Inheritance

Inheritance : is the transmission of genetic information from

generation to generation.
Genetic information is stored in the form of chromosomes
within the cell nucleus.
Chromosome : is a thread like structure of DNA

DNA :carries the genetic information in the form of genes

A gene : is a length of DNA which codes for a specific protein.
An allele : is a alternative form of a gene.
e.x. a gene of eye color.
Has 2 alternative forms of allele
One allele codes for brown eyes, and another codes for blue eyes.
 DNA structure and function
Structure
1. Two strands coiled together to form
a double helix
2. Each strand is made up of a chain of
nucleotides.
3. Each nucleotide contain a base
( A, T , G , C )
4. HYDROGEN BONDS are formed
between the bases to hold the strands
together
A always pairs with T (2 BONDS )
C always pairs with G (3 BONDS)

function
control cell function by controlling the
production of proteins INCLUDING
enzymes, antibodies, cell receptors, etc.
 DNA and protein synthesis
Cells get the information needed to synthesize proteins
from DNA .
The sequence of bases In gene determines the sequence of amino
acids needed to make
a specific protein synthesis .
Protein synthesis require two steps
1.transcription inside the nucleus
A molecule called mRNA copy the DNA base sequences of a specific
protein .
1.Translation inside the ribosome
-mRNA molecule leaves the nucleus
to cytoplasm to the ribosomes specifically
And the translation begins
Ribosomes read the base sequences
and assemble various amino acids in
a specific order
based on the base sequences .
– This is called translation
So the different sequences of amino acids give different shapes to
protein molecules.
 Monohybrid inheritance
Genotype :
The genetic make up of an organism .
Phenotype :
Observable features of an organism.
Alleles: BB bb
Variations of a specific gene
Homozygous :(RR OR rr)
Two identical alleles of a particular gene
Heterozygous (Rr) :
Two different alleles of a particular gene
Dominant allele :.(capital letter R )
Allele that is always expressed if present
whether that the organism
is homozygous or heterozygous Bb
Recessive allele:(small litter r )
Allele that is only expressed if the dominant allele is not present.
 Monohybrid crosses
Each individual receives two alleles for each characteristic
One from the father and one from the mother.
If the two are identical ( BB or bb )the individual is called homozygous.
- If the two are different ( Bb) the individual is called heterozygous

For example :
Eye color
Blue eye allele (b) is recessive
Brown eye allele is dominant (B)

A brown eyed individual can therefore have two possible genotypes: BB or

Bb
A blue eyed individual can only have one possible genotype: bb
1.brown eyed person BB X blue eyed person bb
2.brown eyed person Bb X blue eyed person bb
3.brown eyed person Bb X browned eyed person Bb
what are the possible genotypes of their child?

1 B B 2
. The ratio of
.
b Bb Bb blue:brown
eye is 1:1
b Bb Bb
B b
3
.
B BB Bb
The ratio of
b Bb bb blue:brown eye is
1:3
Homozygous cross between :
Red flower and yellow flower
Red is dominant ,so the
Allels are red =R yellow =r
the possible offspring?
All red flowers
The second generation F2
R R
R r
r Rr Rr
R RR Rr
Rr Rr
r
r Rr rr
 TEST CROSSES
If we have a RED FLOWER
How would we know if the flower is
homozygous(RR) or heterozygous(Rr) ?
By test cross
Cross with a homozygous recessive white flower
R R R r

r Rr Rr r
Rr Rr

r
Rr Rr r
rr rr
100% red flowers 50% red flowers
In F2 50% white
In F2
Pedigree diagram
a way of showing the inheritance of a particular feature or gene
within a family offspring.
allowing us to analyze how a specific characteristic is passed down
from parents to offspring.

Key Elements of a Pedigree Diagram:

Squares: Represent males
Circles: Represent females.
Red: Indicates affected individuals
Blue: Represents unaffected individuals.
Parents are connected in between with a horizontal line
And with offspring by a vertical line.
 Co-dominance
Co-dominance
is when a pair of alleles are neither dominant to another.
Both alleles have equally dominant impact the phenotype.
And both are represented by capital letter.
Example
Blood groups are controlled by 3 alleles
I A , IB and IO A o
IA and IB are co-dominant
IA and IB are dominant over IO B AB Bo
Give 4 phenotypes A,B,AB,O
o Bo oo
Blood groups genotypes
A ( IA I A )or ( IA I O )
B (IB I B )or ( IB I O )
AB (IA I B )
O (IO I O )only
 Sex-linked characteristics
Normal human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
=46 chromosomes
Chromosomes in male Chromosomes in female
44 +XY 44+XX
 Sex-linked
Sex linked characteristics
characteristics
are characteristics in which the gene responsible is located on the sex
chromosome.

Example

1.Red -green -color blindness

The colour deficient gene is an abnormal gene

found in the X chromosome (Xc).

The normal colour vision allele dominates the abnormal allele

Male (XY) = Normal colour vision

Male (XcY) = Colour deficient BECAUSE this abnormal gene will always be
expressed.
Female (XX) = Normal colour vision
Female (XcX) = Normal colour vision i.e. carrier
Female (XcXc) = Colour deficient
 2.Haemophilia
is a blood disorder when blood fail to clot normally.
It results from a recessive allele located on the X chromosome.
The normal allele dominates the hemophilia allele.
(H) (h)
A male
(with XY chromosomes) with these gene will have hemophilia.
because males only have one X chromosome, so this abnormal gene will always be
expressed.
XH Y normal
Xh Y Haemophilic

Females,
The normal allele dominates the abnormal allele, so as long as the female has one
normal X chromosome then they will normal .
A female with one recessive allele (carrier) has a 50% chance of passing it on to her
offspring.
If the offspring is male, he will have the disease.
XH XH Normal XH Xh carrier Xh Xh haemophilic
Gene mutation
Means random changes In the base sequence of DNA.
Causes :
faulty DNA replication,
exposure to radiation,
or chemical agents.
Example:
sickle cell anemia in humans.
caused by an abnormal hemoglobin molecule
which changes the shape of red blood cells (RBCs).
Into sickled cells tend to get stuck in narrow blood vessels, blocking blood flow.
Leading to multiple organ damage.

There are two versions (alleles) of the gene important for sickle cell anemia:
A allele (HbA): Normal hemoglobin, leading to normal RBCs.
S allele (HbS): Causes sickle cell anemia.
.
 Chromosomal mutation
Change in the chromosome number or structure.
Examples :
Down’s Syndrome: Individuals with Down’s Syndrome have an extra copy of
chromosome 21, resulting in three copies instead of the usual two.
47 chromosomes instead of 46

sources of genetic variations

Mutations , meiosis , random mating and random fertilization
1.Mutations :New alleles can form through random changes to DNA.
2.Meiosis: Each gamete (sperm or egg) carries a different set of alleles, contributing
to genetic variation when they fuse during fertilization .
3.Random Mating:
This mixing of genes from TWO different individuals leads to SPECIFIC genetic
combinations
4.Random fertilization:
Random sperm OF millions with certain characteristics fuse with one ova.

mutations contribute to genetic diversity and evolution. While some mutations can
be harmful, others may provide advantages in specific environments.
 Variation and selection
Variation is differences between individuals within the same species.

continuous variation .
Def. .
gradual difference (small numerous degrees) in SPECIFIC characteristic with
intermediate values between two extremes.
can be measured on a scale.

Examples
height, mass, and finger length.

Graph
on a graph, continuous variation (the bars touch each other )
results in smooth bell curves.
Causes
Genes and the environment
Discontinuous variation
Def.
occurs when there are distinct and separate categories for a
particular characteristic.
Individuals fall into specific groups without intermediates.
Examples
Blood Groups: People are either blood group A, B, AB, or O.
Gender: Individuals are either male or female.
Tongue Rolling: Some people can roll their tongue, while others
cannot.
Graph
a step-like graph.
Causes
genetic factors alone.
Natural selection Selection
Def.
selection of the best adaptive individuals to survive and reproduce In any
environment.
Describe natural selection :

1. individuals show a range of variation due to differences in their genes in

the same species.

2. Organisms reproduce and produce many offspring more than the

environment can support.
This leads to competition for resources .
And A struggle for survival .

3. individuals with the best characteristics and can adapt the

environmental changes have a higher chance of survival.

4. When well adapted organisms reproduce Their alleles are passed to

the next generation
This is known as “survival of the fittest.”
 Evolution
Resulting when Natural selection ensures that only
the most favourable genes get passed to the next
generation.
Over time, populations therefore become more
suited to their environment (adapted).
 Adaptive features
Adaptive features are inherited functional features
of an organism that increases its fitness.
Fitness is the probability of an organism surviving
and reproducing in its environment.
Adaptation :process by which offspring become
more fitted to their environment over many
generations RESULT from natural selection.
 Antibiotic resistance
the impact of using antibiotics,
most bacteria of a certain strain will die.

However, there may be some bacteria that have a

genetic mutation gives them resistance to the
antibiotics .
These resistant bacteria survive and reproduce rapidly.
producing many bacteria that also have the resistant
gene.
the antibiotic will become ineffective for this bacteria.
Example
MRSA
 Artificial selection
Artificial selection, also known as selective breeding
Artificial selection:
is the intentional reproduction of animals and plants
by humans that have desirable features.
Crossing these to produce the next generation ,
the organisms can pass down the desirable features to their
offspring to produce more organisms with the characteristics
that we want.

Natural selection is natural because the environment provides

selective pressure for organisms that live within the
environment.
Artificial selection is artificial because it is not the
environment which provides the pressure, it is human
manipulation instead.
 Selective breeding
Selection by humans of individuals with desirable features.
Crossing these individuals to produce next generation
Selection of offspring showing the desirable characteristics
Repetion Over many generations this can improve the quality of crop plants
and domesticated animals.

Examples:
The role of artificial selection in the production of economically important plants
and animals.
Livestock:
Farmers intentionally mate animals with desirable features.
e.g., high meat yield, disease resistance , high milk production.
to produce offspring with those same traits.
Crops:
Artificial selection is used to produce improved generation or even created.
e.g., seedless watermelons,
sweeter strawberries,
and disease-resistant tomatoes .