SBI4U - Metabolic Processes

Intro to Photosynthesis
The overall balanced equation/reaction/summary:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Carbon dioxide + Water + Solar Energy → Glucose (sugar) + oxygen

Takes place within the CHLOROPLASTS of plants and other photosynthetic organisms (photoautotrophs).

Chloroplasts have 2 membranes - outer and inner -

which enclose the interior space. This space is filled
with protein rich semi liquid material called STROMA -
do not confuse this with stoma...

Inside the chloroplasts are membrane bound sacs called

THYLAKOIDS - the things that look like pancakes.

Thylakoids stack on top of each other in columns called

GRANUM (pl. GRANA). Granum are connected to each
other by unstacked thylakoids called LAMELLAE (s.
lamella).

A typical chloroplast has approximately 60 grana, each

containing approximately 30-50 thylakoids.

Chlorophyll is a green coloured pigment. Present in all

photosynthesizing organisms. Chlorophyll is what
absorbs light energy to
begin the process of photosynthesis.

There are several types of chlorophyll: a (blue-green) and b (yellow-green).

Chlorophyll a contains a methyl group – CH3 at R, chlorophyll b contains an
aldehyde group - COH

All photosynthetic organisms will use chlorophyll a as the primary light absorbing
pigment.

All chlorophylls contain a porphyrin ring (“head”) attached to a long

hydrocarbon tail (a.k.a. the phytol tail or phytol chain). Delocalized e- in the
alternating single/double bonds of the porphyrin ring absorb the light energy
and begin the photosynthetic process. The phytol tail anchors the chlorophyll
molecule in a membrane by associating with the hydrophobic regions of the
phospholipid bilayer.

Let There be Light!

The full range of wavelengths of light emitted from the sun is known as the
electromagnetic spectrum.
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Visible light is between 380 - 750 nm (nanometres).

Light has properties of both waves and particles.

Light travels in bundles of energy called photons. The energy from photons is used to initiate photosynthesis
(when they get absorbed by photosynthetic pigments like chlorophyll).

Photosynthetic pigments absorb light. Each pigment can absorb light (photons) within a specific range of
wavelengths. Wavelengths that are not absorbed are either transmitted or reflected.
This determines what colour we see!

Absorption Spectrum

A spectrophotometer measures the amount of light that is

absorbed through a sample of photosynthetic pigments.

Accessory Pigments

Though chlorophylls are the most common pigments, other

pigments are present in plants to absorb other
wavelengths:

Carotenoids Phycobilins Xanthophylls

Flavonoids Anthocyanins

These pigments reflect other colours of light and are what we see when chlorophyll becomes less abundant
(such as in autumn)

Photosynthesis produces oxygen. Production of oxygen is used to measure the rate (or effectiveness) of
photosynthesis. Photosynthetic activity (oxygen output) is measured for plants under each specific wavelength.
Plotted on a graph: Action Spectrum.
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Homework: Read pp. 156-159 and answer the following questions:

1. . Explain why leaves are green.

Because they are REFLECTING green light. The light-absorbing molecules (such as chlorophyll) absorb all
colours EXCEPT green, which gets reflected and is the colour we see.

2. What is the range of frequency for visible light? 380-750 nm

3. Differentiate between action spectrum and absorption spectrum.

Action spectrum - a measure of the rate of photosynthesis as determined by oxygen production

Absorption spectrum - the wavelengths of light most/best absorbed (or not) by a particular pigment

4. a) Explain the purpose of the waxy cuticle that coats the leaf surface.
To prevent excess and unnecessary water loss. Water retention (for use as a reactant of photosynthesis).

b) Explain why leaves are usually broad and flat.

To maximize the available surface area for light to be absorbed by photosynthetic cells of the leaf

5. Label the cross-section of a leaf.

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5. Describe the role of the stomata.

Stomata (stoma = singular) are the small openings (or “holes”), usually found on the lower surface of leaves,
that allow gases (carbon dioxide and oxygen) to diffuse into and out of the leaf.

6. Describe, with labels, the conditions that cause the stoma to be open and closed.

Opening: Cells actively transport K+ & H+ ions into the cell and
water then diffuses in (via osmosis) to balance the solution. This
causes the cells to swell/become firm/turgid and a gap/opening
(the stoma) forms between them.

Closing: K+/H+ is moved out of the cell; water follows and the
cells become limp/flaccid which closes the gap between them.
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Photosynthesis: The Light-Dependent Reactions

Photosynthesis is divided into two sequential

processes:
Part 1: The light-dependent reactions and
Part 2: Carbon fixation/the Calvin cycle.

The “Light Reactions” have three parts:

1. Photoexcitation
2. Electron Transport Chain
3. Chemiosmosis

Occurs in the thylakoid of the chloroplast. Groups of

molecules responsible for the light reactions are
called photosystems. Each photosystem has 3
components:

1. Antenna pigments/complex made up of 200-400 chlorophyll

molecules and/or accessory pigments (e.g. carotenoids)
2. Reaction Centre consisting of a transmembrane protein
complex containing a specialized chlorophyll a molecule along
with associated proteins
3. Primary electron acceptor (PEA)
There are two/2 photosystems in plants:

Photosystem I (PS I): Most excited by light at 700 nm; called P700.
Only contains chlorophyll a.
Photosystem II (PS II): Most excited by light at 680 nm; called
P680. Contains chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids, xanthophylls and
anthocyanins. Was discovered after PSI, hence the II.

How Photosystems Capture Light Energy

1. Photons of light are absorbed by antenna pigments causing them to move from a ground state to an excited
state.
2. “Excitation” energy is passed along chlorophyll molecules until it reaches the reaction centre.
3. Chlorophyll a in the reaction centre absorbs the energy.
4. The high-energy state of chlorophyll a causes it to emit two electrons.
5. The PEA takes the electrons from chlorophyll a.

This process is called photoexcitation.

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STARTING WITH PHOTOEXCITATION
1) What initiates the light reactions?
A photon of light strikes photosystem II/P680
2) Initially, at what potential energy level are the chlorophyll
molecule’s electrons? At a “ground state”
3) What happens to the electron when a photon strikes it?
It becomes excited and passes the “excitation energy”
between antenna pigments molecules until it reaches the
reaction centre (chlorophyll a) and is transferred to the
primary electron acceptor.
4) What causes an emission of light (fluorescence) by a solution
of chlorophyll extract? Because there is no PEA to accept the
electron, the drop in energy as the electrons return to the
ground state is released as light (fluorescence).
5) Why do leaves that possess chlorophyll not fluoresce when exposed to light?
Because the energy (from the photon) is passed on to the PEA and ultimately used (to make ATP)
6) Identify the redox reaction between chlorophyll and the primary electron acceptor.
Chlorophyll is oxidized (loses an electron) while the PEA is reduced (gains an electron).

PHOTOSYSTEMS
7) What is a photosystem?
Groups of molecules (accessory/antenna pigments plus chlorophylls including the reaction centre)
responsible for the light reactions.
8) Explain the role of the antenna complex.
Antenna pigments absorbs a photon and transfers the
energy from pigment to pigment until it reaches chlorophyll a in the reaction centre.

9) What is the pigment molecule found at the reaction centre? Chlorophyll a

10) Photosystems are light-harvesting units found in the chloroplast thylakoid membranes. Describe the
differences between photosystem I and photosystem II.

Comparison Point Photosystem I Photosystem II

Components Only contains chlorophyll a Contains chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids,
xanthophylls and anthocyanins
Ideal light Most excited by light at 700 nm; called Most excited by light at 680 nm; called
P700 P680

Note: PSI was discovered first (before PSII) hence why it’s given the ‘I” designation.
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ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAINS AND CHEMIOSMOSIS

Once electrons have been excited at the Photosystem, there are two possible pathways to take…

Non-Cyclic Electron Pathway

Electrons from P680/PSII are moved along an ETC, via Pq, the cytochrome b6f complex (which pumps
H+ from the stroma into the lumen) and Pc to P700/PSI (producing ATP along the way) and eventually
(via ferredoxin/Fd) used by NADP+ reductase forming NADPH + H+. Water/H2O is also split releasing
oxygen/O2 (photolysis).

Cyclic Electron Pathway

Electrons from P700/PSI are recycled (move between Fd, the cytochrome b6f complex, Pc and back to
PSI) and their energy is used to form ATP molecules (but NOT NADPH) via chemiosmosis.
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NON-CYCLIC ELECTRON FLOW AND CHEMIOSMOSIS

11) Plants use photosystems I and II to produce: NADPH and ATP

This process is called non-cyclic electron flow.

Let us see how the complex process of photosynthesis begins…

Photosynthesis begins when a photon strikes PHOTOSYSTEM II/P680 and excites an electron of chlorophyll a.
The excited electron is captured by the primary electron acceptor (PEA) through a series of redox reactions.
The Oxygen-evolving complex (OEC), associated with photosystem II, splits WATER/H2O into oxygen, hydrogen
ions (protons), and electrons. One of these electrons is used to replace the missing electron in PHOTOSYSTEM
II, P680. Oxygen DIFFUSES OUT OF the cell and the protons remain in the THYLAKOID space.

The Path of the Electrons

The electron passes through a set of enzyme complexes (you are not required to know the individual names of
the components).

The components transport HYDROGEN IONS/H+ from the stroma into the thylakoid lumen, thus creating an
ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT for chemiosmosis (similar to the process in cellular respiration!).

Then the electron passes through other components of an electron transport chain similar to that in cellular
respiration, eventually replacing an electron that is lost by PHOTOSYSTEM I/P700 when it is struck by a
PHOTON.

11) Where does the electron that is used in the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH come from?
Photosystem I/P700

12) How is ATP produced in this process?

The energy from the transfer of electrons between PSII and PSI is used to pump H+ ions from the stroma
into the thylakoid space generating an electrochemical gradient that eventually fuels the production of
ATP when H+ ions return to the stroma through ATP synthase.

13) Why is this process called non-cyclic?

Because electrons originating in the photosystems ultimately reduce components, other than those they
originated from. Electrons from PSII reduce PSI. Electrons from PSI reduce NADP+ (forming NADPH).

Cyclic Electron Flow

In some cases, excited electrons take a cyclic pathway called cyclic electron flow that uses photosystem I only. In
this pathway, a photon ejects an electron from chlorophyll P700 of photosystem I. The electron is passed to
different complexes but eventually returns back to chlorophyll P700. This cyclic pathway generates a proton
gradient for chemiosmotic ATP synthesis, BUT does not release electrons to generate NADPH. Without NADPH, the
reactions of carbon fixation (the next stage) cannot occur because electrons in the hydrogen atoms of NADPH are
needed to reduce carbon dioxide.

15) In one sentence, describe the ultimate goal of the light-dependent reactions:
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To produce both ATP and NADPH to be used in the next part of photosynthesis (i.e. the Light-Independent
Reactions/the Calvin cycle). Bonus: Oxygen gets produced/released :)

Non-Cyclic Electron Flow

Cyclic Electron Flow

PSII = P680; Pq = Plastoquinone; Pc = Plastocyanin; PSI = P700; Fd = Ferredoxin

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Light-Independent Reactions: THE CALVIN CYCLE

General Info:
Occurs in 80% of plants. Also called C3 Photosynthesis. A series of synthesis reactions that occur in the stroma.
A cycle (named for Melvin Calvin) similar to Krebs.

Overview: 6 CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH → 2 G3P (used to make 1 Glucose)

Carbon dioxide – diffuses into the leaf via stomata; ATP & NADPH – come from the light-dependent rxns

No light required (hence light-independent or “dark”) but typically occurs during the day

To produce one molecule of glucose: it takes 6 ‘turns’ of the cycle and uses 6CO2, 18 ATP and 12 NADPH

Note: The diagram in your notes (and the one used in the Slides and most texts) show 3 combined/consecutive
turns of the cycle (fixing 3 CO2, using 9 ATP and 6 NADPH and making 1 G3P). One ‘turn’/cycle therefore fixes
only 1 CO2 and uses 3 ATP and 2 NADPH #Math

Key Terms:
RuBP - ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate 3-PGA - 3-phosphoglycerate G3P - glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

Three Stages of the Calvin Cycle:

Stage Description

1. Carbon Fixation ● 3 CO2 are added to 3 RuBP (5C) to form 3 unstable 6-carbon
intermediates.
● The intermediates split into six 3-carbon molecules called PGA.
● These reactions are catalyzed by rubisco (ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase)

2. Carbon Reduction ● 6 PGAs are phosphorylated by 6 ATPs to form 6 molecules of

1,3-BPG (bisphosphoglycerate).
● 6 NADPH molecules reduce the six 1,3-BPG to 6 G3P (or PGAL).
● One molecule of G3P exits the cycle as a final product.

3. Regeneration of ● 3 ATP are used to rearrange the remaining 5 G3P into 3

RuBP molecules of RuBP (5 carbons).
● The cycle continues with the RuBP fixing more CO2.
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Light-Independent Reactions: THE CALVIN CYCLE

NOTE: This diagram, and many like it, show 3 combined “turns” of the cycle in which 3 CO2
creates 1 usable G3P (and which requires 9 ATP and 6 NADPH).

It, therefore, requires two/2 combined “turns” (6 CO2, 18 ATP and 12 NADPH) to create one
molecule of glucose (C6H12O6).

*Technically though, one cycle only fixes one molecule of CO2 and six/6 complete cycles are
required to generate the 2 G3P required to make 1 glucose.
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The Calvin Cycle Worksheet
Use the diagram above, info from the slides and supplemental resources to answer the following questions:

1. What products of the light reactions are used for the Calvin Cycle? ATP and NADPH

2. Where do the reactions that convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrate molecules occur in the
chloroplasts? In the Stroma

3. Why is the Calvin Cycle in photosynthesis similar to the Krebs Cycle in cellular respiration? It is a cyclical
process in which the original reactants (RuBP and oxaloacetate) are regenerated and reused.

4. Describe the first reaction of the Calvin Cycle. Carbon fixation: CO2 combines (is “fixed”) with RuBP and
produces an unstable 6C intermediate which is immediately converted into a 3C molecule called PGA.

5. What enzyme is responsible for catalyzing the first reaction? Rubisco

6. What compound is the reducing agent (i.e. oxidizes another substance) in the next few steps of the
Calvin Cycle? NADPH

7. During the reduction reactions, what final product exits from the Calvin Cycle? G3P (or PGAL)

8. What happens to the remaining G3P molecules within the Calvin Cycle? They are used to regenerate
RuBP

9. How many turns of the Calvin Cycle are

required to produce 1 molecule of glucose?
Technically Six (1 CO2, 3 ATP and 2 NADPH
per turn)...
However, many diagrams show three turns
at once meaning that only TWO such turns
are required (each fixing 3 CO2, using 9 ATP
and 6 NADPH and creating 1 G3P)

10. What are the three possible fates of G3P

produced by the Calvin Cycle? Made into
glucose (for respiration), sucrose (for
transport) and starches (amylose and
amylopectin; for storage)

11. How many molecules of carbon dioxide,

NADPH and ATP are required to make one
molecule of glucose? 6 CO2, 18 ATP, 12
NADPH
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Comparing Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis
Fill in the following chart to show your understanding of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis and
compare this with the oxidative phosphorylation reactions of cellular respiration.

Cellular Respiration: Photosynthesis:

Oxidative Phosphorylation Light-dependent Reactions
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Organelle (Glycolysis in the cytoplasm)

Pyruvate oxidation & Krebs: Matrix

Light Rxns: Thylakoid membrane
Location in Organelle ETC: Inner mitochondrial
Calvin Cycle: Stroma
membrane

General: C6H12O6 & O2 General: CO2 & H2O (+ Light*)

Reactant(s)/Input (s)
Specific: NADH, FADH2, ADP + Pi, O2 Specific: H2O, NADP+, ADP + Pi

Source of energy Glucose (sugars) Light (photons)

Specific: ~36 ATP, H2O, (NAD+, FAD) Specific: ATP, NADPH, O2

End products
General: ATP, H2O, CO2 General: G3P/Glucose, O2

Energy Profile
Ender- or exergonic?
Ana- or catabolic?
Uphill or downhill?
Exergonic, Catabolic, “downhill” Endergonic, anabolic, “uphill”
Electron Source (for H2O (Chlorophyll a molecules in
NADH & FADH2
ETC) photosystems)

Electron Carriers NAD+ & FAD NADP+

Final Electron Acceptor NADPH (Light Rxns) → G3P (Calvin

O2 (to form H2O)
(electron sink) Cycle)

Location of H+ reservoir Intermembrane space (IMS) Thylakoid space (lumen)

Location of ATP
Mitochondrial matrix Stroma
synthesis
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