Read Online Textbook Culture Counts A Concise Introduction To Cultural Anthropology 4Th Ed Edition Nanda Ebook All Chapter PDF
Read Online Textbook Culture Counts A Concise Introduction To Cultural Anthropology 4Th Ed Edition Nanda Ebook All Chapter PDF
Read Online Textbook Culture Counts A Concise Introduction To Cultural Anthropology 4Th Ed Edition Nanda Ebook All Chapter PDF
Our review of the violin music of the seventeenth century would not
be complete without mention of the compositions for violin by non-
violinist composers, such as, for instance, Henry Purcell (1658-
1695). Purcell imitated G. B. Vitali, and perhaps also other
contemporary Italian composers, to whom, however, he was superior
in originality, in vigor, in genuine inspiration and in a certain
emotional quality. His violin compositions did not accentuate
technique, since he himself was not a violinist. Concerning the
sonatas of John Jenkins (1600), Dr. Burney remarks: ‘Though written
professedly in the Italian style, he could hardly have been familiar
with the early Italian compositions of the same order, and though he
had been, he would not be deprived of praise on the score of
originality, his musical knowledge being quite equal if not superior to
the composers for the violin at that time in Italy.’ Among French
composers we may single out Jean-Baptiste Lully (1633-1687),
leader of the famous band of petit violins at the court of Louis XIV—
the first large stringed orchestra. Lully studied the capacity of the
instrument and tried to write in an idiomatic style, but on the whole
he did not contribute much to the progress of violin music.
The appearance of a great number of violinist-composers in the
seventeenth century indicates that the use of the violin was almost
general at musical affairs of the time. In Coriat’s ‘Crudities’ the author
speaks of hearing an ensemble in which ‘the music of a treble viol
was so excellent that no one could surpass it.’ He continues:
‘Sometimes sixteen played together, sometimes ten, or different
instruments, a cornet and a treble viol. Of these treble viols I heard
three whereof each was so good, especially one that I observed
above the rest, that I never heard the like before.’ Pepys (1660)
made references to the viol in his Diary: ‘I have played on my viol
and I took much pleasure to have the neighbors come forth into the
yard to hear me.’ Many other references in literary works of the time
attest the increasing popularity and the appealing qualities of the
instrument.
E. K.
FOOTNOTES:
[42] Cf. Vol. VIII, Chap. I.
[44] The various ‘positions’ in violin playing indicate the positions which the left
hand occupies in reaching the different parts of the fingerboard. The first position
is that in which the thumb and first finger are at the extreme end of the
instrument's ‘neck.’ With the usual tuning the compass controlled by the first
position is from a to b".
[45] Leopold Mozart (father of Wolfgang Amadeus) referred to it in his method for
the violin (1758) and sharply condemned it. ‘Some teachers,’ he remarked, ‘in their
desire to help pupils, label the names of tones upon the fingerboard or make
marks upon it by scratching. All these devices are useless, because the pupil who
is musically talented finds the notes without such aid, and persons who are not
thus inclined should learn how to handle the ax instead of the bow.’
I
Corelli’s opus 5 was published in Rome in 1700. The four earlier
opera and the concerti grossi of 1712 occupy a place in the
development of chamber and symphonic music. The opus 5 may be
taken as the solid foundation of violin music, that is music for a
single violin with accompaniment. It consists of twelve solo sonatas,
with figured bass for harpsichord, 'cello, or theorbo. The first six of
these are similar in spirit to the sonate da chiesa. They are generally
serious in treatment. The other six correspond to the sonate da
camera. Five of them are made up of dance movements in the style
of a suite, though the order is irregular, and here and there the dance
name is not written in the score. The last consists of variations on a
melody known as La folia. The melody is very old. The sarabande
rhythm suggests an origin in connection with some sort of Spanish
dance; and in a series of Spanish dances published in 1623 there is
a Follie. Also the French clavecinist d’Anglebert wrote a series of
variations which he published in his set of clavecin pieces (1689) as
Folies d’Espagne. It is very doubtful that this melody, of which Corelli
and Vivaldi as well made use, was composed by G. B. Farinelli,
though in England it was known as ‘Farinelli’s Ground.’ Rather it is
one of the old popular songs, such as La romanesca, which
composers employed as a basso ostinato in sets of divisions or
variations, very much like a Chaconne or a Passacaglia.
The treatment of the violin in these twelve sonatas has, and well may
have, served as a model during the years which have passed since
they were written. Music cannot be conceived more fitting to the
instrument. It is true that none calls for brilliant virtuosity. Corelli
never goes beyond the third position; but within this limit no effect in
sonority or delicacy has been neglected.
In the second six, on the other hand, the violin is not called upon to
carry more than one part. The style is consequently lighter, and on
the whole more brilliant. The rhythmical elements of the dances are
brought out prominently, and here Corelli shows himself no less a
master. Take for example the allemande in the eighth sonata (E
minor), or the gavotte in the tenth (F major).
II
From the time of Corelli to the time of Paganini there was an
unbroken line of Italian violinists most of whom were composers. The
violin was second only to the voice in the love of the Italians, which,
it must not be forgotten, was, during the eighteenth century, the love
of all Europe. The violinists rose to highest favor much as the great
opera singers, but unlike the singers, composed their own music.
This under their hands might move thousands to rapture, and still
may work upon a crowd through a great player. Such is the power of
the violin. But as a matter of fact most of this music has been
allowed to sink out of sight, and the names of most of these
composers have remained but the names of performers. With only a
few are definite characteristics associated.
Among these whose activities fell within the first half of the century
are two pupils of Corelli, Francesco Geminiani (1667-1762) and
Pietro Locatelli (1693-1764). From 1714 Geminiani lived, with the
exception of five or six years in Paris, in London and Ireland. He was
highly respected as a teacher, and his book, ‘The Art of Playing on
the Violin,’ is the first complete violin method. This was published
first anonymously in 1731, but later went through many editions and
was translated into French and German, and established
Geminiani’s fame as the greatest of teachers. Besides this he wrote
other works, on harmony, memory, good taste, and other subjects,
founded a school for the guitar, and composed sonatas and
concertos for violin, trios, quartets, and even clavecin pieces.
Some time before 1717 Veracini was for two years in London, where
he played violin solos between the acts at the Italian opera, as was
the custom not only in England but in the continental countries as
well. After this he was for some years in Dresden and in Prague. In
1736 he came back to London, but Geminiani was then at the height
of his fame. Veracini could make little of his gifts there and
consequently went to Pisa, near where he died. During his lifetime
he published twelve sonatas for violin and figured bass. After his
death symphonies and concertos were found in manuscript. One of
the sonatas was republished by David, and one in B minor is
included in the series of Kammer-Sonaten previously mentioned.
The final rondo of this is exceedingly lively and brilliant, with a
cadenza in modern style.
Other names of this period are Somis (1676-1763), Ruggeri and
Giuseppe Valentini. Somis was a pupil of Corelli’s, and in turn the
teacher of Pugnani, who was the teacher of Viotti, the founder of the
modern school of violin playing.
Two of the most famous violinists of the latter half of the century,
Felice Giardini and Gaëtano Pugnani, received their training in Turin
under Somis, the pupil of Corelli, who is commonly accepted as the
founder of a distinct Piedmont school. Giardini settled in London
about the middle of the century, after wanderings in Italy and
Germany; and here endured a changing fortune as player, teacher,
composer, conductor and even impresario. Luck was against him in
almost every venture. In 1791 he left London forever, with an opera
troupe which he led into Russia. He died at Moscow in 1796.
Pugnani’s life was happier. He was a pupil not only of Somis but of
Tartini as well, and though between 1750 and 1770 he gave himself
up to concert tours and made himself famous in London and Paris as
a player, he was greatest and most influential as a teacher in Turin
between 1770 and 1803, the year of his death. Only a few of his
compositions, which included operas and church music as well as
music for the violin, were published. A great part of the money won
by these and his teaching was given over to the poor, and he was
not only one of the greatest violinists of his age but one of the most
beloved of men. His compositions are noteworthy for a soft charm,
rather than for fervor or strength.
Giambattista Viotti, the greatest of his pupils, stands with Corelli and
Tartini as one of the three violinists of Italy who have had the
greatest influence upon the development of violin music. Through
Pugnani he received directly the traditions of the two great men
whom he was destined so worthily to follow.
The time of Viotti is the time of the symphony and the sonata. He is
the contemporary of Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven, and of (among
his own people) Clementi and Cherubini. As a composer he gave up
writing what had so long been the chief work of the violinist-
composers—the sonata with figured bass or simple accompaniment.
Only a few sonatas are numbered among his compositions; but he
wrote no less than twenty-nine violin concertos with full orchestral
accompaniment, all of which show the breadth of the new form of
sonata and symphony, which had come out of Italy, through
Mannheim to Paris.
III
Before considering Viotti’s work in detail something must be said
about the condition of violin music in France during the eighteenth
century, and the violinists in Paris, with the assistance of whom he
was able to found a school of violin playing the traditions of which
still endure. With but one or two conspicuous exceptions, the most
significant violinists of the eighteenth century in France came directly
under the influence of the Italian masters. This did not always
contribute to their material successes; for throughout the century
there was a well-organized hostility to Italian influences in one
branch and another of music. Nevertheless most of what is good in
French violin music of the time owes a great deal to the Italians.
Such men as Rébel and Francœur (d. 1787), who were closely
connected with the Académie founded by Lully, may be passed with
only slight mention. Both were significant in the field of opera rather
than in that of violin music. Their training was wholly French and
their activities were joined in writing for the stage. The latter
composed little without the former, except two sets of sonatas for
violin, which belong to an early period in his life. Francœur advised
the use of the thumb on the fingerboard in certain chords, a manner
which, according to Wasielewski,[49] is without another example in
violin music.
The most brilliant of the French violinists toward the end of the
century was Pierre Gaviniès. Neither the exact date of his birth (1726
or 1728) nor his birthplace (Bordeaux or Paris) is known. From
whom he received instruction remains wholly in the dark. But when
Viotti came to Paris in 1782 Gaviniès was considered one of the
greatest of living violinists. The great Italian is said to have called
him the French Tartini; from which one may infer that in his playing
he had copied somewhat the manner of the Italian players who, one
after the other, made themselves heard in all the great cities of
Europe. But, judging from his compositions, he was more given to
brilliancy and effectiveness than Tartini; and though he may not be
ranked among violinists like Lolli who had nothing but astonishing
technique at their command, he was undoubtedly influential in giving
to the French school its shining brilliance whereby it passed beyond
the older classical traditions.
Little by little the French had developed the art of playing the violin
and composing for it. The time was ripe in the last quarter of the
eighteenth century for the founding of that great school of French art
which was to exert a powerful and lasting influence upon the growth
of violin music. And now the influence of Viotti comes into play.
Viotti was by all tokens one of the greatest of the world’s violinists.
He was born May 23, 1753, at Fontanetto, in Piedmont, and when
hardly more than a boy, came under the care of Pugnani. In 1780 he
started out with his master on an extended concert tour, which took
him through Germany, Poland, Russia and England. Everywhere he
met with brilliant success. Finally he came to Paris and made his first
appearance at the Concerts Spirituels in 1782. His success was
enormous, not only as a player but as a composer. Unhappily
subsequent appearances were not so successful, and Viotti
determined to withdraw from the concert stage. Except for a short
visit to his home in 1783, he remained in Paris until the outbreak of
the Revolution, variously occupied in teaching, composing, leading
private orchestras, and managing in part the Italian opera. The
Revolution ruined his fortunes and he went to London. Here he
renewed his public playing, appearing at the famous Salomon
concerts, in connection with which he saw something of Haydn. But,
suspected of political intrigues, he was sent away from London. He
lived a year or two in retirement in Hamburg and then returned to
London. He was conductor in some of the Haydn benefit concerts in
1794 and 1795, and he was a director in other series of concerts
until his success once more waned. Then like Clementi he entered
into commerce. The remainder of his life was spent between London
and Paris, and he died in London on March 10, 1824.