Seismic Stratigraphy

Learning Objectives
After completing this topic “Seismic Stratigraphy “, you will be able to:

 Determine what to accept as genuine geology, and what to dismiss as an artifact of the seismic method.
 Discuss the reasons for thickening and thinning of reflection intervals and explain what types of structures
these can help to identify.
 Explain the concept of sequences; intervals within which the sediments are genetically related.
 Identify ways to distinguish between onlap and downlap.
 Perform the basic tasks of a seismic interpreter.
 Relate why the absence of, or few reflections, within certain structures is a valuable diagnostic tool.

Introduction to Seismic Stratigraphy

Seismic stratigraphy is a technique for interpreting stratigraphy (the order and relative position of strata and their
relationship to the geological time scale) using seismic data that allows for a better understanding of the tectonic
and sedimentary evolution of a basin. With the significant improvement of seismic resolution and computing
power, it is now possible to visualize the details of depositional and stratigraphic facies.

Seismic stratigraphy is based on the fact that seismic stratigraphic units are linked to sea level changes (eustatic). A
basic assumption with this technique is that seismic reflections are produced where the physical surfaces of two
different stratigraphic units meet that have chronological character (chronostratigraphic units), and an impedance
contrast. Contrary to what many might think, seismic reflections do not coincide with contacts of different
lithology. Lithology contacts are usually gradual.

The interfaces that cause seismic reflections between two units of contrasting density and velocity are called
“stratal surfaces” and “unconformities”. Stratal surfaces were the surface of the Earth during some point in time,
and unconformities are erosional surfaces or “non-depositional” surfaces, which imply the absence of a
chronostratigraphic interval.

Additional kinds of reflections that intersect time lines, like “diffractions” and “multiples” for example, are not
related to geology. Reflections produced by fluids contacts (oil/water, gas/oil, gas/water), called “bright spots”, can
be present in seismic sections. Reflections can also be produced by strong diagenetic changes. These changes can
produce high impedance contrasts which might not correspond to a specific time surface.

Seismic stratigraphic interpretation can be subdivided into three phases:

 Analysis of seismic sequences

 Analysis of seismic facies
 Analysis of the relative sea-level variations
A seismic sequence can be defined as a consistent package of seismic reflections, separated by surfaces of
discontinuity. The limits of a seismic sequence are defined by the termination of reflections.

In Figure 1, image A illustrates a schematic stratigraphic section showing a sequence limited by surfaces CC’ and
DD’, and defined by the reflection patterns of terminations (top). Image B, shows the same stratigraphic units in
chronostratigraphic section.

Figure 1: Example of depositional sequence

Sedimentary Layers
Figure 1 illustrates substantial conformity of the geological layers. Image A is a good quality marine section, and Image B is a
medium quality land section. The geological meaning in both examples is that of apparent stability; the depositional surface in
these examples was nearly horizontal, and it has remained nearly horizontal. Where we see a significant reflection, we infer
that the type of sediment must have changed. The change of sediment could be due to a change of relative sea level, a change
of sediment source, a change of climate, a change of the direction of sediment transport, or cataclysmic events far from the
area of deposition, it is never due to a purely local circumstance.

Figure 1: Marine (A) and land (B) sections

Our goal in seismic stratigraphy is to determine what to accept as genuine geology, and what to dismiss as an artifact of the
seismic method.
First, we need to be confident that we can rely upon the field crew and the processors to acquire and process the data to the
highest standards. Then, we apply the test of geological plausibility, simply, by determining if it looks right. In Figure 1A the
reflections are very continuous, and there is no doubt that they represent real geological surfaces in the earth. In Figure
1B even the best reflections are much less continuous, but there is still no doubt that they represent real geological surfaces in
the earth.
Where the same irregularity is present on two or more reflections on the same trace, we dismiss the irregularity as the result of
imperfect static corrections; this allows us to be completely satisfied that the upper and lower strong reflections are in fact
totally continuous. The band of reflections across the center of the segment is something different. In Figure 1B, the small
depression noted by the arrow is also something different. If this feature is important, the reflections are now distinctly
worrying.
Our first test is to look for a related feature on other lines; this could probably explain the feature, and establish its geological
plausibility. Otherwise, we must go back to the processors, and ask if there is any doubt about the variables used in the relevant
processing.
But it is when we are asked about the other information on the section, the zones between the strong reflections in Figure 1B,
that we are most suspicious. We need to ascertain if every seismic wiggle corresponds to something real in the earth. This is the
sort of decision that we must make all the time in seismic interpretation. In the present example, we would probably dismiss
most of the low-amplitude wiggles that do not have visible trace-to-trace alignment as noise. This may be a correct
interpretation, and it may be incorrect.
Figure 2 illustrates the difficulty of such a decision. At the top of the seismic, we have superb continuity. At the bottom, again
good continuity. The seismic method is working very well in these areas. But in between the top and the bottom, we see a zone
of poor continuity; corrugations, breaks, and total cessations of reflections.
We need to determine the geological message the rocks might reveal. In this example, the interpreter would look at the good
continuity and relative lack of noise at the bottom, and conclude that everything in the middle zone (except one suggestion of a
very steep dip that is clearly geologically implausible) is genuine; the earth is really represented well. The geological
interpretation is one of differing sediments, in differing environments of deposition.

Figure 2: Continuity changes within a seismic section

Throughout the following series of illustrations, we will be continually determining if the reflections are real, artifacts, or noise.
These figures will help us prepare for most any seismic sections we encounter, such that we will be able to gain insight about
the reflectors, and eventually, the geology.

Reflection Examples
Figure 3 illustrates substantial conformity after deformation, in a simple anticline. As far as sedimentation is concerned, the
geological process is the same as that of Figure 1. However, after deposition and lithification, the sediments were deformed
into an anticline either by compressional forces acting horizontally, by subsidence under the flanks, or (as in this example) by
vertical uplift associated with deep instability.
Figure 3: Substantial conformity after deformation in a simple anticline

Whenever such a thickness of rocks is uplifted in this manner, the lower layers must be compressed and
the upper layers must be stretched. In an extreme case, the crest is likely to show extensional faulting,
and possibly some collapse. In the Figure 3 example, the upper strong reflection shows a slight
depression over the crest, indicative of the extension and incipient faulting.

In the previous example, deposition was certainly complete before the uplift started. In Figure 4, the
sediments between the two, yellow, picked reflections were being deposited during the uplift of the salt
pillow, visible at the middle left. As a consequence, the interval between the two strong reflections thins
to the left. The figure shows seismic with a velocity overlay; salt velocity is in yellow.
Figure 4: Sediments deposited between two picked reflections during salt uplift

In Figure 5, we see what appears to be a thinning of sediment to the right of the section. The cause of
the thinning in this example is different from the previous example. To the lower right of the diagonal
across the section, we see the edge of a rift basin, formed in ancient rocks and very complicated by
faulting. Sediments eroded off the ancient rocks to the top right of the section were deposited in the
basin to the lower left. As the basin filled, the deep adjustment and the transfer of mass caused the
basin edge to tilt to the left. Each of the reflectors visible within the top left wedge was deposited in a
nearly horizontal pattern, and then tilted to the left; the older sediments, therefore, are progressively
more tilted.
Figure 5: Seismic thinning to the upper right

Although the causes of geologic events in Figures 4 and 5 are quite different, the geological impact of
the thickening/thinning is the same the depositional surface was progressively tilted during deposition.

The degree of thickening into a basin is underestimated by a seismic time section. Because the velocity is
likely to increase with deeper burial, the actual thickening is greater than it appears to be. By the same
token, a conformable sequence which dips over a significant range of depths may appear to thin
downdip on a seismic time section.

There are other reasons for thickening and thinning of reflection intervals, and we interpret according to
the depositional environment which we can see on the section. For example, Figure 6 and Figure
7 illustrate the thinning associated with sediment starvation a limited supply of sediment. The sediment
source is to the right. Typically, in such a case, the coarser sediments soon come to rest on the
depositional surface; the finer sediments are carried farther, until they downlap onto the depositional
floor.
Figure 6: Sediment starvation: Seismic thinning to the lower left

Figure 7: Sediment starvation: Thinning off an anticline to the right

Unconformities

In Figure 1, the original surface of deposition was the faulted and eroded surface of an ancient rock
mass. As erosion proceeded at the top left of the section, sediments were transported downdip until
they came to rest. There they piled up for a time, resumed their journey, and then piled up again. The
interior of the resulting pod of sediments therefore lacks clear bedding planes, which is evident in the
seismic response. Probably this pod of sediments was deposited subaerially. The downdip thinning
shows the characteristic downlap associated with starvation of sediments. The updip thinning is a
feature of the original depositional surface, the gradient at which sediment transport occurs, and the
tilting of subsidence.
Figure 1: Subaerial deposition and downdip thinning

Figure 2 provides another example of deposition. The pod of sediments clearly formed at a change in
the gradient of the ancient surface. To the right it lacks clear bedding planes, as before. To the left some
bedding planes are visible, which suggests more orderly sediment movement and deposition, probably
with a greater contribution from water.

Figure 2: Orderly sediment movement and deposition with larger water contribution

The importance of Figures 1 and 2 in the development of our thinking as interpreters is major. These
examples introduce us to the concept of sequences intervals within which sediments are genetically
related, and therefore, derived and deposited by a common mechanism. This is a very important
concept because the shape of the sequence in section, in the context of the rocks above and below it,
tells us about the type of sediment accumulation. The internal configuration of reflections within the
sequence tells us about the conditions of sediment accumulation, and often something about the
sediments themselves.

Further, these examples remind us that we should not allow ourselves to be totally preoccupied with
the continuity of reflections. In the days when seismic interpreters were searching solely for structural
traps, they sought continuity above everything; they looked for extensive surfaces that could be
mapped. If they did not find them, they blamed the processors. The processors, in reaction, devised
processes to improve reflection continuity, sometimes even to force continuity. Modern interpreters, on
the contrary, accept that lack of continuity and limited continuity may be important geological
diagnostics. They look above, below, updip, and downdip to make judgments as to whether what they
see is real, an artifact, or is noise. Then, they ask what geological processes would create such
continuity, or such lack of continuity. If a pattern of reflections (continuous or not) is real, it has a
geological impact.

There is an important distinction between Figures 1 and 2 in the behavior of the rocks above the
sediment pod. In Figure 2 there is a layer of rock, lacking internal bedding planes, which is broadly
conformable with the top of the pod. This layer is concordant with its lower boundary. In Figure 1,
however, we see many reflections of contrasting dip terminating against the top of the pod. These
reflections are said to onlap the pod.

Figure 3 illustrates the essence of concordance, onlap and downlap. Both onlap and downlap are
subsets of the term baselap, as both are relationships between the strata in a sequence and the base of
that sequence.
Figure 3: Relationships between the strata of a sequence (layer lines) and the base of that sequence
(heavy black lines)

When we observe onlap and downlap on seismic sections, we know that there was, at that time, no
deposition on the ancient surface updip of the onlap, or downdip of the downlap. We have then a tool
to recognize a local hiatus.

Figure 4 provides three examples of onlap. In each case, the picked reflection represents the older
surface, against which younger layers are seen to onlap.

The excellent continuity of the onlapping reflections suggests that these are marine sediments, and that
they onlapped progressively farther and farther to the left during a rise in relative sea level. The absence
of mounds or pods of sediment (or any other evidence of a local sediment source) suggests that we are
witnessing the general infilling of a basin. Where there was subsidence of the floor of the basin during
deposition, we can expect the layers to thin towards onlap; this is the general situation in the
illustrations of Figure 4, but in Figure 4A we can see one level at which the reflections are broadly
conformable, and the subsidence was very small.
Figure 4: Examples of onlap and downlap

The above examples of onlap and downlap are also examples of unconformity. For a more dramatic
example, in both images in Figure 5, we see the following, from older to younger events (bottom to top):

1. Conformable deposition
2. Major uplift and tilting
3. Erosion until the eroded surface was nearly horizontal
4. Conformable or near-conformable deposition

In short, we see concordance over angular truncation.

Figure 5: Concordance over angular truncation

In Figure 6, an ancient complex, its surface (identified in yellow) is eroded and still rough, has become
inundated by the sea. On its left flank we see marine onlap from the general infilling of the basin to the
left onlap over truncation. On its right flank, however, we have downlap of an independent mass of
sediments derived from a local source to the right downlap over truncation. This example illustrates that
the distinction between onlap and downlap is not always easy, particularly when (as so often happens)
the key to the distinction lies off the section, or when the whole area has been tilted after deposition.
Figure 6: Multiple erosion, inundation, onlap, infilling and downlap episodes

The enormous importance of unconformities to the interpreter is that they are sequence boundaries.
They define the limits of genetically related sediments. We saw in Figures 1, 2, 4 and 5 this is clear this is
clear as all the sediments above each picked unconformity are younger than all those below it, and the
sediments above and below each unconformity have no common genesis. In Figure 6 the same is clearly
true for the picked unconformity. However, the sediments onlapping the left flank of the unconformity
may have the same genesis as those above the crest of the unconformity both may be the result of
general basin infilling at the left from a remote source of sediment. The source of sediments on the right
flank is different. These sediments represent a different sequence with an independent genesis. The key
to understanding these sequences, even without the information rightward of the section, is the
unconformity (or unconformities) between these downlapping sediments and the ones above.
Unconformities are a very important key to geological history.

On a seismic section, unconformities which involve an angular relationship between good reflections are
easy to see, and it is obvious that such unconformities represent surfaces of erosion. Less easy to see
are the unconformities which represent merely a period of non-deposition, for these may involve no
angularity between reflections above and below.

The right portion of Figure 7 shows a clear angular unconformity. To the left, this unconformity turns
into its correlative conformity. Without the angularity to the right, we would have no inkling that a break
in deposition is represented by this surface. It is often important to trace unconformities into their
correlative conformities, for the latter are sequence boundaries just as significant as the unconformities.
Figure 7: Unconformity to the right transforming into conformity to the left

Erosional Channels

Some tasks of the interpreter are now apparent:

 To pick the sequence boundaries (which are unconformities or their correlative conformities).
 To classify the internal configuration of reflections within the sequence (conformable, divergent,
sigmoid, oblique, hummocky, chaotic, and so on).
 To recognize the depositional and erosional setting of the sequence from its context in the section
(open basin, shoreline, prograding shelf, continental, local sediment source, etcetera).
 To infer what type of rocks would be expected within the sequence.

It’s important to understand the different depositional sequence types that can occur at the top and
base of boundaries. Figure 1 shows the reflection relationships which can occur at the base of a
sequence.
Figure 1: Reflection relationships at the base of a sequence

Figure 2 provides the same relationship for those at the top of a sequence.
Figure 2: Concordance, toplap, and erosional truncation

We can illustrate the interpretation approach with some examples of erosional channels. These may be
cut by rivers, glaciers, or by marine currents.

Channel Examples

Figure 3 illustrates a channel cut by a river. We see how the flanking reflections are breached by the
channel, and how the channel has become filled with sediment of quite different genesis. In fact, the
sediment in this case is of glacial origin, and higher in velocity than the surrounding rocks because we
notice the velocity pull-up in the reflections below the channel.
Figure 3: Erosional channel cut by a river

Figure 4 shows us that marine currents, even in a deep open basin, can cause dramatic erosion. In this
case, the channel is full of water, of a velocity lower than the surrounding rocks, which we can see from
the velocity pull-down in the reflections below.

Figure 4: Deep basin marine channel cut

Figure 5 illustrates a similar channel cut in past geologic time. Channels cut by rivers often have rough,
steep sides. They may contain chaotic fill of terrestrial origin or, if they have been inundated by the sea,
marine sediments onlapping the channel walls. Channels cut by marine currents tend to be smoother. In
the case of Figure 5, the filling sediments onlap the channel walls very clearly.
Figure 5: Marine channel cut in past geologic time

Figure 6 illustrates that marine channels may remain static (as at the left) or they may prograde. The
right channel is continually eroding away at its left bank and depositing sediments on its right bank,
much as a meandering river erodes its outer bank and deposits a point bar on its inner bank.

Figure 6: Static marine channel (left) and prograding marine channel (right)

A counterpart to Figure 6, but in past time, is seen in Figure 7. The channel fill has two components:
chaotic sediments on the right, deposited by the channel itself as it prograded leftward, and orderly
marine sediments which onlap the final right wall of the channel and drape significantly into the
channel.
Figure 7: Chaotic marine sediments (right) and orderly, onlap marine sediments (left)

Drape is a useful tool as it allows us to characterize rocks by their resistance to compaction. The value of
this is that clays and shales are notably more compactible than other rock types. In Figure 7, the marine
fill thickens where the channel is deepest; compaction soon after deposition has allowed more
deposition. The interpretation is that the layers showing the thickening are rich in shales. In contrast,
in Figure 5, there is no drape into the channel; the fill is less compactible, and we expect less shale
content.

Mound Deposits and Reefs

Seismic detection of reefs is important in oil and gas exploration. This is because of the usually high
volumes of producing hydrocarbons found in localized instances, requiring relatively smaller production
effort as opposed to larger or more complex geologic targets.

In Figure 1, a mound of some sort has formed on the ancient sea floor. Sediment, moving to its final
depositional site by the usual mechanism of bottom transport, onlapped the mound until it was covered
and the mound disappeared beneath an even and horizontal sheet, now represented by the strong
reflection. Sedimentation continued for a period now equivalent to 50-100 ms of reflection time, but
during this period the compaction of the onlapping sediments on each side of the mound caused the
strong reflection to drape over the mound. Then the compaction stabilized, and a considerable thickness
of sediments was deposited, on a nearly horizontal surface of deposition over the whole section. Finally,
the weight of these later sediments renewed the process of compaction. The later compaction, like the
first, was greater in the off-mound sediments than in the mound itself, and so the whole section above
the mound now shows conformable drape over it. The conclusion from this example is that the
sediments off the flanks of the mound are rich in shales, while the mound is rich in either carbonates or
sands.

Figure 1: Sea floor mound

Important examples of such mounds, in a reservoir sense, are sand-rich submarine fans and carbonate
build-ups of biothermal or biostromal origin (a bedded sedimentary deposit of organic origin built by
marine organisms, which includes shell beds, flat reefs, and corals).

In the latter context, a particularly important target is the reef. Reefs have a natural habitat and grow
systematically at a hinge-line or edge of the shelf (shelf-edge or barrier reefs), or in isolated fashion from
a carbonate platform on the shelf (patch reefs). Some reefs have a characteristic form, representing the
style of growth, the effect of wave action, and the types of sediment deposited around and over them.
Sometimes, therefore, reefs may be identified directly on the seismic section by first looking for a shelf
or shelf-edge environment, and then looking for the characteristic form.

Figure 2 shows what we might hope to see on a line perpendicular to the shelf edge; image A is the
section, and image B is an interpretation showing the important features. We notice in particular the
reef itself (characterized by few or no internal reflections), the difference of appearance between the
back-reef and fore-reef reflections, and the draping of later sediments over the reef.
Figure 2: Simple reef structure and schematic interpretation

When the reef characteristics are as evident as the above example, the search for reefs is simple and
direct, particularly for patch reefs. However, the identification of reefs is not always easy. Often drape is
our sole indication of reefs, and this occurs only when the flanking sediments are more compactible
than the reef.
Reef Interpretation

The quantity most often mapped in seismic interpretation is the difference of reflection time at the top
and base of the interval loosely, this is a time thickness. A map of the contours of this quantity is
therefore sometimes called a time isopach map (a map of equal time thicknesses). Some interpreters
call it an isochron map (a map of equal times), but others reserve the term isochron to represent a
normal contour of reflection time (on a time structure map). To avoid confusion, we shall call our map a
time interval map.

The search for reefs on seismic sections may be simple, or it may be difficult. In Figure 1, we see an
example of a simple case. The reef is clearly recognizable by its environment and by its characteristic
form. But we are also concerned with reefs whose expression on the section is very subtle. Even if the
seismic line passes right across the reef, the eye can scarcely detect any anomaly from the reef itself.
Typical of such situations are the patch reefs of Alberta and the Michigan peninsula.

Figure 1: Simple reef structure

We search for these subtle reefs by time interval mapping. In some areas, the rationale for this approach
results from the situation shown in Figure 2, in which a patch reef has grown on a carbonate platform,
and has later become surrounded by clays or lime muds. The latter are more compactable than the reef,
so that the weight of later sediments causes the appearance of draping over the reef. Therefore, even if
the reef is not directly visible on the section, its presence can be inferred by mapping the time interval
between the reflections from interfaces A and B. The reef is represented by a “thick” an increase of the
time interval between these interfaces.

Sometimes the effect of velocity yields a “thin”—a local decrease of the time interval between two
interfaces. In fact, a thin and a thick (due to differential compaction) can exist together, though the one
tends to nullify the other. In this situation, the soundest technique may be to map the interval B-C (or B-
D, or C-D) in Figure 2, to search for a thin.

The technique of interval mapping may be of value even when the reef itself is clearly visible on the
seismic section. In considering the grid of lines necessary to find small patch reefs in a new license area,
we may observe that the cost could be reduced significantly if we could detect a reef from a line which
passed near the reef but not actually over it. If we look again at Figure 2, we see that the mapping of a
time interval (in search of either a thick or a thin) may do this for us. A line perpendicular to the plane of
the paper, at location E, might well detect the presence of the reef without passing over it.

The same advantage applies where line locations are constrained by limited access. We may be forced
to work only along roads in built-up areas, or only along rivers in jungle areas. Then time interval
mapping may increase our chances of spotting a reef not directly underlying a line.
Figure 2: Patch reef on a carbonate platform

In other areas, the reason for using time interval mapping may result from the situation shown in Figure
3. The actual situation, plotted in depth, is that of image A. The resulting seismic section, plotted in
reflection time, is that of image B. The reef has a higher velocity than that of the surrounding sediments,
so that a reflection from below the reef shows velocity pull-up. If we map the time interval between
reflection D and reflection C (or any deeper reflection), we can hope to infer the presence of the reef
from a thin.
Figure 3: Reef depth section with resulting velocity pull-up

Figure 4 is an example of a reef where these time interval techniques could supplement the direct
recognition of the reef.
Figure 4: Time-interval techniques application for a reef example

The technique of time interval mapping is also valuable for targets other than reefs. Draping, and the
consequent thickening or thinning of an interval, is likely to occur above any geological body whose
resistance to compaction during burial is different from that of the rocks each side of it. Thus, an
erosional channel cut into a sand-shale sequence and filled with sand shows anomalously small
compaction (a thick), but if it is filled with clay it shows anomalously large compaction (a thin). A sand
bar, often an important reservoir, can be mapped as a thick. Growth faults can be distinguished and
studied, if corresponding intervals can be identified and mapped on the upthrown side (thin) and the
downthrown side (thick). And we remember that tilting during deposition may show as a systematic
thickening in the direction of greatest subsidence, or a thinning in the direction of uplift.

Absence of Reflections
We have shown and explained how the positioning of visible reflectors can be key in identifying areas of
geologic interest for oil and gas exploration. Now, we will turn our attention to areas where the absence
of reflectors may also be an indication of areas of interest.

Figure 1 shows that the absence of, or few reflections, from within a reef is a valuable diagnostic for this
type of structure.

Figure 1: Absence of, or few reflections from within a reef

In Figure 2, we see the same lack of reflections in basement (image A), mobile shale after it has moved
(image B), and in salt domes (image C: seismic with velocity overlay; salt velocity in yellow). Fortunately,
the geologic setting does not usually allow ambiguity between these indications although mobile salt
and mobile shale are sometimes juxtaposed on sections from the Gulf of Mexico.
Figure 2: Lack of reflectors in basement section, mobile shale and a salt dome
Another circumstance which can lead to an absence of, or few coherent reflections in an area, is a zone
of intense tectonic deformation (Figure 3), which the interpreter expects to distinguish by the reflections
near it.

Figure 3: Absence of, or few reflections in a zone of intense tectonic deformation

Figure 4 illustrates the appearance of an igneous plug, with a lack of coherent reflections, rising through
sediments with sills branching off.
Figure 4: Igneous plug with branching sills

Figure 5 cautions us to be wary of sills as strong reflectors. Their intrusive nature may be clear only
where, ceasing to follow the bedding planes, they cause truncation that we cannot reconcile with
depositional and erosional processes.

Figure 5: Sills as strong reflectors

Assignment Seismic Stratigraphy

1. You are reviewing 2D seismic lines from existing production in the huge Brent field in the
northern portion of the North Sea. Based on the character of the structure and the reflections
shown where the two wells are located in Figure 1, what kind of play is the Brent field?
Document your reasoning for this interpretation.

Figure 1: 2D seismic line from the Brent field in the northern North Sea, United Kingdom

Solution

The structure has a large unconformity with the surface at about the middle of the section. Beneath the
unconformity, the beds dip to the lower left. There are several large faults just below the unconformity
to the right of the right well. The trap would be bound by the top of the unconformity and the fault.
Based on the interpretation, this suggests that this is a combination unconformity and fault play.

2. You are reviewing 2D seismic lines in a new play area away from existing production in West Texas,
USA. In Figure 2, the structure at 1500 ms, just left of center in the section, is very noticeable. Based on
the character of the structure and the reflections, what kind of play do you interpret this to be and why?
Figure 2: 2D seismic line from West Texas, USA

Solution

The structure has few reflectors within it. Based on the location of the structure in the section, it does
not appear to be a basement structure, shale reflectors under a fault, or a zone of intense deformation.
There also are no plugs, intrusives or evidence of sill branches. There is no evidence of a salt structure.
Based on ruling out the above types of structures that typically have an absence of or few reflectors, the
remaining interpretation would suggest this is a reef structure play.

Assessment Seismic Stratigraphy

1. Seismic stratigraphy is based on the fact that seismic stratigraphic units are linked to __________ .

2. In the situation of sediments being deformed into an anticline by vertical uplift, the crest is likely to
exhibit which of the following in extreme cases? (Select all that apply.)

A .Sediment starvation
B .Extensional faulting
C .Possibly some collapse
D .Crestal thickening
3. Which of the following are geologic features where the absence of reflectors may be a valuable
diagnostic for this type of structure? (Select all that apply.)

A .Stratigraphic pinchouts
B .Zones of intense tectonic deformation
C .Reefs
D .Salt domes
4. What are stratal surfaces?

A .Surfaces of submerged reefs

B .The surface of the Earth during some point in time
C .Reflection surfaces produced by fluid contacts
D .Erosional surfaces which imply lack of a chronostratigraphic interval
5. The limits of a seismic sequence are defined by _________ .

6. On a seismic section, unconformities which involve ________ relationship between good

reflections are easy to see.

7. The technique of time interval mapping is valuable for identifying which type of targets? (Select all
that apply.)
A .Growth faults
B .Erosional channels
C .Sand bars
D .Transform faults
E .Reefs
8. What are types of reflections that intersect time lines and are not related to geology? (Select all that
apply.)

A .Grabens
B .Multiples
C .Diffractions
D .Faults
9. Why are unconformities so important to the interpreter? (Select all that apply.)

A .They confirm fault locations.

B .They are sequence boundaries.
C .They define the limits of genetically related sediments.
D .They are all simple to identify.
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