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40 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
August 2014 Brakes for buildings

Brakes for buildings: the new

frontier of friction dampers
friction between two surfaces. Friction dampers commonly comprise
W. Wild MEng (Hons) Arup Leeds two steel plates sandwiching a brass sliding-plate, with multiple bolts
providing a clamping force between these plates (Figure 2). This
configuration is commonly known as a slotted bolt connection (SBC).
Synopsis Friction dampers only dissipate energy when a sufficient lateral force
By providing an overview of the development of modern exceeds the friction between the plates, causing them to slip past
friction dampers, this article aims to raise awareness one another. This load is known as the 'slip-force'. These friction
dampers are considered as a passive control technique because the
and explore the state-of-the-art in the field of seismic
slip-force is defined prior to an earthquake and remains constant
structural control. This includes a look at how friction throughout.
brakes can be regulated during an earthquake to best
control structural responses. Only now is the technology Determining an optimum slip-force
becoming available to do this at high speed and low cost. Since the development of passive friction dampers, researchers
After examining the passive use of friction dampers, the have questioned whether an optimum 'slip-force' exists2. If the
ability to incorporate semi-active control is explored, with slip-force is too high it may not be reached in small or moderate
a particular focus on the control algorithms used within earthquakes and hence no energy will be dissipated through
the dampers3 (Figure 3). Even in strong earthquakes, the energy
the dampers. Here, the need for further comparison
dissipation would be low if the slip-force is not reached in most
between proposed algorithms is highlighted. The article loading cycles. Furthermore, the increased stiffness of a relatively
also pays attention to the practical considerations high slip-force will reduce inter-storey drift4. However, care must
involved in the use of semi-active friction dampers in be taken to ensure the damper slips before the brace elements
practice, before concluding that seismic engineers buckle (potentially leading to a rapid brittle failure). As the slip-force
should expect to see the use of semi-actively controlled is lowered, the frame approximates an unbraced structure (Fig. 3)
devices coming into play within the next twenty years. with excessive displacements in strong earthquakes3, but the added
flexibility of a lower slip-force reduces the structure’s acceleration
response4. Hence, the optimal slip-force level would balance
deformations, accelerations, energy dissipation and forces within the
Introduction structure. This is not a simple task, particularly when the structure is
Since the 1980s, damage caused by earthquakes (and the resulting subject to a variety of seismic inputs, with different characteristics.
hazards) has driven engineers worldwide to expand their design The effective determination of an optimum slip-force requires many
objectives beyond reducing loss of life, to encompass minimising simulations and prior knowledge of the earthquake properties.
structural damage. In particular, the damage caused by the As this is not achievable in reality, the optimum control of passive
Northridge 1994 and Kobe 1995 earthquakes were key drivers for friction dampers is not currently possible.
this change. Notable findings from these earthquakes highlighted
the importance that municipal buildings play in post disaster Semi-active friction dampers
support. The ability for commercial structures to return to near The difficulties associated with determining an optimum slip-force
normal operation has significant economic implications (c.30% has led researchers to question whether the slip-force could
of California’s manufacturing base was within 40 miles of the be adjusted during an earthquake to best control the structural
Northridge epicentre1). One such approach to minimising structural response — therefore eliminating the need for a fixed optimum
damage involves increasing the energy dissipated within a structure slip-force. In other words, by adjusting the tightness of the bolts,
during an earthquake. Historically, this has been achieved through the clamping force (and hence the slip-force) may be regulated
the inelastic yielding of elements within the structure. More recently throughout the duration of the earthquake. The concept of
however, special devices have been developed for this purpose; varying the slip-force is not a new one — researchers have been
friction dampers are one such device. investigating the field since the late 1990s.

What are friction dampers? This type of structural control is known as 'semi-active'. Semi-
Often situated between the brace and beam elements in centrally active control systems are often likened to controllable passive
braced frames (Figure 1), friction dampers operate under the same systems, offering the adaptability of active control without the
premise as conventional car brakes; dissipating energy through the need for a large power supply or continuous control action. Active

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41

Slotted bolt connection (SBC)

provide effective control in nonlinear structures and have been
simplified to meet the high operating speed demands3. Little work
Bracing has been done to compare the performance of multiple control
algorithms against benchmark criteria, but this will be required
before a suitable control algorithm can be used in practice.

Practical implementation
Several passive friction dampers have been successfully
implemented in Japan, India, USA and Greece. However, at the time
of writing, no semi-actively controlled friction damper has been
installed in practice. One of the barriers limiting the use of semi-
active friction dampers is the development of an effective actuator
to clamp the friction plates. As described previously, the clamping
force in passive friction dampers is applied through prestressed
bolts. Semi-active actuators that attempt to continually adjust the
tightness of the bolts incur large time delays in achieving the desired
force, making them unsuitable in seismic control. Researchers are
looking into the potential of using faster hydraulic and piezoelectric
friction dampers to eliminate these delays5. Peizoelectric dampers
develop the clamping force through the application of a voltage
through the piezoelectric material. This causes the material to
expand, applying a clamping force to the friction plates proportional
to the voltage6.

Until relatively recently, it was not possible to find a computer

 Figure 1
Cross-section of four storey structure with friction dampers capable of running the control algorithm in situ on the damper.
With the release of the credit card sized Raspberry Pi controller in
2012 this has now been made possible. The device not only has the
control devices directly introduce new forces into the structure and processing power required but is small enough to fit onto the friction
therefore require a significant energy supply. On the other hand, damper at a relatively low cost7.
semi-active control devices adjust the characteristics of the damper
at appropriate times (in the case of friction dampers, the slip-force The majority of the algorithms used to control the slip-force require
is the regulated characteristic) and therefore a substantially smaller inter-storey drift and inter-storey velocity inputs in their operation.
energy supply will suffice. Semi-active systems instil an element Monitoring the inter-storey velocity of structures can be achieved
of redundancy not available in active systems. If the energy supply relatively easily through the placement of seismometers on each
for the damper was severed during an earthquake, the device will
continue to act passively, with a fixed slip-force.

Control algorithms
The ability to control the slip-force at specific moments in time,
requires a predetermined control algorithm to feedback appropriate
adjustments to the friction damper based on measured structural
responses. The effectiveness of the control system is heavily
dependent on the algorithm employed. This is where research efforts
in the field have been primarily focused over the last two decades
— with many different control algorithms having been proposed.
Some algorithms are completely decentralised, considering only
local measurements (typically, inter-storey drift and velocity) in their
feedback. On the other hand, distributed algorithms are such that
the global response of the structure is used for feeding back to the
devices.

In general, the algorithms proposed are relatively simple; if the

algorithm were too complex (taking multiple seconds to operate),
the feedback would be unsuitable. This is because in seismic control
the system changes rapidly with each passing second and a delayed
feedback will lead to undesirable control, potentially doing more
harm to the structural response. Due to the magnitude of seismic
forces, structures often exhibit nonlinear deformations. As such,
algorithms must not assume structures will remain linear. This is a
problem with several algorithms that consider the structure’s rest
position to remain constant throughout. Alternatively, algorithms
which focus on maximising the energy dissipated within the damper,  Figure 2
Schematic of friction damper

TSE32_40-42 Brakes Building v2.indd 41 24/07/2014 11:45

 ›
42 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
August 2014 Brakes for buildings

floor. However, monitoring the inter-

storey drift within structures has been References
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methods have been suggested over the
N Figure 3
Variation of slip-
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therefore unattainable. Research then E6 Unsal M., Niezrecki C. and Crane C., III (2004) ‘Two semi-active
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the barriers to practical installation are Conference on Earthquake Engineering (15WCEE), Lisbon,
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structural responses in the coming
decades.

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