CRITICALLY EXAMINE THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF THE LATE IRON

AGE ON ZIMBABWEAN SOCIETIES.

An important political consequence of the Late Iron Age was the emergence of more
permanent and settled communities. Agriculture in particular required that people
remain in one place at least long enough to cultivate and wait for the crops to
mature so that they could be harvested. In any case the harvests would have to be
stored thus reducing the mobility of the communities. Other economic activities like
trade, manufacturing also created a situation where the Iron Age societies
accumulated much greater stores of property and wealth which would have been
difficult to consistently move around. That alone was a huge incentive for a more
permanent and settled way of life. Thus the axes and hoes which were products of
the Iron Age were brought into action cutting down trees and clearing the ground to
facilitate the construction of permanent dwellings. The round, thatched huts made
out of tree poles and hard clay (daga) made their appearance replacing the cave
dwellings that were popular with the nomadic Stone Age communities
The use of iron not only promoted economic and social stability but it also facilitated
the emergence of large states like Great Zimbabwe which became an important
commercial and political centre. In addition to being in the heart of an extensive
commercial and trading network, the site was the center of a powerful political
kingdom, which was under a central ruler for about 350 years (1100–1450 AD). The
site is estimated to have contained perhaps 18,000 inhabitants, making it one of the
largest cities of its day. Great Zimbabwe covered over 1779 acres. The stone wall
enclosures of the state are still standing to this day and hut remains have been dug
up by archaeologists. The two main geographical areas of stone wall enclosures are
the Hill Complex on the long, steep-sided granite hill that rises 262 feet above the
surrounding ground and the land below this hill where the Valley Enclosures and the
Great Enclosure are situated. The stone walls, up to 19.7 feet thick and 36 feet high,
are built of granite blocks without the use of mortar.
The Late Iron Age also facilitated the rise of autocratic and personality-driven forms
of political organisation. It has already been noted elsewhere that the use of iron led
to greater accumulation of wealth by some individuals enabling them to acquire
influence and political authority that enabled them to dominate the less wealthy.
Those fortunate enough to control iron production, trade and the land were able to
bring others under their authority in the states they created. They made them their
servants and made them fight their wars in exchange for economic rewards that
included the use of the land for agriculture. The less wealthy were also made to herd
livestock in return for limited rights to milk and meat. Economic control enabled
some to achieve great personal power as emperors, kings or chiefs. The
Munhumutapa and Changamire who exercised autocratic power as emperors in the
Mutapa and Rozvi empires of the Late Iron Age are good examples. So great was the
power and the personality of the Munhumutapa that his vassal rulers had to light a
fire from the one that burned at his headquarters. It had to be kept burning as long
as he was alive and ruled as a show of respect and submissiveness.
Another significant but negative political effect of the Late Iron Age was the rise in
the incidence of wars within and among the communities and states. The use of iron
was in itself a catalyst for the outbreak of even deadlier wars as the metal was used
to manufacture weapons that were more effective in combat. During this period
wars were fought with the newly made iron spears and arrows. Communities and
states therefore engaged each other in battles with all the confidence that their
stronger and more effective weapons would enable them to kill their adversaries in
greater numbers than was possible with pre-Iron Age weapons. Wars also resulted
from the succession disputes and the struggle for political power that were a natural
consequence of the formation of larger states that was a feature of the Late Iron
Age. Shona oral traditions abound with stories of the wars that accompanied the
rise, expansion and decline of large states such as Great Zimbabwe, Mutapa and the
Rozvi empires. The issue is simple enough: the use of iron stimulated more
permanent and larger settled communities. These in turn led to the creation of laws
to regulate the relationships among people in them. This gave rise to greater political
authority which was entrusted to the wealthier, influential and respected members
of society. The need to have and control political power generated disputes that
sometimes turned violent and these were made even deadlier by the new weapons
that were now being made of iron.
One of the major economic effects of the use of iron was in facilitating the growth of
agriculture in place of the reliance on hunting and gathering. Iron mining and
smelting was followed by the manufacture of iron tools such as hoes and axes. These
were far stronger than any of the tools that had been made during the Stone Age
and they enabled people to clear forests and cultivate the land much more easily.
Archaeologists have dug up carbonized seeds that clearly indicate the growing of
grains such as sorghum, millet, various beans and cowpeas. Agriculture ensured
much greater food security than could be achieved through a reliance on the
environment to provide wild vegetables and fruits.
The use of iron facilitated the hunting of big game such as elephants, kudu and
buffalo among others. Iron-smiths manufactured much more powerful iron tools like
axes spear and arrow points, knives that enabled them to kill the larger animals they
had been previously unable to hunt with the less powerful therefore less effective
stone tools. The big game augmented meat supplies and also provided hides. Of
these the elephants were probably the most important because their tusks
stimulated the growth of ivory trade. In later Iron Age states like Great Zimbabwe,
Mutapa, Rozvi and the Torwa the ivory trade was an important source of wealth so
much that men often risked the danger to hunt down elephants to trade with the
Swahili-Arab merchants and later the Portuguese who came into central and
southern Africa via the East African coast.
Apart from the pastoralism and agriculture discussed above, the use of iron helped
to broaden the range of economic occupations through stimulating the growth of
manufacturing and trade. The need for iron was in itself an incentive for the growth
of mining which in turn stimulated the smelting and manufacturing industries. Iron
tools would have been traded for agricultural and other products by the smelters
and iron smiths who had become specialists in their field. Iron tools would have also
facilitated the digging up of gold which was in large demand on the East African
coast and in Asia. The local communities traded their gold with the Swahili-Arab
merchants who brought them luxuries that included Chinese and Persian porcelain,
cloth, glass and beads. The discovery of many pre-colonial gold mines is evidence of
huge amount of gold extracted from the region for trade. ‘Conservative’ estimates
suggest that 7 to 9 million ounces of gold were extracted before 1890 and most of
this probably dates to the time of Great Zimbabwe. At current prices the gold trade
would have been worth amounts in the region of 2.6 to 3.4 billion American dollars.
There were also parallel trades in ivory, textiles and other goods.
The use of iron also stimulated the rise of trade in manufactured wares. Firstly the
need for iron tools acted as a catalyst for the emergence of a new class of
entrepreneurs specializing in the manufacture of iron tools. They would trade their
manufactured wares for other goods they did not produce themselves and these
would have included food crops and livestock. Iron tools were also used in the
payment of tribute to the rulers and also as bride-price in the acquisition of wives.
Iron tools such as spears and arrows could also be used in fighting wars and they
inevitably made the conflicts even deadlier than they had been before.
The discovery and use of iron was also an important catalyst in the growth and
further development of copper and gold mining. This was achieved through the use
of the much stronger and more reliable iron tools. Iron tools like hoes and picks
could be used to dig up the earth that could be very hard in some places. It is
perfectly clear that none of the stone tools would have accomplished these arduous
tasks because they were not as durable. The production of gold and copper became
in turn a catalyst for the thriving trade where Zimbabwean communities exchanged
these items for ceramics, glass and brass imports.
Another important economic consequence was the generation of increased wealth
from greater agricultural yields and trade in iron tools. It has already been discussed
that the use of iron tools enabled larger tracts of land to be cleared and cultivated.
That in turn would have enabled greater yields to be achieved creating surpluses
that could then be traded within and with other societies. Through this trade in
agricultural and other products including the iron tools themselves, the societies
were able to build up greater reserves of wealth for themselves. This increased
wealth was also reflected in the greater importation of luxury items by states like
Great Zimbabwe. The items included glass beads, glass vessels, Persian and Chinese
ceramics, coins from Kilwa, copper ingots and cowrie shells from the coast.
It can thus be concluded that the Late Iron Age had significant and far-reaching
political and economic effects on the Zimbabwean societies. These included the
accumulation of greater wealth, diversification of economic activities, the rise of
larger and more permanently settled societies as well as the evolution of more
complex political systems.

IN WHAT WAYS DID THE USE OF IRON TRANSFORM THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
BASES OF EARLY SOCIETIES IN PRE-COLONIAL ZIMBABWE?

One of the major economic effects of the use of iron was in facilitating the growth of
agriculture in place of the reliance on hunting and gathering. Iron mining and
smelting was followed by the manufacture of iron tools such as hoes and axes. These
were far stronger than any of the tools that had been made during the Stone Age
and they enabled people to clear forests and cultivate the land much more easily.
Archaeologists have dug up carbonized seeds that clearly indicate the growing of
grains such as sorghum, millet, various beans and cowpeas. Agriculture ensured
much greater food security than could be achieved through a reliance on the
environment to provide wild vegetables and fruits.

The use of iron facilitated the hunting of big game such as elephants, kudu and
buffalo among others. Iron-smiths manufactured much more powerful iron tools like
axes, spear and arrow points and knives that enabled them to kill the larger animals
they had been previously unable to hunt with the less powerful therefore less
effective stone tools. The big game augmented meat supplies and also provided
hides. Of these the elephants were probably the most important because their tusks
stimulated the growth of ivory trade. In later Iron Age states like Great Zimbabwe,
Mutapa, Rozvi and the Torwa the ivory trade was an important source of wealth so
much that men often risked the danger to hunt down elephants to trade with the
Swahili-Arab merchants and later the Portuguese who came into central and
southern Africa via the East African coast.

Apart from the pastoralism and agriculture discussed above, the use of iron helped
to broaden the range of economic occupations through stimulating the growth of
manufacturing and trade. The need for iron was in itself an incentive for the growth
of mining which in turn stimulated the smelting and manufacturing industries. Iron
tools would have been traded for agricultural and other products by the smelters
and iron smiths who had become specialists in their field. Iron tools would have also
facilitated the digging up of gold which was in large demand on the East African
coast and in Asia. The local communities traded their gold with the Swahili-Arab
merchants who brought them luxuries that included Chinese and Persian porcelain,
cloth, glass and beads. The discovery of many pre-colonial gold mines is evidence of
huge amount of gold extracted from the region for trade. ‘Conservative’ estimates
suggest that 7 to 9 million ounces of gold were extracted before 1890 and most of
this probably dates to the time of Great Zimbabwe. At current prices the gold trade
would have been worth amounts in the region of 2.6 to 3.4 billion American dollars.
There were also parallel trades in ivory, textiles and other goods.

The use of iron also stimulated the rise of trade in manufactured wares. Firstly the
need for iron tools acted as a catalyst for the emergence of a new class of
entrepreneurs specializing in the manufacture of iron tools. They would trade their
manufactured wares for other goods they did not produce themselves and these
would have included food crops and livestock. Iron tools were also used in the
payment of tribute to the rulers and also as bride-price in the acquisition of wives.
Iron tools such as spears and arrows could also be used in fighting wars and they
inevitably made the conflicts even deadlier than they had been before.

The discovery and use of iron was also an important catalyst in the growth and
further development of copper and gold mining. This was achieved through the use
of the much stronger and more reliable iron tools. Iron tools like hoes and picks
could be used to dig up the earth that could be very hard in some places. It is
perfectly clear that none of the stone tools would have accomplished these arduous
tasks because they were not as durable. The production of gold and copper became
in turn a catalyst for the thriving trade where Zimbabwean communities exchanged
these items for ceramics, glass and brass imports.

Another important economic consequence was the generation of increased wealth

from greater agricultural yields and trade in iron tools. It has already been discussed
that the use of iron tools enabled larger tracts of land to be cleared and cultivated.
That in turn would have enabled greater yields to be achieved creating surpluses
that could then be traded within and with other societies. Through this trade in
agricultural and other products including the iron tools themselves, the societies
were able to build up greater reserves of wealth for themselves. This increased
wealth was also reflected in the greater importation of luxury items by states like
Great Zimbabwe. The items included glass beads, glass vessels, Persian and Chinese
ceramics, coins from Kilwa, copper ingots and cowrie shells from the coast
One important social consequence of the economic developments discussed above
was the emergence of more permanent and settled communities. Agriculture in
particular required that people remain in one place at least long enough to cultivate
and wait for the crops to mature so that they could be harvested. In any case the
harvests would have to be stored thus reducing the mobility of the communities.
Other economic activities like trade and manufacturing also created a situation
where the Iron Age societies accumulated much greater stores of property and
wealth which would have been difficult to consistently move around. That alone was
a huge incentive for a more permanent and settled way of life. Thus the axes and
hoes which were products of the Iron Age were brought into action cutting down
trees and clearing the ground to facilitate the construction of permanent dwellings.
The round, thatched huts made out of tree poles and hard clay (daga) made their
appearance replacing the cave dwellings that were popular with the nomadic Stone
Age communities

The economic developments brought on by the use of iron also led to population
growth among the Iron Age communities. Population growth was a both a cause and
effect of the agricultural developments. As it will be recalled that agriculture during
this period was labour intensive and as such it made economic sense to eschew any
birth control practices and have larger families so that there would be more people
to engage in the cultivation of crops. As more crops were produced there was
greater food security and this abundance of food in turn stimulated population
growth far greater than anything that had been witnessed among the Stone Age
communities who virtually depended on the environment to provide all their food
requirements. The unpredictability of the environment and animal movements
would have acted as a disincentive for having large families. Historians like D.N
Beach have asserted that Stone Age communities like the San actually acted to keep
their population levels down by adopting measures that included infanticide and
abstaining from sexual intercourse.
Another important social consequence of the use of iron was the creation of classes
among the Iron Age peoples. It has already been discussed how the use of iron
increased the wealth of the Iron Age communities but it is also important to note
that the wealth was never evenly distributed in any community. Some people came
to possess a greater share of the wealth than others and the reasons for this were
many and varied. Possessing skills in manufacturing iron tools enabled some people
to trade their wares and consequently generate greater wealth for themselves.
Controlling trade and the land that was used for agriculture or possessing political
power were the other means which enabled particular groups of people to achieve
greater wealth and be differentiated from others as a class. Thus class divisions
emerged as a result of the differences in wealth and became more sharply
accentuated during the Iron Age. Archaeologists studying Great Zimbabwe which
was an Iron Age state have suggested that its class divisions were demonstrated
through housing and diet differences among other things. The ruling elite lived
within the stone structures they built through their ability to control large numbers
of people and exploit their labour. The subject peoples lived in less fashionable mud
huts outside the stone enclosures. Cattle bones found in greater numbers within the
stone enclosures and the sheep/goat bones found outside suggest diet differences
between the rulers and their subjects. The lack of cooking vessels, grinding stones
and the remains of elite goods found within enclosures such as imported ceramics,
glass and brass all point to few domestic activities inside and suggest a more
luxurious and easy way of life for the rulers.
Another important social consequence of the use of iron was the division of labour
between the sexes. Women became more and more domesticated as they were
consigned to home duties that included raising children, cooking, cultivating nearby
fields, fetching water and wood. Men increasingly moved away from the home
mining gold and iron, herding cattle and engaging in local and international trade.
The broadening of economic occupations and the division of labour helped to create
and intensify the exploitation and subordination of women by their male
counterparts. The economic tasks assigned to women such as those outlined above
had no economic or currency value attached to them. Thus even though the female
tasks were necessary they were considered to be inferior because they did not
generate any wealth. In this manner men began to consider themselves more
important and superior to women because it was their pastoral, mining,
manufacturing and trading activities that generated wealth for their communities
rather than the raising of children, gathering of wild fruits and the fetching of water
and firewood that was performed by women.
The economic activities also stimulated the rise of the marriage system of polygamy.
The nature of agricultural production which was subsistence and labour intensive
naturally demanded more personnel to carry out the requisite tasks. This in turn
stimulated the system of polygamy as male family heads sought to increase their
family sizes through having more children who would grow up to do the required
activities of clearing fields, cultivating and harvesting.
The use of iron not only created social stability but it also stimulated the emergence
of large states like Great Zimbabwe which became an important commercial and
political centre. In addition to being in the heart of an extensive commercial and
trading network, the site was the center of a powerful political kingdom, which was
under a central ruler for about 350 years (1100–1450 AD). The site is estimated to
have contained perhaps 18,000 inhabitants, making it one of the largest cities of its
day. Great Zimbabwe covered over 1779 acres. The stone wall enclosures of the
state are still standing to this day and hut remains have been dug up by
archaeologists. The two main geographical areas of stone wall enclosures are the Hill
Complex on the long, steep-sided granite hill that rises 262 feet above the
surrounding ground and the land below this hill where the Valley Enclosures and the
Great Enclosure are situated. The stone walls, up to 19.7 feet thick and 36 feet high,
are built of granite blocks without the use of mortar.

The emergence of these large states in turn gave rise to the unwelcome problems of
urbanization that included disease, noise and soil exhaustion. If for example it is true
that the Great Zimbabwe state had a population of 18 000 people settled on land
area of 1779 then it was an urban settlement and naturally it would have been
affected by the usual problems associated with urbanisation. Having so many people
clustered together would have naturally created problems of human waste disposal
and D.N. Beach speculates that the picture of the state was blighted by flies feasting
on human waste and smog coming from the many cooking fires. Apart from this the
need for fuel met through the cutting of trees would have led to deforestation and
the associated problems of soil exhaustion which had detrimental effects on
agricultural production and pastoralism.

All in all, it can therefore be concluded that the use of iron had both positive and
negative effects on the economic and social bases of the early societies in pre-
colonial Zimbabwe.