INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE

Literature is a term derived from the Latin word ‘Littera’ meaning ‘letters’, referring to an
acquaintance with the written word. It is the written work of a specific culture, sub-
culture, religion, philosophy or the study of such written work which may appear in poetry or in
prose. Literature was originated in the southern Mesopotamia region of Sumer (3200C) in
the city of Uruk and flourished in Egypt, later in Greece and from there, to Rome. Writing seems
to have originated independently in China from divination practices and also independently in
Mesoamerica and elsewhere. The first author of literature in the world, known by name, was the
high-priestess of Ur, Enheduanna (2285-2250 BCE) who wrote hymns in praise of
the Sumerian goddess Inanna

The term literature has traditionally been applied to those imaginative works of poetry and prose
distinguished by the intentions of their authors and the perceived aesthetics excellence of their
execution. Literature may be classified according to a variety of systems, including language,
national origin, historical period, genre, and subject matter . Literature is any collection
of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings, specifically considered to be
an art form, especially prose, fiction, drama, poetry, and including both print and digital
writing. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include oral literature, also known
as orature much of which has been transcribed . In simple words Literature is a method of
recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and entertainment, and can also have a social,
psychological, spiritual, or political role.

Literature, as an art form, can also include works in various non-fiction genres, such
as biography, diaries, memoirs, letters, and essays. Within its broad definition, literature includes
non-fictional books, articles or other written information on a particular subject . Taken to mean
only written works, literature was first produced by some of the world’s earliest civilizations—
those of Ancient Egypt and Sumeria—as early as the 4th millennium BC; taken to include spoken
or sung texts, it originated even earlier, and some of the first written works may have been based
on a pre-existing oral tradition. As urban cultures and societies developed, there was a proliferation
in the forms of literature developments in print technology allowed for literature to be distributed
and experienced on an unprecedented scale, which has culminated in the twenty-first century
in electronic literature. Literature stands among humanity’s oldest artistic endeavors, emerging
quickly after the invention of the written language. Compared to regular writing, historical records
or other types of text, literature is created to relay a narrative, either realistic or fictional in nature.
It is a creative work that favors the use of different phrases, capable of transferring across
messages, meanings and ideas. Humans’ ability to write literature can be seen as a testament to
their large creativity, a capacity to know, learn, remember and analyze large amounts of
information. The knowledge of an author, their belief system, or their intended message – all of it
is captured through text and moved across the ages to other people. With the evolution of language
and the written word, the capacity of people to create stories also changed and developed, being
responsible for the creation of new literary genres, traditions and customs.

literature is more than simply writing or recording, being imbued with additional meaning or
intent. Literature can entertain others, provide important life lessons, or tell cautionary tales. It is
a tool of creation and a method of artistic expression, one which often pushes a person’s language
skills to their limits. In the constraints of society, literature persuades others, informs them about
something, and gives the writer a capacity to express their ideas. There is no singular purpose in
all writing, and the ideas that can be gained from it will vary wildly from interpretation to
interpretation. It is vital to see writing as a creative process first and a public service second,
compiling many different goals into a single piece of writing.

Throughout history, literature has developed and played many different roles. Depending on the
society and its people, the language grew in its own unique ways in order to help people
communicate between themselves or share specific ideas. In all cases, the growth of the literary
field has a close connection to a civilization’s traditions, history, culture and customs. As a whole,
literature has had many different effects on the world around it, working to transform and enhance
the human experience. Early works of writing are a mode of self-expression, a tool for education,
and a piece of instruction combined, demonstrating the diversity of human thought.
 INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN LITERATURE

History of Indian Literature:

Indian literature, refers to writings of the Indian subcontinent, produced there in a variety
of vernacular languages,including Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali, Bengali, Bihari, Gujarati, Hindi,Kannad
-a, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Oriya, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Lahnda, Siraiki,
and Sindhi, among others, as well as in English. The term Indian literature is used here to refer to
literature produced across the Indian subcontinent prior to the creation of the Republic of India in
1947 and within the Republic of India after 1947. The earliest Indian literature took the form of
the canonical Hindu sacred writings, known as the Veda, which were written in Sanskrit. To the
Veda were added prose commentaries such as the Brahmana’s and the Upanishads. The
production of Sanskrit literature extended from about 1500 BCE to about 1000 CE and reached its
height of development in the 1st to 7th centuries CE. In addition to sacred and philosophical
writings, such genres as erotic and devotional lyrics, court poetry, plays, and narrative folktales
emerged. Because Sanskrit was identified with the Brahminical religion of the Vedas, Buddhism
and Jainism adopted other literary languages (Pali and Ardhamagadhi, respectively). From these
and other related languages emerged the modern languages of northern India.

The literature of those languages depended largely on the ancient Indian background, which
includes two Sanskrit epic poems, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as the Bhagavata-
purana and the other Puranas. In addition, the Sanskrit philosophies were the source of
philosophical writing in the later literatures, and the Sanskrit schools of rhetoric were of great
importance for the development of court poetry in many of the modern literatures. The South
Indian language of Tamil is an exception to this pattern of Sanskrit influence because it had a
classical tradition of its own. Urdu and Sindhi are other exceptions. Beginning in the 19th century,
particularly during the height of British control over the subcontinent, Western literary models had
an impact on Indian literature, the most striking result being the introduction of the use
of vernacular prose on a major scale. Such forms as the novel and short story began to be adopted
by Indian writers, as did realism and an interest in social questions and psychological description.
A tradition of literature in English was also established in the subcontinent.
Emergence of Modern Indian Literature:

Modern Indian literature was formed during the anti-colonial movement against British
imperialism in India. Indian writers used Western forms of writing such as essays, drama and
fiction to tell their stories and represent the Indian experience. Industrialization and
urbanization also made Indian writers aware of the world around them. Science and
rationality played a key part in modern Indian literature as Indian writers began to question certain
institutions and norms. Rather than attacking the themes of pre-modern Indian literature (centered
around themes of other-worldliness), modern Indian literature created new gods in their current
society, the gods being man and nature. During the Indian Renaissance (beginning in the mid-
nineteenth century), hope for India’s independent future was a central theme in Indian literature.
Another important theme was creation of a new system in India.

Rabindranath Tagore, one of modern India’s most well-known writers, covered these themes in
his writing. Tagore was also the first Indian to receive a Nobel prize for writing. In
his play ‘Bisorjon’ (1890), he presented how following previous conventions was unrealistic and
no longer served a purpose. In his poem, ‘Gitanjali’ (1910), the line below is reminiscent of hope
not just for the individual but hope for the whole nation of India.

‘Even at the cost of renouncing my life, let me light this lamp of love.’

However, after gaining independence in 1947, India entered an era of disenchantment due to
events such as the Muslim-Hindu riots, the murder of Mahatma Gandhi and the division of
the country into India and Pakistan. As a result, the ‘Progressive Writer’ movement in India
was formed. The goal was end exploitation and inequality. Also, a new contemplative form of
modernism emerged. From this point on, themes of observing society and human life pervaded
Indian literature. Individualism and modernist practices, such as the French school of existentialist
philosophy, also influenced Indian literature, as well as looking back at British injustices against
Indians. This period in India also led to the rise of writers from marginalized groups such as Dalit’s
and Female writers.

Dalit writers followed the teachings of their first modern Dalit leader, B. R. Ambedkar, in their
writing. They criticized the caste system of India and the injustices they had to face being Dalit
and questioned the notion of rebirth in the Hindu caste system.

‘I do not believe that we can build up a free society in India so long as there is a trace of this ill-
treatment and suppression of one class by another.’

This quote highlights just how deep-rooted the caste system was in Indian society and the hard
work the Dalit’s had to do to gain equal rights. The re-telling of Dalit experiences created a new
aspect of the autobiographical genre as Dalit writers challenged the stories of respectable societies
in India.

Indian Literature in English:

Indian English literature began in the early nineteenth century and grew during British imperialism
in India. It started due to the British government’s educational reforms in India, missionary work
and the response to English literature and language from upper-class Indian people. The Charter
Act of 1813 gave power to England to reform the education of native Indians. The 1935 English
Education Act of William Bentinck made English compulsory in Indian education and made
English literature a central subject in Indian schools. Even before this, English teaching occurred
in Indian colleges, as well as subjects on Christianity.
 AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY

Revathi, is a transgender writer and social activist, she is a part of an NGO Sangama, fights for the
civil rights of the transgenders. She is from Namakkal, a township in Tamilnadu, from where she
moved to Delhi and Mumbai to revolutionize her gender and now settled in Bengaluru. Her first
book, Unarvum Uruvamum (Feelings of the Entire Body) published in 2004 chronicled her line of
field studies with hijras in the majesty of Tamil Nadu. It is a collection of authentic stories of the
people belonging to the Hijra community in South India. ‘The Truth About Me: A Hijra Life
Story’, is her second paperback and her autobiography. It was written in Tamil and was translated
by V. Geetha in the year 2010. According to Revathi, she initially released the book in English
and not in Tamil to save herself from the rage of her family. Finally, in 2011, the book was
published in Tamil as ‘Vellai Mozhi’. She also made her acting debut in a Tamil movie called
‘Thenavattu’ having two more transgender lead actors in 2008. ‘The Truth About Me’ is an
intrepidly brave and moving autobiography of a hijra who fought ridicule, harrying, and violence
equally in her homewards and outside to recover her days of dignity.

Revathi was a boy by birth but felt like a girl. In telling her life story, Revathi evokes her deep
uneasiness of being in the wrong body that she had suffered since childhood. She fled to Delhi to
escape constant violence in her family and community and joined a house of hijras. Her life became
an amazing run of extremely menacing physical and psychological journeys to grow to be a woman
and to find love. The smirch of being a hijra commences from the family itself. Right from the
early days of childhood, the family and friends fail to accept them as they are. The community in
which Doraisamy (Revathi) was born is a very traditional one and it gives much importance to its
social status. For them, an individual is a social being than a single entity.

They placed individuality as secondary to social approval. Revathi spent most of her childhood
days with uneasiness when she tried to negotiate her body in harmony with her inner desires and
innate talents. At times, she got punishment for her feminity. She fled to join the hijra community
in Dindigul as she had long failed to prevent herself from expressing her innate feelings. After her
brother learned of her friendship with other hijras, she was subjected to more torture. Since hijra’s
are signaled out as stigmatized persons and the society recognizes them to be socially and
biologically incapable of performing the expected roles of the male or female gender. They,
therefore are not accepted as part of the mainstream and thus left to lead a life of their own. They
are denied of their rights in the name of sex, sexuality, caste, and religion. They have to either
arrive at a compromise or engage in a struggle.

Contemporary writers:

Literature has always played a crucial role in reflecting the social fabric of a nation and highlighting
the struggles and triumphs of marginalized communities. In recent years, transgender movements
in India have gained momentum, challenging societal norms and advocating for inclusivity and
acceptance. Indian literature, both in its ancient scriptures and contemporary works, has embraced
the transgender community, giving voice to their experiences and offering a platform for their
stories to be heard.

Indian literature has a rich history that encompasses sacred texts, myths, epics, and poetry, many of
which depict transgender characters and themes. For instance, the ancient Hindu epic, the
Mahabharata, includes the story of Shikhandi, a transgender character who played a pivotal role in
the battle of Kurukshetra. Moreover, Hindu scriptures like the Kama Sutra acknowledge the
existence of a third gender, known as the “tritiya prakriti,” which highlights the acceptance of non-
binary identities.

The Hijra community, a long-established transgender community in India, has made significant
contributions to Indian literature. Hijras have often been marginalized and subject to discrimination,
but their unique gender identity and cultural significance have been explored in various literary
forms. Autobiographical works like “Me Hijra, Me Laxmi” by Laxmi Narayan Tripathi and “I
Am Vidya” by Living Smile Vidya offer powerful insights into the lives of Hijras, their struggles,
and their aspirations.

In recent years, there has been a surge in contemporary Indian literature that explores transgender
identities and experiences. Writers like Manobi Bandyopadhyay, the first transgender college
principal in India, have paved the way for transgender voices to be heard. Bandyopadhyay’s
autobiography, “A Gift of Goddess Lakshmi,” is a poignant account of her journey, shedding light
on the challenges faced by transgender individuals in Indian society.
Transgender literature has been instrumental in empowering the transgender community and
promoting activism. These stories have helped create awareness about the transgender experience
and the discrimination they face, leading to increased support for transgender rights and inclusion.
Through their writings, transgender authors have become activists, amplifying their voices and
advocating for societal change.

Transgender movements in Indian literature have shattered barriers and giving voice to a
community that has long been marginalized and misunderstood. From ancient texts to contemporary
works, Indian literature has embraced transgender identities, challenging societal norms and
promoting inclusivity. These narratives have not only broadened perspectives but also empowered
the transgender community and fostered societal change. As literature continues to evolve, it will
undoubtedly play a crucial role in shaping the future of transgender movements in India, creating a
more inclusive and accepting society for all.
 SUMMARY OF THE NOVEL

The story opens in small village in Tamil Nadu. Doraisamy was the youngest of five children –
the fourth boy. He was born in an upper caste Gounder family in a small village near Namakkal
town, Salem district, Tamilnadu in 1970. He grew up shy, culturally effeminate, with an
inclination to dress as a girl and do traditionally female activities around the house – the domestic
chores, the games, the singing and dancing. As an indulged youngest child, this behavior must at
first have seemed merely precious. It was harder to ignore as he grew older; Doraisamy spends his
childhood years with a growing unease as he tries to negotiate his body’s incongruity with his
inner desires and natural talents. In a family where every flaw is punished by physical violence, one
of Doraisamy’s brothers has a penchant for beating him with cricket bats, Doraisamy’s dangers
are not just about acceptance but also for his safety. In his mid-teens he met a group of like-spirited
men, who introduced him to visiting hijras. Doraisamy stole some money and an earring from his
mother, and ran away from home. He went to Delhi, where his chosen “guru” (Head) took care of
him.

As Revathi, she could dress, walk, talk as a woman. But she is, of course, a hijra, that liminal third-
sex, and so she was constrained to live and earn in specific places, in specific manners. The story
follows Revathi’s life as she moved from city to city, from Hijra House to House. Revathi yearned
to live freely, to love, to be a woman

The hijra elders forbade her from taking a husband, or a steady man. Proscribed from marriage,
unable to work, unrecognized by the state bureaucracy, Revathi had only three options to make
money – she could beg, she could bless, or she could do sex work. Initially, she begged, in the
flamboyant, utterly recognisable hijra style; but she felt restricted and constrained by the rules and
demands of her hijra House, with her guru and her sisters. One of the underlying themes of
Revathi’s life is that for each step she took to attaining her desires – the nirvaanam or castration,
the financial power, the recognition, support and intimacy of other hijras who knew what she was
going through, and applauded her zeal and valued her as a person – she recognized new avenues
of desire, of freedom, she now incoherently yearned for.
A large part of the novel is taken up with her steps into sex work – it’s hard to understand, to
remember how limited her choices within the hijra Houses were, but in essence, at the age of
twenty Revathi decided to take up sex work in order to fulfill her sexual desires. This was the only
way, at the time, that she could come close to sexual satisfaction. But being a sex worker, and
sexual minority, means that you get the wrong kind of attention. Revathi does mention that she
had moments of happiness in her life, but details in dry terms the brutal facts of life as a hijra – the
dangers, the assaults, the rapes. Her tone while she describes the violence committed on her body
– by clients, by random rowdies, by policemen – is one of matter-of-fact reportage. Revathi wants
us to feel her pains and her sorrows, but her sufferings are not sensationalized; her dramatic
moments are for her spiritual, emotional traumas. Aside from the problems outside, she had
quarrels with her own hijra community – oppressive gurus, fighting with other hijras, battles with
other Houses – Revathi maintains a fragile relationship with her family, whose acceptance of her
new state is grudging at best.

The turning point in Revathi’s life occurs when she shifts to Bangalore to join a hamam (bath
house), where after an initial period of facing the same problems as elsewhere, she is introduced
to the sexual minorities NGO – Sangama & eventually leading her to join the NGO as an office
assistant. Here, she is introduced into the world of rights, denials of basic rights (including option
of sex change operation in public health care) & discrimination faced by sexual minorities & they
too can stand up for their rights (all within the limitations of an NGO framework).

One might conclude that Revathi was lucky in a way of having landed into an NGO job & later
have a success story through her acting & writing career, but if one were to picturize this with the
entire hijras population at large or even sexual minorities, their life continues to be same as before.
Nor does the troubles haunting Revathi since her childhood end by her joining the NGO, which
continues to manifest itself but in qualitatively different forms, leading her even to contemplate
thoughts of suicide. But despite all odds staked against her, she realizes the need to continue her
struggles & decides to write an autobiography of her life.