐 ) (𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function

∞ 1 ∞
∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
∞ 𝟏 1 ∞ 𝟏
∫0 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫−∞ 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 ___________(1)
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 ) (𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )

∞ 𝟏 𝟏
Now let ∫−∞ 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)dz where 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝟐
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 ) (𝒛𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )

& C is the contour consisting of the semi circle 𝐶𝑅 of radius R together with the real
axis from –R to R.
The poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by (𝒛𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐 =0
⇒ 𝑧 = ±𝑎𝑖 , ±𝑎𝑖
The poles are 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑖 , 𝑧 = − 𝑎𝑖 of order 2
The only pole 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑖 lies inside semi circle 𝐶𝑅

Residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑖

Since 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑖 is a pole of order 2

1 𝑑
𝑅𝑖 = [𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑧=𝑎𝑖 [𝑓 (𝑧)]]= 1! 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎𝑖 [𝑑𝑧 (𝑧 − 𝑎𝑖 )2 . 𝑓(𝑧)]
𝑑 𝟏
=𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎𝑖 [𝑑𝑧 (𝑧 − 𝑎𝑖 )2 . 𝟐 ]
(𝒛𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )

𝑑 𝟏
= 𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎𝑖 [𝑑𝑧 (𝑧 − 𝑎𝑖 )2 . (𝑧+𝑎𝑖)2 (𝑧−𝑎𝑖)2 ]
𝑑 𝟏
=𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎𝑖 [𝑑𝑧 . (𝑧+𝑎𝑖)2 ]
−𝟐
=𝐿𝑡𝑧→𝑎𝑖 [ (𝑧+𝑎𝑖)3 ]
1
𝑅𝑖 = 4𝑎3 𝑖

Hence by Residue Theorem, ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)dz = 2𝜋𝑖 × [𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 Interior poles]

1
= 2𝜋𝑖 ×
4𝑎 3 𝑖
𝜋
=2𝑎3
𝑅 𝜋
∫𝐶𝑅 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫−𝑅 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎3 _________ (2)

We know that ∫𝐶 |𝑓(𝑧)|𝑑𝑧 → 0 as 𝑅 → ∞

𝑅
∞ 𝜋
Hence, ∫−∞ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎3 ____ (3)
Sub. (3) in (1)

116
 ∞ 𝟏 1 ∞ 𝟏 1 𝜋 𝜋
∫0 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫−∞ 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 = = 4𝑎3
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 ) (𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 ) 2 2𝑎 3

∞ 𝟏
Note: Evaluate ∫0 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 using Residue Theorem
(𝒙𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 )

Put a=1 in the above problems then we get

∞
𝟏 𝜋
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
0 (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐 4

Assignment Questions:

∞ 𝟏 𝜋
1. Using the method of contour integration prove that ∫0 𝑑𝑥 = (or) Evaluate
𝒙𝟔 +𝟏 3
∞ 𝟏
∫0 𝑑𝑥 using the Residue theorem.
𝒙𝟔 +𝟏
∞ 𝒙𝟐
2. Evaluate by contour Integration ∫−∞ (𝒙𝟐 +𝟏)(𝒙𝟐 +𝟒) 𝑑𝑥
∞ 𝟏
3. Evaluate by contour Integration ∫0 𝑑𝑥
(𝒙𝟐 +𝟏)

∞ 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙
4. Evaluate ∫0 𝑑𝑥
(𝒙𝟐 +𝟏)

117
 UNIT-V

CONFORMAL MAPPINGS
Introduction : In this unit we deal the special type of mappings 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) , which are called
conformal mapping. These mappings are important in engineering mathematics in solving
various problems in two dimensional potential theory.

Basic Defintions:

Mapping or transformation from Z-plane to W-plane :

The correspondence defined by the equation 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) between the points in the Z-plane
and W-plane is called “Mapping” from Z-plane to the W-plane.

Conformal mapping :

Suppose under the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧), the poinrt 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) of the Z-plane is mapped
in to the point 𝑃′ (𝑢0 , 𝑣0 ) of the W-plane. Suppose 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are any two curves intersecting
at the point 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ). Suppose the mapping 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) takes 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 in to the curves 𝑐1′
and 𝑐2′ which are intersecting at 𝑃′ (𝑢0 , 𝑣0 ) . If the transformation is such that the angles
between 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is equal both in magnitude and direction to the angel between
𝑐1′ and 𝑐2′ at (𝑢0 , 𝑣0 ) ,then it is said to be conformal transformation at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) .

Definition : A mapping w=f(z) is said to be conformal in a domain D if it is conformal at

every point of D.

Isogonal Transformation :

If the transformation preserves the only magnitude but not necessarily sense (direction) then
it is called isogonal mapping.

Sufficient conditions for w=f(z) to represent a conformal mapping :

Theorem : A map w=f(z) is conformal at a point 𝑧0 if f(z) is analytic at 𝑧0 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) ≠ 0.

Critical point : the points where 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 0 are called critical points.

Ordinary point : the points where 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) ≠ 0 are called ordinary points.

Ex: Find the critical points of 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2

118
Sol: 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 0

⇒ 2𝑧 = 0

⇒𝑧=0

∴ 𝑧 = 0 is called critical points.

Ex 2: Find the critical points of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧

𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧

𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) = 0

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 = 0

𝑧 = 𝑛𝜋 where 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2 − − − −

𝑧 = 𝑛𝜋 are called critical points of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧

Examples for conformal mappings

1.𝒘 = 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒆𝒛

We know that 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 is analytic everywhere and 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 ≠ 0 ∀𝑧

∴ 𝑓(𝑧) is conformal at every point

2.𝒘 = 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛 + 𝟏 is conformal mapping because it is a polynomial.

3.𝒘 = 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒆𝟐𝒛 − 𝟐𝒊𝒛 + 𝟑 is conformal mapping.

Standard Transformations :

1. Translation
2. Expansion or Contraction
3. Inversion

1.Translation : the mapping 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 𝑐 where 𝑐 is any complex constant, is called a

translation.

Note : Circles are mapped onto circles under this transformation.

2.Expansion (or) contraction and rotation(Magnification) : The mapping 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧 is called

contraction and rotation (or ) expansion. Under this transformation, any figure in Z-plane is
transformed into, geometrically, a similar figure in the W-plane.

Note : if |𝑐 | = 1 then 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧 is called a pure rotation, since in this case there is no expansion
or contraction, but just a rotation through an angle of 𝛼.

Example

119
Prove that circles are invariant under the linear transformation 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑐 (or) prove that
circles are mapped to circles under 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑐.

Sol: Given the linear transformation = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑐 , where 𝑎 & 𝑐 are complex constants.

Consider the circle in Z-plane is 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐷 = 0 -------(1)

We have transformation 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑐

⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + 𝑐1 + 𝑖𝑐2

Comparing real and imaginary parts

⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐1 , 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑐2
𝑢−𝑐1 𝑣−𝑐2
⇒ 𝑥= ,𝑦 = -------------------- (2)
𝑎 𝑎

Substitute (2) in (1) then we get

𝑢−𝑐1 2 𝑣−𝑐2 2 𝑢−𝑐1 𝑣−𝑐2

⇒ 𝐴 [( ) +( ) ]+𝐵( )+𝐶( )+𝐷 = 0
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

⇒ 𝐴′ (𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 ) + 𝐵′ 𝑢 + 𝐶 ′ 𝑣 + 𝐷′ = 0

Which is a circle in the W-plane.

𝐴 𝐵−2𝐴𝑐1 𝐶−2𝐴𝑐2
Where 𝐴′ = 𝑎2 , 𝐵′ = , 𝐶′ = ,
𝑎 𝑎

′
𝑐12 + 𝑐22 𝐵𝑐1 𝑐𝑐2
𝐷 = 𝐷 + 𝐴( 2
)− −
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

Therefore, circles are mapped on to the circles under the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑐.

1
3.Inversion : The mapping 𝑤 = 𝑧 is called inversion mapping.

1
Example : the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 maps every straight line or circle onto a circle or
straight line.

Proof : let 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐷 = 0 -----------(1) is a circle (or) straight line (if A=0)
in Z-plane.

Here A,B,C,D are real numbers.

If A=0, & B & C≠ 0 (at least one) then equation (1) represents straight line.

If 𝐴 ≠ 0 then equation (1) represents straight line.

We have 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦

𝑧. 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑧+𝑧̅ 𝑧−𝑧̅
𝑥= , 𝑦= --------------------(2)
2 2𝑖

120
Substitute (2) in (1) then

𝑧 + 𝑧̅ 𝑧 − 𝑧̅
𝐴𝑧𝑧̅ + 𝐵 ( )+𝐶( )+𝐷 = 0
2 2𝑖
1 1
Substitute 𝑤 = 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑤

1 1 1 1
1 +𝑤 −𝑤
⇒𝐴 +𝐵(𝑤 ̅ )+𝐶(𝑤 ̅) + 𝐷 = 0
𝑤𝑤̅ 2 2𝑖

Now multiply the above equation by 𝑤𝑤

̅

𝑤+𝑤̅ 𝑤−𝑤 ̅
⇒ 𝐴+𝐵( )+𝐶( ) + 𝐷𝑤𝑤
̅=0
2 2𝑖

⇒ 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑢 − 𝐶𝑣 + 𝐷(𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 ) = 0--------(3)
𝑤+𝑤
̅ 𝑤−𝑤
̅
Where = ,𝑣 = , 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑤𝑤
̅
2 2𝑖

Equation (3) represents a circle in W-plane if 𝐷 ≠ 0

Equation (3) represents a straight line in W-plane if 𝐷 = 0 and 𝐵 & 𝐶 ≠ 0 (at least one )

Therefore general equation of circle or straight is transformed to general equation of straight

1
line or circle under the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 .

Some special conformal Transformations :

1. 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 2. 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧 3. 𝑤 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧

121
Problems :
1.Find the points at which 𝒘 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒛 is not conformal.

Sol : given 𝑤 = 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑧

𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧

𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) = 0

𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑧 = 0

𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑧
=0
2

⇒ 𝑒 2𝑧 − 1 = 0

⇒ 𝑧 = ±𝑛𝜋𝑖 where 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2 − − − − −

Therefore critical points of 𝑓 (𝑧) are 𝑧 = ±𝑛𝜋𝑖, 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2 − − − − −

Therefore 𝑓(𝑧) is not conformal at 𝑧 = ±𝑛𝜋𝑖.

2.Find the image of |𝒛| = 𝟐 under the transformation 𝒘 = 𝟑𝒛.

Sol: given |𝑧| = 2

⇒ |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦| = 2

⇒ √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 4 which is a circle with center (0,0) & r=2.

It is required to find the image of circle |𝑧| = 2 i.e 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 ------(1)

under the mapping 𝑤 = 3𝑧.

Let 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 and 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

Given transformation is 𝑤 = 3𝑧

𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 3(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)

Comparing real and imaginary parts then

𝑢 = 3𝑥 &𝑣 = 3𝑦
𝑢 𝑣
𝑥= and 𝑦 = 3
3

Substitute 𝑥 & 𝑦 values in (1) then

𝑢 2 𝑣 2
( ) +( ) = 4
3 3

𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 36

122
Which is a circle in the W-plane with center at (0,0) & r=6.

𝟏
3.under the transformation 𝒘 = 𝒛 ,find the image of the circle |𝒛 − 𝟐𝒊| = 𝟐.

1
Sol : 𝑤 = 𝑧

1
𝑧=𝑤

1 𝑢−𝑖𝑣
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = =
𝑢+𝑖𝑣 𝑢 2+𝑣 2

𝑢 −𝑣
𝑥 = 𝑢2 +𝑣 2 𝑦 = 𝑢2 +𝑣 2 -----------(1)

|𝑧 − 2𝑖 | = 2.

|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 2𝑖 | = 2.

𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 4--------------(2)

Which is a circle with center (0,2) and 𝑟 = 2.

Substitute (1) in (2)

⇒ 1 + 4𝑣 = 0

−1
⇒𝑣=
4
Which is a straight line parallel to X-axis in the W-plane.

𝟏 𝟏
4.Find the image of the infinite strip 𝟎 < 𝑦 < 𝟐 under the transformation 𝒘 = 𝒛 .

𝟏
Sol: here it is required to find the image of infinite strip 𝟎 < 𝑦 < 𝟐 in Z-plane under the map
1
𝑤 = 𝑧.

1
Given transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧

123
 𝟏
𝒛=
𝒘
1 𝑢−𝑖𝑣
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑢+𝑖𝑣 = 𝑢2 +𝑣 2

Comparing real and imaginary parts

𝑢 −𝑣
𝑥 = 𝑢2 +𝑣 2 𝑦 = 𝑢2 +𝑣 2 ----------------------(1)

𝟏
Given strip in Z-plane is 𝟎 < 𝑦 < 𝟐

If 𝑦 = 0 then 𝑣 = 0 (from (1))

1
If 𝑦 = 2 then 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 2𝑣 = 0

𝑢2 + (𝑣 + 1)2 = 1

Which is a circle with center (0,-1) & r=1

1
Therefore under the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧

The straight 𝑦 = 0 is transformed to line 𝑣 = 0 and

1
The straight 𝑦 = 2 is transformed to a circle 𝑢2 + (𝑣 + 1)2 = 1

𝟏
Hence the infinite strip 𝟎 < 𝑦 < 𝟐 in Z-plane is mapped in to the region between line V=0
1
and the circle 𝑢2 + (𝑣 + 1)2 = 1 in W-plane under the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧.

𝟏
5.show that the image of the hyperbola 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏 under the transformation 𝒘 = is
𝒛
the lemniscate 𝝆𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐∅.

Sol: It is required to find the image of hyperbola 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏 under the transformation 𝒘 =

𝟏
𝒛

𝟏
given transformation 𝒘 = 𝒛

124
let 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

𝑤 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑖∅

1
𝑅𝑒 𝑖∅ =
𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
1 −𝑖𝜃
𝑅𝑒 𝑖∅ = 𝑒
𝑟
1
𝑅 = 𝑟 ,∅ = −𝜃

Given hyperbola is 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏

𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1

𝑟 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) = 1

𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 1
1 1
cos(−2∅) = 1 ( 𝜌 = 𝑟 ,∅ = −𝜃)
𝜌2

𝜌2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2∅

Therefore hyperbola 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏 in the Z-plane is mapped in to lemniscates

𝜌2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2∅ in the W-plane.

6.Find and plot the image of the traingularregion with vertices at (0,0) (1,0)(0,1) under
the transformation 𝒘 = (𝟏 − 𝒊)𝒛 + 𝟑.

Sol: Given transformation is 𝒘 = (𝟏 − 𝒊)𝒛 + 𝟑

𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (1 − 𝑖 )(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + 3

𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3) + 𝑖(𝑦 − 𝑥)

𝑢 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3 and 𝑣 = 𝑦 − 𝑥 ---------------------(1)

When (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,0) then (𝑢, 𝑣) = (3,0) in W-plane

When (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,0) then (𝑢, 𝑣) = (4, −1) in W-plane

When (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,1) then (𝑢, 𝑣) = (4,1) in W-plane

125
7.Find and plot the rectangular region 𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟐, 𝟎 ≤ 𝒚 ≤ 𝟐 under transformation 𝒘 =
𝒊𝝅
√𝟐𝒆 𝟒 𝒛 + (𝟏 − 𝟐𝒊).
𝑖𝜋
Sol: Given transformation is 𝑤 = √2𝑒 4 𝑧 + (1 − 2𝑖)
𝜋 𝜋
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = √2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + (1 − 2𝑖)
4 4
1 1
= √2 ( +𝑖 ) (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + (1 − 2𝑖)
√2 √2

= (1 + 𝑖)(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + (1 − 2𝑖)

= (𝑥 − 𝑦) + 𝑖 (𝑥 + 𝑦) + (1 − 2𝑖)

𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 1) + 𝑖(𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2)

𝑢 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 1 and 𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2 ----------(1) which is a given transformation

Under this transformation we have to find the image of rectangular region 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2, 0 ≤

𝑦 ≤ 2 in Z-plane.

Put 𝑥 = 0 in (1) then 𝑢 = −𝑦 + 1 , 𝑣 = 𝑦 − 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = 2 + 𝑣

𝑢 = −(2 + 𝑣) + 1 ⇒ 𝑣 = −𝑢 − 1

Put 𝑥 = 2 in (1) then 𝑢 = 2 − 𝑦 , 𝑣 = 𝑦 − 1 ⇒ 𝑣 = 1 − 𝑢

Put 𝑦 = 0 in (1) then 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1 , 𝑣 = 𝑥 − 2 ⇒ 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 3

Put 𝑦 = 2 in (1) then 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 1 , 𝑣 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 1

Thus the region is a rectangle bounded by the lines , 𝑣 = −𝑢 − 1 ⇒ 𝑣 = 1 − 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 3 &

𝑣 =𝑢+1

126
8.Find the image of the region in the Z-plane between the lines 𝒚 = 𝟎 & 𝑦 = 𝜋/2 under
the transformation 𝒘 = 𝒆𝒛 .

Sol: Given transformation is 𝒘 = 𝒆𝒛

Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and 𝑤 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑖∅

𝑅𝑒 𝑖∅ = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦

𝑅𝑒 𝑖∅ = 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑖𝑦

𝑅 = 𝑒 𝑥 and ∅ = 𝑦 -----(1) which is a given transformation

If 𝑦 = 0 then ∅ = 0 (fom (1)) represents radial line making an angle of zero radius with the
x-axis .

If 𝑦 = 𝜋/2 then ∅ = 𝜋/2 represents radial line making angle of 𝜋/2 radius with the X-axis.

As 𝑥 increases from −∞ to ∞ then 𝑅 = 𝑒 𝑥 (i.e radius) increases from 0 to ∞

𝑦 = 𝜋/2 in Z-plane is mapped onto the ray ∅ = 𝜋/2 excluding origin in W-plane.

Hence the infinite strip bounded by the lines 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑦 = 𝜋/2 is mapped on to the upper
quadrant of W-plane.

Assignment questions :

127
 1
1.For the mapping 𝑤 = ,Find the image of the family of circles 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎𝑥 where 𝑎 is
𝑧
real.
1
2.Show that the transformation 𝑤 = maps a circle to a circle or to a straight line if the
𝑧
former goes through the origin.

3.Find the image of the domain in the Z-plane to the left of the line 𝑥 = −3 under
transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 .

4.Find and plot the image of the regions

i) 𝑥 > 1 ii) 𝑦 > 0 iii)0 < 𝑦 < 1/2 under transformation 𝑤 = 1/𝑧.

BILINEAR TRANSFORMATION OR MOBIUS TRANSFORMATION

128
 𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Bilinear transformation : The map 𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℂ and 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0
is called bilinear transformation (or) linear fractional transformation or mobius
transformation.
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Note :The map 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 -----(1) where 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 is bilinear transformation

⇒ 𝑤𝑐𝑧 + 𝑤𝑑 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏

⇒ 𝑤𝑐𝑧 − 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑑𝑤 − 𝑏 = 0

⇒ 𝐴𝑧𝑤 + 𝐵𝑧 + 𝐶𝑤 + 𝐷 = 0 -----(2)

Where 𝐴 = 𝑐, 𝐵 = −𝑎, 𝐶 = 𝑑, 𝐷 = −𝑏

Note that 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑐 (−𝑏) − (−𝑎)𝑑 = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0

Equation (1) can be written in the form 𝐴𝑧𝑤 + 𝐵𝑧 + 𝐶𝑤 + 𝐷 = 0 and 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 ≠ 0

Therefore the form 𝐴𝑧𝑤 + 𝐵𝑧 + 𝐶𝑤 + 𝐷 = 0 is also called bilinear transformation

i.e equations (1) and (2) represents bilinear transformation.

𝑎𝑧+𝑏
 The necessary condition to say that 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 ---(1) is bilinear transformation is 𝑎𝑑 −
𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
 The bilinear transformation 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 , 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 is a bijective from 𝐶∞ to 𝐶∞ .
 The inverse of a bilinear is also bilinear.
 The composition of any two bilinear transformation is also bilinear.
 The identity transformation 𝐼 (𝑧) = 𝑧 is also bilinear

Properties of Bilinear Transformation

1.A Bilinear transformation is conformal

𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Proof:Consider the bilinear transformation 𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑧) =
𝑐𝑧+𝑑

Differentiate with respect to 𝑧

𝑑𝑤 (𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 )(𝑎) − (𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏)𝑐 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐

= 𝑇 ′ (𝑧 ) = 2
=
𝑑𝑧 (𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑) (𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑)2

Since 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0
𝑑𝑤
⇒ ≠0
𝑑𝑧

𝑎𝑧+𝑏
⇒ 𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 is conformal transformation.

𝑑𝑤
If 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 = 0 then =0 ∀𝑧
𝑑𝑧

129
Then we say that every point of 𝑧 −plane is critical.
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Note : Let the bilinear transformation 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑

For different choices of constants a,b,c,d we get different bilinear transformation as

(i) 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 𝑏 (if 𝑎 = 1, 𝑐 = 0, 𝑑 = 1) (translation)

(ii) 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏(if 𝑐 = 0 &𝑑 = 1) (Linear translation)
(iii) 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 (if 𝑏 = 0, 𝑐 = 0, 𝑑 = 1) (Rotation)
1
(iv) 𝑤 = 𝑧 (if 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 1, 𝑐 = 1, 𝑑 = 0) (Inversion)

2.There is a one-one correspondence between all points in two planes.

𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Proof: Let 𝑤 = -------(1) 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 be a conformal mapping
𝑐𝑧+𝑑

−𝑑𝑤+𝑏
From (1) 𝑧 = --------(2) is inverse mapping
𝑐𝑤−𝑎

Since 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 therefore equation (2) is also represents a bilinear transformation.

−𝑑
From (1) , it is clear that to each point in the Z-plane except 𝑧 = there corresponds a
𝑐
unique point in the W-plane.

Invariant or Fixed point : A point 𝑧0 is said to be a fixed point of a bilinear transformation

𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑧) if 𝑇(𝑧0 ) = 𝑧0 .

Ex 1: For the map 𝑊 = 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑧

Every point is a fixed point

1
Ex2: For the map 𝑊 = 𝑧

the fixed point are obtained by 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑧

1
⇒ =𝑧
𝑧

⇒ 𝑧2 − 1 = 0

⇒ 𝑧 = ±1 ,therefore 𝑧 = ±1 are fixed points

 Finding the Bilnear Transformation whose fixed point are 𝜶 and 𝜷 are given by 𝒘 =
𝜸𝒛−𝜶𝜷
𝒛−(𝜶+𝜷)+𝜸

Prop 3. Every bilinear transformation maps the totality of circles and straight lines in
Z-plane onto the totality of circles and straight lines the W-plane.

OR

130
Every bilinear transformation maps circles and straight lines into circles and straight

lines
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Proof: Let the bilinear transformation 𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 where 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0

𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
(i). If 𝑐 = 0 then 𝑇(𝑧) = (𝑑 ) 𝑧 + (𝑑 ) = 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵 where = 𝑑 ,𝐵 = 𝑑

Clearly T is linear.

We know that image of any region in the Z-plane under the linear transformation has the
same.

i.e the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑧) transforms circles & straight lines in to circles and straight
lines.

(ii). If 𝑐 ≠ 0 then
𝑎 𝑏𝑐−𝑎𝑑 1
𝑇 (𝑧 ) = ( 𝑐 ) + ( ). 𝑑
𝑐2 𝑧+
𝑐

𝑑 1 𝑏𝑐−𝑎𝑑 𝑎
Let 𝑇1 (𝑧) = 𝑧 + 𝑐 , 𝑇2 (𝑧) = 𝑧 , 𝑇3 (𝑧) = . 𝑧 , 𝑇4 (𝑧) = 𝑐 + 𝑧
𝑐2

Therefore 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑇4 𝑜𝑇3 𝑜𝑇2 𝑜𝑇1

We know that (i) the inversion transformation maps circles and straight lines in to circles

and straight lines.

(i)The translation and rotation are linear transforms.

Therefore the transformation transforms circles and straight lines into circles and straight
lines.

Since every bilinear transformation is a composition of translation,rotation and inversion.

Hence bilinear transformation 𝑇(𝑧) is a of translation,rotation and inversion.

Therefore bilinear transformation 𝑇(𝑧), circles and straight lines into circles and straight
lines.

Cross Ratio :

For three distinct points 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 in 𝐶∞ then the cross ratio of 𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 is denoted

by
(𝑧−𝑧1)(𝑧2−𝑧3 )
(𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 ) and defined by (𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 ) = (𝑧
1−𝑧2 )(𝑧3−𝑧)

131
Prop4: The cross ratio is invariant under a bilinear transformation

(or)

A bilinear transformation preserves cross ratio property of four points.

𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Proof : Let the bilinear transformation 𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 where 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 where
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℂ

Let 𝑇(𝑧𝑘 ) = 𝑤𝑘 for 𝑘 = 1,2,3

It is required to prove that (𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2, 𝑧3 ) = (𝑇(𝑧), 𝑇(𝑧1 ), 𝑇(𝑧2 ), 𝑇(𝑧3 ))

i.e (𝑤, 𝑤1 , 𝑤2, 𝑤3 ) = (𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2, 𝑧3 )

now 𝑤 − 𝑤𝑘 = 𝑇(𝑧) − 𝑇(𝑧𝑘 ) where 𝑘 = 1,2,3

𝑎𝑧+𝑏 𝑎𝑧 +𝑏
= 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 − 𝑐𝑧 𝑘+𝑑
𝑘

(𝑎𝑧+𝑏)(𝑐𝑧𝑘 +𝑑)−(𝑎𝑧𝑘 +𝑏)(𝑐𝑧+𝑑)

= (𝑐𝑧+𝑑)(𝑐𝑧𝑘 +𝑑)

(𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧−𝑧𝑘 )
𝑤 − 𝑤𝑘 = (𝑐𝑧+𝑑)(𝑐𝑧
𝑘 +𝑑)

(𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐)(𝑧 −𝑧 )
𝑤𝑖 − 𝑤𝑗 = (𝑐𝑧 +𝑑)(𝑐𝑧𝑖 +𝑑)
𝑗

𝑖 𝑗

Let the cross ratio of 𝑤, 𝑤1 , 𝑤2, 𝑤3

(𝑤 − 𝑤1 )(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 )
(𝑤, 𝑤1 , 𝑤2, 𝑤3 ) =
(𝑤1 − 𝑤2 )(𝑤3 − 𝑤)

(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 )(𝑧 − 𝑧1 ) (𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 )(𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )

(𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧1 + 𝑑) . (𝑐𝑧2 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧3 + 𝑑)
=
(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 )(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) (𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 )(𝑧3 − 𝑧1 )
(𝑐𝑧1 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧2 + 𝑑) . (𝑐𝑧3 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑)
(𝑧−𝑧1 )(𝑧2−𝑧3)
= (𝑧
1 −𝑧1 )(𝑧3−𝑧)

= (𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2, 𝑧3 )

Therefore (𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2, 𝑧3 ) = (𝑇(𝑧), 𝑇(𝑧1 ), 𝑇(𝑧2 ), 𝑇(𝑧3 ))

Note1: To find the bilinear transformation = 𝑇(𝑧) , we can use the condition
(𝑤−𝑤1 )(𝑤2−𝑤3 ) (𝑧−𝑧1 )(𝑧2−𝑧3 )
(𝑤1−𝑤2 )(𝑤3−𝑤)
= (𝑧
1−𝑧2 )(𝑧3−𝑧)

𝑎𝑧+𝑏
Note 2: To find the bilinear transformation we can also use the formula 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑

132
 ∞−𝑖 𝑛−𝑖 ∞−𝑤
Note 3: ∞−𝑤 = log𝑛→∞ 𝑛−𝑤 = 1 ,similarly =1
∞−𝑖

𝑖−∞ ∞−𝑖
Note 4: ∞−𝑤 = −1 , 𝑤−∞ = −1

Problems:

1: Find the Bilinear transformation which maps the point (-1,0,1) in to the points (0,i,3i)

Soln: let 𝑧1 = −1, 𝑧2 = 0, 𝑧3 = 1

𝑤1 = −1, 𝑤2 = 0, 𝑤3 = 1
(𝑤−𝑤1 )(𝑤2−𝑤3 ) (𝑧−𝑧1 )(𝑧2−𝑧3)
we know that (𝑤1−𝑤2 )(𝑤3
= (𝑧
−𝑤) 1−𝑧2 )(𝑧3−𝑧)

( 𝑤−0 )(𝑖−3𝑖 ) (𝑧+1)( 0 − 1 )

(0− 𝑖 )(3𝑖−𝑤)
= (−1−0)(1− 𝑍 )

( 𝑤 )(𝑖−3𝑖 ) (𝑧+1)
(− 𝑖 )(3𝑖−𝑤)
= (1− 𝑍 )

( 2𝑤 ) (𝑧+1)
=
(3𝑖−𝑤) (1− 𝑍 )

( 2 w )(1 − Z) = (z + 1)(3i − w)

2w − 2wZ = 3i z − w z + 3i − w

w[2 − 2z + z + 1] = 3i[z + 1]

w(−z + 3) = 3i[z + 1]
3i[z+1]
w = 3−z

3i[z+1]
w = T (z) = 3−z

Which is the required bilinear transformation

2.Find the fixed points (Invariant points) of the transformation

𝟐𝒊−𝟔𝒛
(i) 𝒘 = 𝒊𝒛−𝟑

𝒛−𝟏
(ii) 𝒘 = 𝒛+𝟏

Soln : The fixed point of transformations are obtained by 𝑤 = 𝑧

𝑖. 𝑒 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧
2𝑖−6𝑧
(i) 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑖𝑧−3

𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧
2i−6z
= 𝑧
iz−3

133
2𝑖 − 6𝑧 = 𝑖𝑧 2 − 3𝑧

𝑖𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 − 2𝑖 = 0

𝑧 2 − 3𝑖𝑧 − 2 = 0

It is a quadratic equation

3i± √9i2 −4.1.(−z)

𝑍 = 2

𝑍 = 𝑖, 2𝑖

Fixed points are 𝑖, 2𝑖

3. find the bilinear transformations which maps 𝒁 = 𝟎, −𝒊, 𝟐𝒊 in to

𝒘 = 𝟓𝒊, ∞, −𝒊/𝟑.
az+b
soln: let the bilinear transformation be 𝑤 = cz+d -----(1)

Given 𝑍 = 0, −𝑖, 2𝑖 & 𝑤 = 5𝑖, ∞, −𝑖/3

sub above values in (1)

b
5i = ; b = 5id ------ (2)
d

−ai+b 1 −ai+b
∞ = −ci+d ; 0 = −ci+d ;−ci + d = 0 ------(3)

−i 2ai+b
= 2ci+d ; 2c − id = 6𝑖𝑎 + 3𝑏 ------- (4)
3

Solving (2) (3) & (4) for 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 , 𝑑

From (2) 𝑏 = 5𝑖𝑑

From (3) 𝑐 = −𝑖𝑑

Sub 𝑏 , 𝑐 values in (4)

2(−𝑖𝑑) – 𝑖𝑑 = 6𝑖𝑎 + 15 𝑖𝑑

𝑎 = −3𝑑

Sub 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 in (1)

−3𝑑𝑧 + 5𝑖𝑑
𝑤 =
−𝑖𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑
−3𝑧+5𝑖
𝑤 = −𝑖𝑧+1

Multiply & divide by 𝑖

−(3iz+5)
𝑤 = z+1

134
Prob4. Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points (∞, 𝒊, 𝟎) into the points
(𝟎, 𝒊, ∞).
(𝑤−𝑤1 )(𝑤2 −𝑤3 ) (𝑧−𝑧1 )(𝑧2−𝑧3 )
Sol: we know that (𝑤 = (𝑧
1 −𝑤2 )(𝑤3 −𝑤) 1 −𝑧2)(𝑧3−𝑧)

(𝑤−0)(𝑖−∞) (𝑧−∞)(𝑖−0)
(0−𝑖)(∞−𝑤)
= (∞−𝑖)(0−𝑧)

1
𝑤=−
𝑧
𝒛−𝒊
Prob 5. Show that transformation 𝒘 = 𝒛+𝒊 maps the real axis in the Z-plane in to the
unit circle |𝒘| = 𝟏 in the W-plane.
𝒛−𝒊
Sol:Given transformation is 𝒘 = 𝒛+𝒊

Unit circle in w-plane is |𝑤| = 1

𝒛−𝒊
| |=1
𝒛+𝒊

|𝒛 − 𝒊 | = |𝒛 + 𝒊 |

|𝒙 + 𝒊(𝒚 − 𝟏)| = |𝒙 + 𝒊(𝒚 + 𝟏)|

x 2 + (y − 1)2 = x 2 + (y + 1)2

x 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2y + 1 = x 2 + y 2 + 2y + 1

4𝑦 = 0

𝑦 = 0 which is a real axis in Z-plane.

𝒛−𝒊
Prob6. Show that the transformation 𝒘 = 𝒛+𝒊 transforms |𝒘| ≤ 𝟏 into upper half plane
(i.e img(z)>0)
𝑧−𝑖
Sol: consider the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧+𝑖

𝑧̅ +𝑖
𝑤
̅ = 𝑧̅ −𝑖

𝑧−𝑖 𝑧̅ +𝑖
𝑤𝑤
̅ − 1 = 𝑧+𝑖 . 𝑧̅ −𝑖 − 1

̅ +𝑖)(𝑧−𝑖)−(𝑧+𝑖)(𝑧̅ −𝑖)
(𝑧
= ̅ −𝑖)(𝑧+𝑖)
(𝑧

2𝑖(𝑧−𝑧̅ )
= |𝑧+𝑖|2

−4𝑦
𝑤𝑤
̅ − 1 = |𝑧+𝑖|2

−4𝑦
|𝑤 |2 − 1 = --------------(1)
|𝑧+𝑖|2

135
 Given |𝒘| ≤ 𝟏

if |𝑤| = 1 then |𝑤|2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑦 = 0 (form (1)) which is a real axis in Z-plane.

therefore circle |𝑤| = 1 in W-plane transformed straight line 𝑦 = 0 in Z-plane.

If |𝑤| < 1 then 𝑦 > 0 (form (1))

i.e img(z)>0

i.e Upper half of Z-plane.

Hence |𝑤| ≤ 1 is transformed into upper half plane (i.e img(z)>0 ) unde
𝑧−𝑖
transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧+𝑖.

𝟓−𝟒𝒛
Prob7. Show that the relation 𝒘 = 𝟒𝒛−𝟐 transforms the circle |𝒛| = 𝟏 into a circle of
radius unity in the W-plane.
5−4𝑧
Sol: Given transformation is 𝑤 = 4𝑧−2 -------(1)

solving (1) for 𝑧

𝟓+𝟐𝒘
𝒛 = 𝟒(𝒘+𝟏)

| 𝒛| = 𝟏
𝟓+𝟐𝒘
| |=1
𝟒(𝒘+𝟏)

|𝟓 + 𝟐𝒘| = |𝟒(𝒘 + 𝟏)|

𝒘 = 𝒖 + 𝒊𝒗

|𝟓 + 𝟐𝒖 + 𝟐𝒊𝒗| = |𝟒𝒖 + 𝟒𝒊𝒗 + 𝟏|

|(𝟓 + 𝟐𝒖) + 𝟐𝒊𝒗| = |(𝟒𝒖 + 𝟏) + 𝟒𝒊𝒗|

√(𝟓 + 𝟐𝒖)𝟐 + 𝟒𝒗𝟐 = √(𝟒𝒖 + 𝟏)𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔𝒗𝟐

𝟑
𝒖𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐 + 𝒖 − 𝟒 = 𝟎

it is the circle with center 𝐶 = (−1/2,0) and 𝑟 = 1 in W-plane.

3
The Image of a circle |𝑧| = 1 in Z-plane is a circle 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑢 − 4 = 0 in W-plane under
5−4𝑧
the transformation 𝑤 = 4𝑧−2.

136