Chapter Six – Glass

CHAPTER SIX
GLASS

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Definition:
Glass is defined as ‘an inorganic product of fusion that has been cooled to a rigid condition without
crystallisation’. Glass is covered under BS 952 which requires that it be free from:
 Spots
 Bubbles
 Waves
 Defects

History of Glass
Glass has an exciting background and has added a lot to modern living than most other mass-
produced materials. The art of glass making is quite old and today the glass making industry uses the
same basic raw materials as it did in ancient times. However, the methods of manufacture have
changed and improved resulting into:

1. Higher production rates

2. Production of superior glass
3. Production of large sheet sizes
4. Much more stronger products
5. Varied applications e.g. blocks, bricks etc.

6.2 MANUFACTURE OF GLASS

6.2.1 Raw materials
The basic raw materials for the making of modern glass are three, namely:
 Silica (or sand)
 Soda
 Lime

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Chapter Six – Glass
Hence glass can be described as ‘Soda-lime silicate’, with the chemical formula Na20.CaO.6SiO2.
Additional small amounts of ingredients such as Alumina and Magnesium Oxide may be introduced
to improve the chemical resistance and durability of glass.

6.2.2 Manufacturing Process

The basic raw materials Silica (or Sand), Soda and Lime are heated in a furnace to a temperature
range of between 1490oC – 1550oC until they fuse together into a molten state. The molten material is
then cooled slowly producing a hard transparent (or translucent) durable material. They are then
formed into sheets by a process of: Drawing, Floating or Rolling.

a) Drawing
The pool of molten glass is engaged by a series of asbestos faced rollers that continue to draw the
ribbon of glass which is then cut into sheets and washed in a dilute acid to remove the surface
deposits. This process produces transparent glass of 85% light transmission.

Figure 1: illustrates the Drawing Process of glass making (Horizontally drawn glass).

Furnace
Annealing Chamber Glass Sheet

Molten Glass Cutting table

Generally six thicknesses are produced from 2mm – 6mm. The 2mm is not recommended for
building works. 4mm is the most commonly used thickness.

b) Floating
The glass is formed by floating a continuous ribbon of molten glass over a bath of liquid metal at a
controlled rate and temperature. This process produces transparent glass giving 85% light
transmission. Figure 2 illustrates the Floating Process of glass making (the basic float line).

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 Chapter Six – Glass

Fire
Heat Zone Polishing Cooling Zone
Zone

Controlled
Gas Atmosphere

Raw
Batch
Heater

Molten Glass

Heat Heat Heat

Cutting
Glass Tank or furnace Float Bath Annealing Lehr Section

Generally, a greater range of thicknesses are produced from: 3mm – 12 mm.

c) Rolling and Roughcasting

The glass is formed by rolling the molten glass on a cast iron table of rollers into sheets of glass.
Generally, these glasses are translucent (transmit light with varied degrees of diffusion so that vision
is not clear). They have 80% light transmission. They are produced in three thicknesses of: 5mm,
6mm and 10mm.

6.3 TYPES OF GLASS

There are several types of glass produced depending on the ingredients added and the manufacturing
process chosen. The various types are shown below:

Glass Types

Sheet Glass Reflective Rolled & Wired Glass Heat Laminated Insulating Vitreous
Glass Roughcast Absorbing Safety Glass Coloured
Plate Glass Glass Glass Glass Plate Glass
Cathedral & Tempered
Figured Plate Glass
Rolled Glass

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Chapter Six – Glass
1. Sheet Glass: is made from the drawing process of manufacture. It is transparent with 85% light
transmission. The two surfaces are never perfectly flat or parallel hence distortion or reflection of
vision. Three qualities are recommended under BS 952:
i. Ordinary Glazing Quality (OGQ) – used for general glazing purposes
ii. Selected Glazing Quality (SGQ) – used where quality better than in (i) above is required
iii. Special Selected Quality (SSQ) – for high grade work where a superfine sheet glass is
required, e.g. for cabinets. Thicknesses range from 2mm – 6mm.

2. Plate Glass: is a transparent glass made from the rolling process of manufacture. A greater range
of thicknesses are possible than in (i) above.

3. Float Glass: is a transparent glass made by a combination of the rolling process and the drawing
process. It is truly more flat with no distortion of vision.

4. Reflective Glass: is made by an innovative method of coating glass with micro-thin layers of
metallic films in a large vacuum chamber. It is used to control glare and reduce solar heat (hence less
air conditioning necessary). It is manufactured in two types: silver and gold. Light transmission can
be 8%, 14% or 20%. At night the glass ‘reverses’ itself by being transparent from the outside and
semi-reflective from the inside. It can be produced in large panels.

5. Rolled and Roughcast Glass: is made from the rolling process of manufacturing glass. These
glasses are used where clear vision is not required, e.g. for factory roofs and walls, windows for halls
and staircases, skylights and partitions in offices. They diffuse light and have a low reflecting and
absorption index. They transmit over 90% of the light rays striking them.

6. Cathedral and Figured Rolled Glasses: are manufactured by the rolling process. They contain a
pattern or texture impressed on one side by a patterned roller. They are also made of a series of
standard tints for special uses e.g. in Cathedral, Church windows.

7. Wired Glass: is produced from the rolling process whereby wire-mesh is inserted during the
process of manufacture. The wire greatly increases the resistance to shattering from impacts. It has
80% light transmission and is generally produced in thicker gauges but usually 6mm is the most

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Chapter Six – Glass
common thickness. It is produced in two types;
i) Georgian Wired Glass – which has a 12mm square mesh electrically welded wire
reinforcement.
ii) Hexagonal Wire Glass – this is reinforced with hexagonal wire of approximately 20mm mesh.
Both types are very safe and have a greater resistance even to fires.

8. Heat-absorbing Plate Glass: is made by adding ingredients to the mix used in making regular
plate glass so that the final product is pate bluish-green or grey in colour. Due to its chemical
composition, this glass absorbs a significant percentage of the suns radiant energy thus reducing the
amount of heat within the building. Glare and brightness are reduced in the rooms where they are
used. This type of glass is widely used for glazing Office buildings, Colleges, Universities, Schools
and Hospital buildings.

9. Tempered Plate Glass: is made by reheating and suddenly cooling plate glass. As a result the
outer surfaces are under high compressive stress while the centre portion remains in tension
producing a condition that is highly resistant to breakage. They are 3 to 5 times stronger than regular
plate glass of the same thickness and area in terms of resisting compressive and fracturing forces
strains or thermal shock.

Tempered plate glasses are used for: swinging doors, sliding patio doors, windows in gymnasiums
and sports arenas, hockey rink enclosures, etc.

10. Vitreous Coloured Plate Glass: is produced by heat-strengthening glass on one side with
vitreous colour which is fire fused to the surface. This results into an opaque glass. Vitreous coloured
plate glass is widely used in curtain-wall construction, sore fronts, show rooms, laboratories, and
industrial buildings not as a glazing material but as a backup against masonry for insulative purposes.
Normal thickness is 6mm (or ¼”) and maximum standard size is 1850mm x 3000mm (or 72” x 120”).

11. Laminated Safety Glass: is made of two thicknesses of plate or sheet glass bonded by a thin
tough layer of polyvinyl butyral resin (a transparent plastic material). It is produced in various
thicknesses. Laminated safety glass is widely used in the automotive industry, transportation industry
and in the building industry.

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Chapter Six – Glass
12. Insulating Glass: consists of two sheets of plate or sheet glass separated by an air space and
jointed around the edges to produce a hermetically sealed unit. Three methods of sealing are used
namely:
i. rectangular metal spacer sealed to the glass and covered by a stainless steel frame (see Figure 3
(i) below).
ii. a strip of lead is used to seal the edges of the glass (see Figure 3 (ii) below)
iii. Electrically fusing all – glass edges (see Figure 3 (iii) below)

Lead Strip

¼ ‘’ Polished Plate

Fused Glass

Figure 3(iii):
Figure 3(i): Figure 3(ii):
All-Glass Seal
Insulating glass unit Lead-sealed unit

Insulating glass provides: thermal insulation, greatly restricts condensation, reduces external noise
and permits the entry of natural light. It is common in cold countries.

6.4 BASIC PROPERTIES/CHARACTERICS OF GLASS

The important ones are: Hardness, Bending Strength, Compressive Strength, Volume Weight, Heat
Conductivity, Resistance to Chemical Attacks, and Melting Point:

1. Hardness: is the ability of a material to resist penetration into it by another more hard body. It
is measured on the Hardness scale of 1 – 10 (10 is the hardest e.g. diamond). Glass is rated
between 5 -7.

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Chapter Six – Glass
2. Bending Strength: is greater than 450 Kg/cm2
3. Compressive Strength: is between 600 and 12,000 Kg/cm2
4. Volume Weight: is between 2,450 and 2,550 Kg/cm2. Volume weight is the weight of a unit
volume of material in its natural state.
5. Heat Conductivity: is between 0.6 and 1.15K cal/m.hr.grad. Heat conductivity is the ability
material to transfer, through its thickness, heat flow, which results due to difference in
temperature on the surfaces of the material. Glass has a low coefficient of conductivity hence
has poor thermo-resistance i.e. sharp heating and cooling results in high internal stresses and
thus failure.
6. Chemical Resistance: of glass is generally high except that glass is easily attacked by
Hydrofluoric acids.
7. Melting Points: glass does not have a specific or definite melting point. When heated, it first
softens so that it can be bent. Further heating takes it to the point when it becomes a thick,
syrupy liquid: at still higher temperatures it becomes a thin, watery liquid.

6.5 FIXING OF GLASS (GLAZING)

a) Glazing:
The securing or fixing of glass in prepared openings (windows, doors, partitions, etc.) is termed
Glazing. Generally, the thickness of the glass to be used is determined by a number of factors such as:
1. Area of the Opening to be glazed – the greater the area, the thicker should be the
recommended thickness.
2. Position of the opening
3. Wind loads
4. Use of the building

b) Types of Glazing
There are basically two types:
1. Glazing without Beads
2. Glazing with Beads

1. Glazing without beads

The glass is bedded in a compound and secured with springs, pegs, or clips and pointed with a
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Chapter Six – Glass
weathered surface Putty. Putty is a glazing compound which requires a protective coating of paint as
soon as practicable after glazing. Two kinds of putty are in general use:
i) Linseed Oil Putty: for use in wooden structures. It is made from Linseed Oil and Whitting
(BS 544).
ii) Metal Casement Putty: for use with metal or non-absorbent wood. It is made from refined
vegetable drying oils and finely ground chalk.

2. Glazing with Beads

The beads are secured with panel pins or screws and the glass bedded in a compound (or glazing felt)
to prevent damage by vibration. Figures 4(i) & 4(ii) illustrate the 2 types of glazing described above.

Sprig
Back glass
putty Back
putty
Front
putty
sprig Figure 4(i):
Glazing
Spring clip
without beads

Wood frame Metal frame

glass

Internal bead
fixed with
cups and
screws

External
bead

Figure 4(ii):
Glazing with
Bedding beads
material

metal frame
Wood frame
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Chapter Six – Glass
6.6 OTHER GLASS PRODUCTS FOR BUILDING
The important ones to know about are two: Glass Blocks and Solids Glass Bricks

1. Glass Blocks: these are comparable to masonry blocks but have the added advantage of being able
to transmit light. Two general types are produced:
a) Functional Blocks – these direct or diffuse the daylight which passes through them to
improve the illuminating of the building interior. Figure 5 illustrates Glass Blocks types.

Figure 5 (i): Figure 5 (ii):

Light-directing block Light-diffusing block
b) Decorative Blocks – these are chosen for their ability to contribute to an overall design plan
and are not intended to be used as a major controller of daylight. Figure 6 illustrates Decorative
Glass types.

Figure 6: Coloured and Patterned glass blocks

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Chapter Six – Glass
2. Solid Glass Bricks – are walling units with an added advantage of admitting light into a building.
They also offer a greater protection against vandalism than ordinary glass used in the same position
due to their solid construction. Figure 7 illustrates the use of glass blocks in construction work.

Figure 7: Masonry wall with glass blocks

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CIV 2203: Civil Engineering Materials – Lecture Notes 2021/22 ABFM