PDF Advances in Microbiology Infectious Diseases and Public Health Volume 2 1St Edition Gianfranco Donelli Eds Ebook Full Chapter

Advances in Microbiology Infectious
Diseases and Public Health Volume 2

1st Edition Gianfranco Donelli (Eds.)
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/advances-in-microbiology-infectious-diseases-and-pu
blic-health-volume-2-1st-edition-gianfranco-donelli-eds/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Advances in Microbiology Infectious Diseases and Public

Health Volume 2 1st Edition Gianfranco Donelli (Eds.)
https://textbookfull.com/product/advances-in-microbiology-
infectious-diseases-and-public-health-volume-2-1st-edition-
gianfranco-donelli-eds/
Advances in Microbiology Infectious Diseases and Public

Health Volume 1 1st Edition Gianfranco Donelli (Eds.)
Advances in Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and

Public Health: Volume 7 1st Edition Gianfranco Donelli
(Eds.)
Fungal Biofilms and related infections Advances in

Microbiology Infectious Diseases and Public Health
Volume 3 1st Edition Christine Imbert (Eds.)
https://textbookfull.com/product/fungal-biofilms-and-related-
infections-advances-in-microbiology-infectious-diseases-and-
public-health-volume-3-1st-edition-christine-imbert-eds/
Emerging and Re-emerging Viral Infections: Advances in
Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Public Health
Volume 6 1st Edition Giovanni Rezza
https://textbookfull.com/product/emerging-and-re-emerging-viral-
infections-advances-in-microbiology-infectious-diseases-and-
public-health-volume-6-1st-edition-giovanni-rezza/
A Modern Approach to Biofilm-Related Orthopaedic

Implant Infections: Advances in Microbiology,
Infectious Diseases and Public Health Volume 5 1st
Edition Lorenzo Drago (Eds.)
https://textbookfull.com/product/a-modern-approach-to-biofilm-
related-orthopaedic-implant-infections-advances-in-microbiology-
lorenzo-drago-eds/
Practical clinical microbiology and infectious

diseases: a hands-on guide First Edition Gronthoud
https://textbookfull.com/product/practical-clinical-microbiology-
and-infectious-diseases-a-hands-on-guide-first-edition-gronthoud/
Infectious Diseases of the Horse Diagnosis pathology

management and public health 1st Edition Jh Van Der
Kolk
https://textbookfull.com/product/infectious-diseases-of-the-
horse-diagnosis-pathology-management-and-public-health-1st-
edition-jh-van-der-kolk/
Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology: Volume 2:

Bioenergy and Environmental Health Anoop Singh
https://textbookfull.com/product/environmental-microbiology-and-
biotechnology-volume-2-bioenergy-and-environmental-health-anoop-
singh/
Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 901
Advances in Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Public Health
Gianfranco Donelli Editor
Advances
in Microbiology,
Infectious
Diseases and
Public Health
Volume 2
Advances in Experimental Medicine
and Biology
Advances in Microbiology, Infectious Diseases
and Public Health
Volume 901
Editorial Board
Irun R. Cohen, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
N.S. Abel Lajtha, Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY, USA
John D. Lambris, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
Rodolfo Paoletti, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
Subseries Editor
Gianfranco Donelli, Microbial Biofilm Laboratory, Fondazione Santa Lucia
IRCCS, Rome, Italy
The Advances in Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Public Health
Series will provide microbiologists, hygienists, epidemiologists and infec-
tious diseases specialists with well-choosen contributed volumes containing
updated information in the areas of basic and applied microbiology involving
relevant issues for public health, including bacterial, fungal and parasitic
infections, zoonoses and anthropozoonoses, environmental and food micro-
biology. The increasing threat of the multidrug-resistant microorganisms and
the related host immune response, the new strategies for the treatment of
biofilm-based, acute and chronic microbial infections, as well as the devel-
opment of new vaccines and more efficacious antimicrobial drugs to prevent
and treat human and animal infections will be also reviewed in this series in
the light of the most recent achievements in these fields. Special attention
will be devoted to the fast diffusion worldwide of the new findings of the
most advanced translational researches carried out in the different fields of
microbiological sciences, with the aim to promote a prompt validation and
transfer at clinical level of the most promising experimental results. The book
series publishes review and original research contributions, short (data)
reports as well as guest edited thematic book volumes. All contributions
will be published online first and collected in (thematic) book volumes. There
are no publication costs. This series is a subseries of Advances in Experi-
mental Medicine and Biology 2014 Impact Factor: 1.958 Advances in
Experimental Medicine and Biology has been publishing exceptional works
in the field for over 30 years and is indexed in Medline, Scopus, EMBASE,
BIOSIS, Biological Abstracts, CSA, Biological Sciences and Living
Resources (ASFA-1), and Biological Sciences.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13513

Gianfranco Donelli
Editor
Advances in
Microbiology, Infectious
Diseases and Public
Health
Volume 2
Editor
Gianfranco Donelli
Microbial Biofilm Laboratory
Fondazione Santa Lucia IRCCS
Rome, Italy
ISSN 0065-2598 ISSN 2214-8019 (electronic)

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology
ISBN 978-3-319-27934-3 ISBN 978-3-319-27935-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-27935-0
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016935504
# Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,
and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor
the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
Printed on acid-free paper
This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland
Contents
Comparative evaluation of the antimicrobial activity

of 19 essential oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Naouel Chaftar, Marion Girardot, Jérôme Labanowski,
Tawfik Ghrairi, Khaled Hani, Jacques Frère, and Christine Imbert
Advances in Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Public
Health: Refractory Trichophyton rubrum Infections
in Turin, Italy: A Problem Still Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Vivian Tullio, Ornella Cervetti, Janira Roana, Michele Panzone,
Daniela Scalas, Chiara Merlino, Valeria Allizond,
Giuliana Banche, Narcisa Mandras, and Anna Maria Cuffini
Antioxidant Hydroxytyrosol-Based Polyacrylate
with Antimicrobial and Antiadhesive Activity Versus
Staphylococcus Epidermidis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fernanda Crisante, Vincenzo Taresco, Gianfranco Donelli,
Claudia Vuotto, Andrea Martinelli, Lucio D’Ilario, Loris Pietrelli,
Iolanda Francolini, and Antonella Piozzi
The Role of Human Herpesvirus 8 in Diabetes Mellitus
Type 2: State of the Art and a Medical Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Raffaello Pompei
Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis, Trichomonas vaginalis
and Neisseria gonorrhoeae Based on Data Collected
by a Network of Clinical Microbiology Laboratories, in Italy . . . . . 47
Maria Cristina Salfa, Barbara Suligoi, and Italian STI
Laboratory-based Surveillance Working Group
β-Defensins: Work in Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Giovanna Donnarumma, Iole Paoletti, Alessandra Fusco,
Brunella Perfetto, Elisabetta Buommino, Vincenza de Gregorio,
and Adone Baroni
v
vi Contents
Emergence of Escherichia coli Sequence Type 131 (ST131)

and ST3948 with KPC-2, KPC-3 and KPC-8 carbapenemases
from a Long-Term Care and Rehabilitation Facility (LTCRF)
in Northern Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Aurora Piazza, Mariasofia Caltagirone, Ibrahim Bitar,
Elisabetta Nucleo, Melissa Spalla, Elena Fogato,
Roberto D’Angelo, Laura Pagani, and Roberta Migliavacca
Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae: Results
of a Laboratory Surveillance Program in an Italian General
Hospital (August 2014–January 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Claudia Monari, Luca Merlini, Emanuela Nardelli, Maria Cacioni,
Antonella Repetto, Antonella Mencacci, and Anna Vecchiarelli
A Snapshot of Drug-Resistant M. tuberculosis Strains
in Croatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Ljiljana Zmak, Mihaela Obrovac, and Vera Katalinic-Jankovic
Quorum Quenching Strategy Targeting Gram-Positive
Pathogenic Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Ravindra Pal Singh, Said E. Desouky, and Jiro Nakayama
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Adv Exp Med Biol - Advances in Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Public Health (2016) 901: 1–15
DOI 10.1007/5584_2015_5011
Published online: 14 November 2015
Comparative evaluation of the

antimicrobial activity of 19 essential oils
Naouel Chaftar, Marion Girardot, Jérôme Labanowski,

Tawfik Ghrairi, Khaled Hani, Jacques Frère,
and Christine Imbert
Abstract
In our research on natural compounds efficient against human pathogen or
opportunist microorganisms contracted by food or water, the antimicrobial
activity of 19 essential oils (EOs) was investigated against 11 bacterial
species (6 Gram positive, 5 Gram negative) and 7 fungal species
(2 dermatophytes, 1 mould, 4 yeasts) using microdilution assays. Five
essential oils were obtained from Tunisian plants (EOtun): Artemisia
herba-alba Asso, Juniperus phoenicea L., Rosmarinus officinalis L.,
Ruta graveolens L. and Thymus vulgaris L., whereas others were commer-
cial products (EOcom). Overall, T. vulgaris EOtun was the most efficient EO
against both bacteria (Gram negative: MIC 0.34 mg/mL; Gram positive:
MIC 0.70 mg/mL) and fungi (yeasts: MIC 0.55 mg/mL; mould: MIC
¼ 0.30 mg/mL; dermatophytes: MIC 0.07 mg/mL). Two EOcom
displayed both acceptable antibacterial and antifungal potency, although
weaker than T. vulgaris EOtun activity: Origanum vulgare EOcom (bacteria:
MIC 1.13 mg/mL, fungi: MIC 1.80 mg/mL), and Cymbopogon
martinii var. motia EOcom (bacteria: MIC 1.00 mg/mL, fungi: MIC
0.80 mg/mL). Bacillus megaterium, Legionella pneumophila, Listeria
monocytogenes and Trichophyton spp. were the most sensitive species to
N. Chaftar (*) M. Girardot, J. Frère, and C. Imbert

Laboratoire Ecologie Biologie des Interactions, Laboratoire Ecologie Biologie des Interactions,
Université de Poitiers, UMR CNRS 7267, Bât. D1, 6 rue Université de Poitiers, UMR CNRS 7267, Bât. D1, 6 rue
de la Milétrie, TSA 51115, 86073 Poitiers Cedex 9, de la Milétrie, TSA 51115, 86073 Poitiers Cedex 9,
France France
Faculté de Médecine, UR08-45, Département de J. Labanowski
Biochimie, Avenue Mohamed Karoui, 4002 Sousse, Université de Poitiers, IC2MP, UMR CNRS 7285, 4 rue
Tunisie Michel Brunet, 86022 Poitiers Cedex, France
Present affiliation: Université de Rouen, LMSM - EA T. Ghrairi and K. Hani
4312, UFR des Sciences et Techniques, 76821 Mont- Faculté de Médecine, UR08-45, Département de
Saint-Aignan Cedex, France Biochimie, Avenue Mohamed Karoui, 4002 Sousse,
e-mail: [email protected] Tunisie
1
2 N. Chaftar et al.
both EOcom and EOtun. This study demonstrated the noteworthy antimicro-
bial activity of two commercial EOs and points out the remarkable effi-
ciency of T. vulgaris EOtun on all tested bacterial and fungal species,
certainly associated with its high content in carvacrol (85 %). These three
oils could thus represent promising candidates for applications in water and
food protections.
Keywords
Bacteria • Fungi • Essential oil • GC-MS • Antimicrobial activity • MIC
1 Introduction micellar solutions, as suggested by Edris and

Malone (2012) who studied three EOs: clove
Aerosols, water and food are among the main bud (Eugenia caryophyllata), thyme (Thymus
contamination pathways for human by patho- serpyllum) and oregano (T. capitatus). Their
genic microorganisms. Even if it started a long results contributed in developing formulations
time ago, research activity is still very active to more thermodynamically stable for application
find antimicrobial agents efficient to make these in aqueous environment, cosmetics and
environments safe; in that way, there is a current pharmaceuticals (Edris and Malone 2012). More-
research on natural products, and previous stud- over, EOs could be used as a nanocapsular dis-
ies have investigated the interest of using EOs persion, as suggested by Shah et al. (2012).
and their components in food preservation, such Consequently, EOs represent promising
as vegetables, fruit juices (de Sousa et al. 2012; candidates for applications in water and food
Espina et al. 2013) or meat (Fernandez-Pan protection. Further work is needed to be able to
et al. 2012; Hulankova et al. 2013). Essential implement all these strategies and to use EOs for
oils could be used alone or combined with con- the treatment of food or water. In this context, the
ventional biocidal molecules. The development aim of this study was to investigate the
of antimicrobial films may be also a technology antibacterial and antifungal potency of EOs for
to explore: the volatile molecules could be The originality of our study is related to the high
incorporated directly into the packaging material number of both EOs (19 EOs: 14 commercial
and would thus be released into the headspace EOs samples and 5 EOs obtained in our lab
surrounding the food (Appendini and Hotchkiss from Tunisian plants) and microbial species (18
2002; L opez et al. 2007; Muriel-Galet species: 11 bacterial species – 6 Gram positive
et al. 2012). EOs may be used also in water and 5 Gram negative – and 7 fungal species (2
treatment to fight microbial pathogens dermatophytes, 1 mould, 4 yeasts) 93
(Legionella spp., Pseudomonas spp. . . .) occur- investigated. The specific chemical composition
ring in spas, hammams, cooling towers. . .instead of EOs was taken into account knowing that their
of the conventional chemical treatments which composition may vary depending on the environ-
are currently not allowed by French legislation ment of the plant, the season and climate deter-
(Decree 89-369-06 June 1989) because they may mining different chemotypes with changing
change the initial composition of spa water. therapeutic activities (Baatour et al. 2012;
However, EOs are known for their hydrophobic Bourgou et al. 2012; Hussain et al. 2008; Mighri
properties which are an obstacle for water treat- et al. 2010a; Mohsen and Ali 2009; Rouis
ment. As a solution, EOs could be used as et al. 2012; Zouari et al. 2012). Studied EOs
were selected because of their chemical interest
Comparative evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of 19 essential oils 3
or their poor documentation. Tested bacterial alternifolia (Australia, Ref 0192) and Syzygium
species were mainly chosen because of their aromaticum (Madagascar, Ref 0073), needles of
involvement in infections usually transmitted by Pinus laricio (Corse, Ref 0531), zest of Citrus
food or water. Fungal species were especially sinensis (Italy, Ref 0817) and seeds of
chosen for their ability to contaminate human Trachyspermum ammi (India, Ref 0021).
skin through moist surfaces.
2.2 Terpenic Derivatives

2 Materials and Methods and Antimicrobial Agents
2.1 Essential Oils Carvacrol, thymol, amoxicillin and fluconazole

were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (Steinheim,
No endangered or protected plant species was Germany).
included in this study. Aerial parts of 5 plants
(Artemisia herba-alba Asso, Juniperus
phoenicea L., Rosmarinus officinalis L., Ruta 2.3 Gas Chromatography-Mass
graveolens L., T. vulgaris L.) were collected Spectrometry (GC/MS) Analysis
twice from March to May 2010 and 2012 on
private lands belonging to Tunisian co-authors GC-MS analyses were performed as previously
who gave permission to collect the plants. described (Chaftar et al. 2015). Briefly, these
R. officinalis was collected from the Tunisian analyses were performed using a HP 6890 series
northeast (region of Zaghouan), A. herba-alba, chromatograph coupled to a HP 5973 mass selec-
R. graveolens and T. vulgaris from the Sahel tive detector. A Varian VF-5MS column (30 m,
region (Sousse, Tunisia), and J. phoenicea from 0.25 mm, 0.25 μm) was used. The components
the Tunisian northwest (Aı̈n Drahem). were identified by comparing both their retention
A voucher specimen of each plant was depos- times with those of reference samples and deter-
ited at the Herbarium of the School of Pharmacy mination of Kovats retention index, as well as by
at the University of Poitiers (France). The plants computer matching against commercial library
were dried in the shade. EOs (indicated as EOtun) mass spectra (NIST Mass Spectral Search Pro-
were extracted by hydrodistillation for 4 h using gram for the NIST/EPA/NIH Mass Spectral
a modified Clevenger-type apparatus and stored Library database version 2.0 d build Dec
at 4 C in tight vials in the dark until analysis as 2 2005) and mass spectra literature data. The
previously described (Chaftar et al. 2015). quantification of each component was carried
14 commercial EOs (indicated as EOcom) out by integrating the peak area of the
were purchased from HYTECK laboratories chromatograms.
(Clermont-Ferrand, France). These EOcom were
extracted from aerial parts of Cymbopogon
citratus (India, Ref 0033); C. martinii var. 2.4 Organisms and Growth
motia (India, Ref 0015); Mentha piperita Conditions
Franco-Mitcham (France, Ref 0039); Origanum
vulgare (Hongry, Ref 0182); R. officinalis In total, 18 strains potentially present in food or
(Tunisia, Ref 0814); R. officinalis water were studied, including five strains of
camphoriferum (Spain, Ref 0019) and Gram negative species (Klebsiella pneumoniae
T. vulgaris (France, Ref 0226), leaves of 0502083 (laboratory collection), Salmonella
Cinnamomum tamala (Nepal, Ref 0648); Euca- typhimurium 124 (laboratory collection),
lyptus globulus (Portugal, Ref 0029); Melaleuca Escherichia coli 27325 (laboratory collection),
4 N. Chaftar et al.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 910704 (laboratory concentration inhibiting visible microbial

collection) and Legionella pneumophila growth. Experiments were performed in tripli-
GC-A11 (laboratory collection)), six of Gram cate and repeated twice in separate experiments.
positive species (Bacillus megaterium F04 (labo- Preliminary tests were made using different
ratory collection), Staphylococcus epidermidis solvents and culture media in order to select the
567 (laboratory collection), S. xylosus 740 (labo- best ones; results showed that acetonitrile and
ratory collection), S. haemolyticus 694 (labora- DMSO were the best choices for bacterial and
tory collection), S. saprophyticus 715 (laboratory fungal strains respectively. In our experimental
collection) and Listeria monocytogenes EGDe) conditions, these solvents did not influence the
and seven of fungal species (four yeast species: microbial growth compared to negative controls
Candida albicans ATCC 3153, C. glabrata (data not shown). Regarding culture media, BHI
IHEM 9556, C. parapsilosis ATCC 22019 and was the most adapted for these experiments (data
Cryptococcus neoformans (clinical strain); one not shown).
mould specie: Aspergillus fumigatus ATCC Antibacterial activity was assessed as previ-
16424 and two dermatophyte species: ously described (Verdon et al. 2008). The 19 EOs
Trichophyton mentagrophytes and T. rubrum were first diluted in acetonitrile (50 %). The
(both clinical strains, hospital of Poitiers tested concentrations of EOs ranged between
(France)). 0.17 mg/mL and 5.50 mg/mL except for
Bacterial strains, except L. pneumophila, were Legionella (0.02–0.90 mg/mL). Microwells
grown in Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) (BactoTM) were inoculated with 100 μL of BHI or BYE
agar medium for 24 h at 37 C. L. pneumophila medium supplemented with the tested strain at
was grown on Buffered Charcoal Yeast Extract 106 CFU/ml and 10 μL of each EO (serial
(BCYE) agar medium supplemented with iron concentrations), and incubated at 37 C for 24 h
pyrophosphate (50 g/L) and L-cysteine (80 g/L) except for Legionella (3 days in 5 % of CO2). For
for 3 days at 37 C in 5 % of CO2. One colony each strain, growth controls without EO, aceto-
was then suspended in buffered yeast extract nitrile controls and negative controls
(BYE) broth medium for Legionella or in BHI corresponding to the culture medium alone
broth medium for other bacterial species. Optical were prepared. Concerning bacterial strains
density (OD) was adjusted to 106 CFU/mL amoxicillin was included as positive control
(OD measured at 600 nm; 1 OD 109 CFU/ (MIC ranging from 6·106 mg/mL for
mL), whatever species. Fungi were first grown S. typhimurium to >256 mg/mL for
on Sabouraud agar slants (Sanofi Diagnostics K. pneumoniae and S. saprophyticus. MICs
Pasteur, Marnes-La-Coquette, France) for 48 to were determined by the unaided eye and con-
96 h at 37 C. Broth cultures were then prepared firmed by a microplate analyzer reading (model
for each strain by transferring a loopful of this Tecan-sunrise). The antifungal activity was
culture in RPMI /MOPS and the final concentra- evaluated according to the CLSI references
tion was adjusted to 0.5 MacFarland before dilu- M27-A3 and M38-A2 micromethods adapted
tion 1:1000 in RPMI /MOPS (Candida spp. and protocols. EOs were first diluted 4:5 in DMSO.
C. neoformans) or 105 CFU/mL after filtration RPMI /MOPS was distributed in a 96-well
for Aspergillus and Trichophyton spp. microplate at 100 μL per well, except for the
first column (200 μL/well); 4 μl of the tested
oils were added in the first column and a serially
2.5 Minimal Inhibitory dilution was performed. Then 100 μL of the
Concentrations preculture were added to each well. The tested
concentrations of EOs ranged between 0.01 mg/
Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations (MIC) were mL and 8.80 mg/mL. The plate was incubated for
performed by microdilution assay in 96 well- 24–48 h (Candida spp.), 48–72 h (C. neoformans
microplates. MIC was defined as the lowest EO and A. fumigatus) or 96 h (Trichophyton spp.) at
27 C, except for Candida spp. (37 C). Flucona- have shown that EOs obtained from a thymol
zole was used as positive controls. Growth chemotype of T. vulgaris (French origin) were
controls without EO and DMSO controls were highly active against C. albicans (MIC
prepared. 80 % ¼ 1.60·102 μL/mL) (Giordani
et al. 2004).
Thymol and carvacrol being the major
3 Results and Discussion components of O. vulgare EOcom, T. ammi
EOcom and T. vulgaris EOtun and com, their anti-
Based on the existence of different chemotypes microbial activity was evaluated against all bac-
for each EO, potentially associated with various terial strains except B. megaterium and
biological activities, the chemical composition of L. pneumophila; results highlighted their inter-
19 EOs was investigated. The full composition of esting activity (carvacrol: MIC < 0.62 mg/mL,
the five Tunisian EOs having been recently thymol: MIC < 0.31 mg/mL) except against
described (Chaftar et al. 2015), only the compo- E. coli (MIC ¼ 2.50 mg/mL). MICs values
sition of commercial oils was detailed in Table 1 were also important against the 3 Candida strains
(components > 4 %). (MIC < 0.35 mg/mL for carvacrol and MIC
The antimicrobial activity of those 19 EOs ¼ 0.10 mg/mL for thymol).
was also investigated against 11 bacterial species So, our results are in agreement with literature
(6 Gram positive, 5 Gram negative) and 7 fungal data showing the wide antimicrobial activity of
species (2 dermatophytes, 1 mould, 4 yeasts) in thymol and carvacrol (Rattanachaikunsopon and
order to bring out EOs with a large spectrum of Phumkhachorn 2010; Xu et al. 2008) and a lim-
activities suggesting a potential for food or water ited occurrence in nature (Pinto et al. 2006); this
applications (Table 2). therefore contributes to the great interest in
Two of the most promising essential oils were essential oils containing these monoterpenes.
T. vulgaris EOtun and O. vulgare EOcom. These They would act by disrupting and altering the
oils had a close composition and were mainly morphogenesis of bacterial and fungal
composed of carvacrol (88.50 % and 66.89 %) membranes (Braga et al. 2007; Trombetta
and ρ-cymene (7.86 % and 21.20 %) respec- et al. 2005). Due to their hydrophobic nature,
tively. They were highly active against all these terpenes interact with the lipid bilayer of
Gram positive (MIC 1.13 mg/mL), all Gram cytoplasmic membranes causing loss of integrity
negative (MIC 0.34 mg/mL) bacteria and and leakage of cellular material such as ions,
against all tested fungal species (MIC 1.80 ATP and nucleic acid; cytoplasmic membranes
mg/mL). T. vulgaris EOtun demonstrated are both permeabilized and depolarized
activities close to those of fluconazole against (Trombetta et al. 2005; Xu et al. 2008). The
C. neoformans and T. rubrum (MICs ¼ 0.02 ver- high carvacrol content in T. vulgaris EOtun
sus 1.60·102 mg/mL). (88.50 %) and O. vulgare EOcom (66.89 %) may
T. vulgaris EOcom, and T. ammi EOcom, both explain the generally superior activity and
mainly composed of thymol (33.63 % and broader spectrum of these oils compared to
49.29 %) and ρ-cymene (33.14 % and 40.75 %) T. vulgaris EOcom and T. ammi EOcom which
respectively, were also active, but their effi- only contained 30 % and 49 % of thymol respec-
ciency only focused on two or four species of tively. However, MICs of carvacrol seemed
Gram positive (MIC 1.25 mg/mL) and two or slightly higher than thymol ones, even if the
one species of Gram negative (MIC 1.25 mg/ differences observed between MIC values were
mL) bacteria and on 6 species of fungi with MIC not obvious for all tested species (Table 2). Fur-
1.80 mg/mL, dermatophytes being the most thermore, these four EOs also contained a signif-
sensitive fungal strains (MIC 0.45 mg/mL). icant proportion (in the range of 7.86–40.75 %)
These high antifungal activities are consistent of the monoterpene ρ-cymene which is a precur-
with results of Giordani and collaborators who sor of carvacrol naturally present in these oils. It
6 N. Chaftar et al.
Table 1 Chemical composition of the 14 EOcom
Citrus Cymbopogon Eucalyptus Melaleuca

RTb Cinnamomum sinensis Cymbopogon Martinii var, globulus alternifolia
Componenta (min) KIc tamala (%) (%) citratus (%) Motia (%) (%) (%)
1S α -pinene 6.33 941 6.55 – – – – 7.77
Camphene 6.78 958 –d – – – – –
ρ-Cymene 8.83 1033 4.59 – – – 5.61 24.22
D-limonene 8.94 1037 – 83.62 – – – –
1.8-cineol 9.06 1041 13.28 – – – 88.91 –
γ-terpinene 9.77 1066 – – – – – 25.56
cis- 10.16 1079 11.72 – – – – –
linalooloxide
trans- 10.62 1093 8.33 – – – – –
linalooloxide
Linalool 10.97 1105 29.64 – – – – –
Camphor 12.42 1158 7.85 – – – – –
D-cis- 12.65 1165 – – – – – –
menthone
D-trans- 12.91 1174 – – – – – –
menthone
Linalool 13.02 1178 7.02 – – – – –
epoxy
Borneol 13.13 1181 – – – – – –
Menthol 13.29 1186 – – – – – –
α-terpineol 13.76 1201 – – – – – 12.04
Neral 14.95 1246 – – 33.16 – – –
Geraniol 15.30 1258 – – – 77.40 – –
Geranial 15.78 1275 – – 49.15 – – –
3-menthene 16.33 1293 – – – – – –
Thymol 16.40 1296 – – – – – –
Carvacrol 16.63 1304 – – – – – –
β-elemene 17.68 1345 – 9.22 – – – –
Eugenol 18.11 1361 – – – – – –
E-Patchenol 18.27 1367 – 4.24 – – – –
Nerol acetate 18.65 1380 – – – 13.07 – –
β-cadinene 21.66 1497 – – – – – 17.76
a
Compounds occupying more than 4 % are listed in order of their elution on the Varian VF-5MS column
b
Retention time
c
Kovats index
d
Not detected
Mentha
piperita Rosmarinus
Franco- Origanum Pinus Rosmarinus officinalis Syzygium Thymus
Mitcham vulgare laricio officinalis camphoriferum aromaticum vulgaris Trachyspermum
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) ammi (%)
– – 68.79 12.06 18.82 – – –
– – – 4.37 8.72 – – –
– 21.20 – – – – 33.14 40.75
– – – – – – – –
6.30 – – 55.74 26.87 – – –
– – – – – – 4.22 –
– – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – –
– – – 14.53 26.07 – – –
23.44 – – – – – – –
8.78 – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – –
– – – 4.83 – – – –
51.43 – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – –
4.60 – – – – – – –
– 4.65 – – – – 33.63 49.29
– 66.89 – – – – 20.71 –
– – – – – – – –
– – – – – 99.70 – –
– – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – –
8 N. Chaftar et al.
Table 2 Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations (mg/mL) of 19 essential oils against the tested strains (five Gram negative
Gram negative bacteria Gram positive bacteria
K. pneumoniae S. typhimurium E. coli P. aeruginosa L. pneumophila B. megaterium S. epidermidis S. xylosus
0502083 124 27325 910704 GC-A11 F04 567 740
(laboratory (laboratory (laboratory (laboratory (laboratory (laboratory (laboratory (laboratory
collection) collection) collection) collection) collection) collecti(on) collection) collection)
Artemisia Aerial >4.50 >4.50 2.25 2.25 >0.90 >4.50 >4.50 >4.50
herba alba parts
Cinnamomum Leaves >4.50 2.25 >4.50 >4.50 >0.90 2.25 4.50 4.50
tamala
Citrus Zest >4.00 >4.00 >4.00 >4.00 >0.80 >4.00 >4.00 >4.00
sinensis
(EOcom)
Cymbopogon Aerial >4.00 >4.00 >4.00 >4.00 0.40 1.00 2.00 2.00
citratus parts
Cymbopogon Aerial 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.80 0.50 1.00 1.00
martinii var. parts
motia
Eucalyptus Leaves >4.50 >4.50 >4.50 >4.50 >0.90 >4.50 >4.50 >4.50
globulus
Juniperus Aerial >4.50 >4.50 4.50 4.50 <0.03 0.56 >4.50 2.25
phoenicea parts
Melaleuca Leaves 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 0.90 2.25 4.50 4.50
alternifolia
Mentha Aerial 4.50 2.25 2.25 2.25 >0.90 2.25 >4.50 2.25
piperita parts
Franco-
Mitcham
Origanum Aerial 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.12 1.13 1.13 1.13
vulgare parts
Pinus laricio needles 1.13 2.25 1.13 1.13 0.23 0.56 1.13 0.56
Rosmarinus Aerial >4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 >0.90 >4.50 >4.50 >4.50
officinalis parts
(EOcom)
Rosmarinus Aerial 5.50 5.50 2.75 2.75 0.55 2.75 5.50 5.50
officinalis parts
(EOtun)
Rosmarinus Aerial >4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 >0.90 >4.50 >4.50 >4.50
officinalis parts
camphori-
ferum
Ruta Aerial >4.00 >4.00 4.00 >4.00 <0.02 0.50 4.00 2.00
graveolens parts
Syzygium leaves 2.50 2.50 1.25 2.50 0.25 1.25 >5.00 >5.00
aromaticum
Thymus Aerial 2.50 2.50 1.25 2.50 0.12 0.31 5.00 1.25
vulgaris parts
(EOcom)
Thymus Aerial 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.34 <0.03 <0.17 0.70 0.34
vulgaris parts
(EOtun)
Trachys- Seeds 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 0.12 0.56 4.50 1.13
permum
ammi
Carvacrol 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.62 –a – 0.31 0.31
Thymol 0.15 0.15 2.50 0.15 – – 0.15 0.15
Fluconazole – – – – – – – –
Amoxicillin >0.25 6·106 4·103 3.20·102 2·103 6.40·102 1.60·102 16·106
a
Not determined
bacteria, six Gram positive bacteria, four yeasts, one mould and two dermatophytes)
Fungi
T. menta-
S. haemolyticus S. saprophyticus L. monoy- C. albicans C. glabrata A. fumigatus grophytes T. rubrum
694 (laboratory 715 (laboratory togenes ATCC IHEM C. parapsilosis C. neoformans ATCC (clinical (clinical
collection) collection) EGDe 3153 9556 ATCC 22019 (clinical strain) 16424 strain) strain)
>4.50 >4.50 2.25 7.20 7.20 7.20 3.60 7.20 7.20 1.80
4.50 >4.50 1.13 3.60 3.60 7.20 1.80 7.20 0.45 0.45
>4.00 >4.00 >4.00 6.40 3.20 3.20 1.60 1.60 0.10 0.05
2.00 2.00 0.50 0.80 0.80 1.60 0.40 0.80 0.05 0.01
1.00 1.00 0.50 0.40 0.80 0.80 0.40 0.80 0.20 0.20
>4.50 >4.50 >4.50 7.20 7.20 7.20 7.20 >7.20 0.45 0.90
>4.50 >4.50 0.30 3.60 >3.60 3.60 3.60 3.60 3.60 3.60
4.50 4.50 2.25 3.60 3.60 3.60 1.80 1.80 0.45 0.45
4.50 >4.50 1.13 1.8 0 3.60 3.60 1.80 0.90 0.11 0.03
0.56 0.56 0.30 0.90 0.90 1.80 0.90 0.90 0.11 0.06
1.13 1.13 0.56 3.60 0.45 1.80 0.23 1.80 0.23 0.23
>4.50 4.50 2.25 7.20 7.20 7.20 7.20 >7.20 3.60 1.80
5.50 >5.50 0. 70 8.80 8.80 8.80 8.80 >8.80 8.80 8.80
4.50 4.50 4.50 7.20 3.60 7.20 3.60 >7.20 0.90 0.45
>4.00 4.00 >4.00 6.40 >6.40 >6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40
2.50 2.50 1.25 4.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 0.13 0.25
5.00 5.00 1.25 1.00 2.00 1.00 0.50 1.00 0.13 0.25
0.70 0.70 0.34 0.30 0.55 0.55 0.02 0.30 0.07 0.02
1.13 1.13 1.13 1.80 1.80 3.60 1.80 1.80 0.45 0.45
0.62 0.62 0.62 0.35 0.17 0.17 – – – –

0.31 0.31 0.31 0.10 0.10 0.10 – – – –
– – – 4·103 3.10·102 8·103 1.60·102 - 1.60·102 1.60·102
125·106 >0.25 16·106 – – – – – – –
10 N. Chaftar et al.
has been reported that ρ-cymene alone would not results, that α-pinene inhibited the growth of
have bactericidal effect on bacteria but would S. epidermidis (Raman et al. 1995).
enhance the antimicrobial activity of carvacrol 1S α-pinene was also found in M. alternifolia
(Burt 2004; Kisko and Roller 2005; Rattanachai- EO, but at a lower concentration (7.77 %), in
kunsopon and Phumkhachorn 2010; Ultee addition to γ-terpinene (25.56 %) and ρ-cymene
et al. 2000). (24.22 %). MICs of M. alternifolia EOcom against
EOcom C. martinii var motia displayed quite all tested species were 2.25 mg/mL except
high activities against all tested strains with MIC against L. pneumophila (MIC ¼ 0.90 mg/mL),
1.00 mg/mL and was especially efficient C. neoformans and A. fumigatus (MIC ¼ 1.80
against both dermatophytes (MIC ¼ 0.20 mg/ mg/mL) and Trichophyton spp. (MIC ¼ 0.45
mL). EOcom of C. citratus was active against mg/mL). Thus, compared to other tested oils,
the L. pneumophila strain (MIC ¼ 0.40 mg/ M. alternifolia EOcom appeared poorly active.
mL), two Gram positive bacteria: These MICs were in accordance with those
B. megaterium and L. monocytogenes (MICs described by Hammer et al. for a M. alternifolia
¼ 1.00 and 0.50 mg/mL respectively) and all EO also obtained from Australian plants (Ham-
tested fungi (MIC 1.60 mg/mL), its highest mer et al. 2012). Moreover, the obtained anti-
activity being against dermatophytes (MIC Candida activity of M. alternifolia EO (MIC
0.05 mg/mL) which is close to the fluconazole ¼ 3.60 mg/mL) was higher than those described
MIC value (MIC ¼ 1.60·102 mg/mL). Our by Nenoff et al (MIC 4.40·103 mg/mL)
results agreed with those of Bassolé (Nenoff et al. 1996) and this oil has recently
et al. (2011) who studied some C. citratus EOs been shown to reduce Candida cell surface
and also reported a high activity against hydrophobicity (Sudjana et al. 2012). Here
L. monocytogenes and a poor one against again, the composition was certainly determin-
P. aeruginosa. P. aeruginosa possesses an intrin- ing; the γ-terpinene content was believed to more
sic resistance to a wide range of biocides which is correlate with the inhibition of filamentation than
associated with the nature of its outer membrane to the antimicrobial activity (Vale-Silva
(Bassolé et al. 2011). et al. 2012), and as previously said, ρ-cymene
So, our results showed that C. citratus and would not have an antimicrobial activity.
C. martinii var motia EOs displayed different Dermatophytes were more susceptible (MIC
activities certainly related to their specific com- ¼ 0.45 mg/mL) than yeasts confirming the
position; geranial (citral A) (49.15 %) and neral potential interest of M. alternifolia oil to treat
(citral B) (33.16 %) were the leading components tineas or ringworm (Pisseri et al. 2009).
of EOcom of C. citratus and geraniol (77.40 %) Four bacterial species were susceptible to
and nerol acetate (13.07 %) were the leading S. aromaticum EOcom with MIC 1.25 mg/
ones of C. martinii var motia oil. Citral is a mL: E. coli, L. pneumophila, B. megaterium
monoterpene with known antifungal properties and L. monocytogenes. MICs obtained for
(Khan et al. 2012; Lima et al. 2012; Park dermatophytes were low (MIC 0.25 mg/mL)
et al. 2009). Citral was shown to be also active whereas other fungi displayed MICs of at least
against L. monocytogenes (Friedman et al. 2002). 1.00 mg/mL. The activity of S. aromaticum
P. laricio oil was rather active against all EOcom could be related to eugenol (99.70 %).
tested species (MIC 1.80 mg/mL) except Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of
S. typhimurium and C. albicans (MIC 2.25 S. aromaticum EO have been already described
mg/mL). This oil mostly contained 1S α-pinene by Chaieb et al. (2007) even if our results do not
(68.79 %) and was highly active against highlight remarkable antibacterial and antifungal
L. pneumophila, C. neoformans and activities. The antifungal activity of eugenol has
Trichophyton spp. (MIC ¼ 0.23 mg/mL). been shown against C. albicans and
Raman et al. reported, in agreement with our T. mentagrophytes, the fungal cellular membrane
being probably its target (Chaieb et al. 2007). 1,8-cineole (13.28 %). Linalool could be mainly
Moreover, Chami et al. (2005) have studied the responsible for the activity of C. tamala EO as its
fungicidal action of S. aromaticum EO on the antimicrobial effect was previously
yeast model Saccharomyces cerevisiae and demonstrated (Pattnaik et al. 1997).
showed that the surface of treated yeasts was Both EOcom and the EOtun of R. officinalis
significantly damaged (Chami et al. 2005). In included in this study showed limited anti-
addition, S. aromaticum EO would show some microbial activity. R. officinalis camphoriferum
potential as a natural preservative or as a source EOcom was only active against Trichophyton spp.
of natural antioxidants for use in pharmaceutical (MIC 0.90 mg/mL). R. officinalis EOcom was
applications (Chaieb et al. 2007). only and slightly active against
L. monocytogenes was the most sensitive L. monocytogenes (MIC ¼ 2.25 mg/mL) and
Gram positive bacterial species to M. piperita T. rubrum (MIC ¼ 1.80 mg/mL). Finally,
Franco-Mitcham EOcom (MIC ¼ 1.13 mg/mL), L. pneumophila (MIC ¼ 0.55 mg/mL) and
dermatophytes and mould being the most sensi- L. monocytogenes (MIC ¼ 0.70 mg/mL) were
tive fungi (MIC 0.90 mg/mL), especially the most susceptible bacterial species to
T. rubrum whose activity was close to that of R. officinalis EOtun, other microorganisms
fluconazole (MIC ¼ 0.03 versus 1.60·102 mg/ showing MICs ranging between 2.75 and > 8.80
mL). These results are generally in accordance mg/mL. The major components of those three
with literature data. For example, Iscan EOs were 1,8-cineole (>55 % for the two
et al. (2002) showed that an EO of M. piperita R. officinalis EOs and >25 % for R. officinalis
inhibited numerous human pathogenic camphoriferum EOcom), camphor (>14 %) and
microorganisms, L. monocytogenes being also 1S α-pinene (>12 %) for both R. officinalis
the most sensitive species (MIC ¼ 0.16 mg/ EOscom and borneol (>11 %) for R. officinalis
mL). Regarding fungi, these authors only studied EOtun. However, it was previously shown that a
the activity of this M. piperita EO against Can- R. officinalis EO (Chinese origin) was active
dida and the obtained MIC was 0.63 mg/mL, against both Gram positive (S. epidermidis,
which is rather close to our results for S. aureus, B. subtilis) and Gram negative (Pro-
C. albicans (1.80 mg/mL) (Iscan et al. 2002). teus vulgaris, E. coli) bacteria and C. albicans
GC-MS analyses showed that this EO contained (Fu et al. 2007). The composition of this EO was
menthol (51.43 %), D-cis-menthone (23.44 %) slightly different from those we have studied: it
and D-trans-menthone (8.78 %). was mainly composed of 1,8-cineole (27.23 %),
In our study, the Italian C. sinensis EOcom α-pinene (19.43 %), camphor (14.26 %), cam-
displayed a very poor antibacterial activity. On phene (11.52 %) and borneol (3.17 %)
the whole, it was associated to MICs > 4.00 mg/ (Fu et al. 2007).
mL and showed MICs ranging between 1.60 mg/ As R. officinalis camphoriferum EOcom,
mL and 6.40 mg/mL against fungi but was par- E. globulus EOcom (Portugal origin) was only
ticularly efficient against dermatophytes (MIC active against Trichophyton spp. (MIC 0.90
0.10 mg/mL). It should be noted that mg/mL). Our results do not agree with those of
C. sinensis EOcom was mainly composed of Damjanovic-Vratnica et al. (2011) who studied
D-limonene (83.62 %). E. globulus EO (from Montenegro) and showed
C. tamala EOcom was active against one bac- its high antimicrobial activity against some Gram
terial strain: L. monocytogenes (MIC ¼ 1.13 mg/ positive and Gram negative bacteria (including
mL) and 3 fungal strains: C. neoformans (MIC E. coli and K. pneumoniae) and the yeast
¼ 1.80 mg/mL) and Trichophyton spp. (MIC C. albicans with MICs ranging from 0.09 mg/
¼ 0.45 mg/mL). It was composed of linalool mL to 1.57 mg/mL. However, in accordance with
(29.64 %), cis-linalooloxide (11.72 %) and our results, this EO was poorly active against
trans-linalooloxide (8.33 %) together with P. aeruginosa (MIC ¼ 3.13 mg/mL)
(Damjanovic-Vratnica et al. 2011). This EO was (dermatophytes, mould and yeasts; MIC 0.55
rich in 1,8-cineole (88.91 %). Eucalyptus EO is mg/mL). The most active EOscom against both
recognized as GRAS (Generally Regarded as bacteria and fungi were those obtained from
Safe) by Food and Drug Authority of USA and O. vulgare and C. martinii var motia and, at a
classified as non-toxic. The use of eucalyptus oil lower level, C. citratus, P. laricio, T. vulgaris
as a flavouring agent in foods (5.00 mg/kg), (EOcom) and T. ammi. Their composition was
candies and confectionery items (15.00 mg/kg) specific and it was impossible to identify one or
has been approved. It is also used in soaps, more shared components that could surely
detergents and perfumes preparations (Batish explain the presence of such an antibacterial
et al. 2008). and antifungal activity.
EOstun from R. graveolens and J. phoenicea Regarding bacteria, B. megaterium and
were generally poorly active against the tested L. monocytogenes were the most susceptible of
species except L. pneumophila and the tested Gram positive ones. The last one had
B. megaterium (MIC < 0.56 mg/mL), and espe- MIC 0.56 mg/mL for four EOscom (O. vulgare;
cially against L. monocytogenes (MIC of P. laricio; C. citratus; C. martinii var motia) and
J. phoenicea EO ¼ 0.30 mg/mL). Up to now, 2 EOstun (J. phoenicea and T. vulgaris).
R. graveolens EO was poorly studied even if B. megaterium, which is susceptible to amoxicil-
Ruta species are a source of active natural lin (MIC ¼ 6.40·102 mg/mL), was also
products (some coumarins and alkaloids) inhibited (MIC values 0.56 mg/mL) by four
(Meepagala et al. 2005; Stashenko et al. 2000). EOscom (C. martinii var motia, P. laricio,
Some data related to the antibacterial properties T. vulgaris and T. ammi) and four EOstun
of J. phoenicea EO (from Morroco) are available (C. sinensis, J. phoenicea, R. graveolens and
and suggest its weak activity against gram nega- T. vulgaris) (Table 2). L. pneumophila strain,
tive bacteria (including E. coli and previously shown to be inhibited by amoxicillin
P. aeruginosa; MIC > 30.00 μL/mL) and mod- (MIC 2·103 mg/mL), was the most suscepti-
erate activity against Gram positive bacteria ble Gram negative strain (MIC 0.40 mg/mL
(including L. monocytogenes; MIC ¼ 1.00 μL/ for nine of the 19 tested EOs), R. graveolens,
mL) (Ait-Ouazzou et al. 2012). J. phoenicea T. vulgaris and J. phoenicea EOstun being the
EOtun was mainly composed of isoborneol most active oils (MIC 0.03 mg/mL) against
(20.91 %) and 1S α-pinene (18.30 %). this species (Table 2).
A. herba-alba EOtun was the less active EO Concerning fungi, the studied dermatophytes
with activity ranging between > 0.90 and (T. mentagrophytes and T. rubrum), which were
7.20 mg/mL. This EO was mainly composed of strongly inhibited by fluconazole (MIC
α-thujone (36.38 %), β-thujone (22.24 %) and ¼ 1.60·102 mg/mL), corresponded to the most
camphor (19.12 %) (Chaftar et al. 2015). Our sensitive strains and had MICs 0.25 mg/mL
results do not agree with those of Mighri for eight EOscom (C. sinensis, C. citratus,
et al. (2010b) who studied four species of C. martinii var motia, S. aromaticum,
Tunisian A. herba-alba and described their rele- M. piperita Franco-Mitcham, O. vulgare,
vant antimicrobial activities. However, any com- P. laricio and T. vulgaris) and MIC 0.07 mg/
parison is difficult because only four bacterial mL for T. vulgaris EOtun.
studied species were in common (E. coli,
S. typhimurium, C. albicans and C. glabrata)
(Mighri et al. 2010b). 4 Conclusion
Among all the studied EOs, the one with the
highest activity was T. vulgaris EOtun which The antimicrobial activity of 19 EOs was
displayed low MIC values against Gram negative investigated and their chemical composition
(MIC 0.34 mg/mL) and Gram positive (MIC was taken into account. Results confirmed the
0.70 mg/mL) bacteria and fungi potential interest of EOs as antimicrobial agents.
Among the tested EOs, T. vulgaris EOtun showed giganteus essential oils alone and in combination.
the widest spectrum of activity and, generally, Phytomedicine 18:1070–1074
Batish DR, Singh HP, Kohli RK, Kaur S (2008)
the lowest MICs. This EO was mainly composed Eucalyptus essential oil as a natural pesticide. For
of carvacrol which was shown to have a stong Ecol Manage 256:2166–2174
and wide spectrum of antimicrobial activity. Bourgou S, Rahali FZ, Ourghemmi I, Saidani Tounsi M
O. vulgare and C. martini var. Motia EOscom (2012) Changes of peel essential oil composition of
four Tunisian citrus during fruit maturation. Scientific-
also displayed a wide spectrum of activity; they WorldJournal 2012:528–593
were mainly composed of carvacrol and geraniol Braga PC, Sasso MD, Culici M, Alfieri M (2007) Eugenol
respectively. Due to their activity against micro- and thymol, alone or in combination, induce morpho-
bial species, these three EOs could thus represent logical alterations in the envelope of Candida
albicans. Fitoterapia 78:396–400
promising candidates for applications in water Burt S (2004) Essential oils: their antibacterial properties
and food protections. In addition, the significant and potential applications in foods – a review. Int J
anti-Legionella and anti-Listeria activity of most Food Microbiol 94:223–253
of the tested EOs constitutes a promising way to Chaftar N, Girardot M, Quellard N, Labanowski J,
Ghrairi T, Hani K, Frère J, Imbert C (2015) Anti
fight against the Legionella and Listeria risk, Legionella pneumophila activity of six essential oils
particularly in the case of recreational water and extracted from Tunisian plants. Chem Biodiv In press.
food respectively. Due to the fact that doi:10.1002/cbdv.201400343
dermatophytes were the most susceptible fungi Chaieb K, Hajlaoui H, Zmantar T, Ben Kahla-Nakbi A,
Rouabhia M, Mahdouani K, Bakhrouf A (2007) The
to both commercial and Tunisian EOs, these EOs chemical composition and biological activity of clove
may have also an interest in cosmetic industries, essential oil, Eugenia caryophyllata (Syzigium
as components of some ointments or creams. aromaticum L. Myrtaceae): a short review. Phytother
Res 21:501–506
Chami F, Chami N, Bennis S, Bouchikhi T, Remmal A
Acknowledgments This Work was partially supported (2005) Oregano and clove essential oils induce surface
by grants from the CMCU (09G824), PHC Utique and the alteration of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Phytother Res
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research of 19:405–408
Tunisia. The authors would like to acknowledge Mrs. Damjanovic-Vratnica B, Dakov T, Sukovic D,
Florine Steinthal and Professor Vic Norris for revising Damjanovic J (2011) Antimicrobial effect of essential
the English text. oil isolated from Eucalyptus globulus Labill. from
Montenegro. Czech J Food Sci 29:277–284
Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have de Sousa JP, de Azeredo GA, de Araujo Torres R, da Silva
no competing interests. Vasconcelos MA, da Conceicao ML, de Souza EL
(2012) Synergies of carvacrol and 1,8-cineole to
inhibit bacteria associated with minimally processed
vegetables. Int J Food Microbiol 154:145–151
References Edris AE, Malone CFR (2012) Preferential solubilization
behaviours and stability of some phenolic-bearing
Ait-Ouazzou A, Lorán S, Arakrak A, Laglaoui A, Rota C, essential oils formulated in different microemulsion
Herrera A, Pagan R, Conchello P (2012) Evaluation of systems. Int J Cosmet Sci 34:441–445
the chemical composition and antimicrobial activity Espina L, Garcia-Gonzalo D, Laglaoui A, Mackey BM,
of Mentha pulegium, Juniperus phoenicea, and Pagan R (2013) Synergistic combinations of high
Cyperus longus essential oils from Morocco. Food hydrostatic pressure and essential oils or their
Res Int 45:313–319 constituents and their use in preservation of fruit
Appendini P, Hotchkiss JH (2002) Review of antimicro- juices. Int J Food Microbiol 161:23–30
bial food packaging. Innovative Food Sci Emerg Fernandez-Pan I, Royo M, Ignacio Mate J (2012) Antimi-
Technol 3:113–126 crobial activity of whey protein isolate edible films
Baatour O, Tarchoune I, Mahmoudi H, Nassri N, with essential oils against food spoilers and foodborne
Abidi W, Kaddour R, Hamdaoui G, Ben Nasri- pathogens. J Food Sci 77:M383–M390
Ayachi M, Lachaâl M, Marzouk B (2012) Culture Friedman M, Henika PR, Mandrell RE (2002) Bacte-
conditions and salt effects on essential oil composition ricidal activities of plant essential oils and some of
of sweet marjoram (Origanum majorana) from their isolated constituents against Campylobacter
Tunisia. Acta Pharm 62:251–261 jejuni, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes,
Bassolé IHN, Lamien-Meda A, Bayala B, Obame LC, and Salmonella enterica. J Food Prot
Ilboudo AJ, Franz C, Novak J, Nebié RC, Dicko MH 65:1545–1560
(2011) Chemical composition and antimicrobial activ- Fu Y, Zu Y, Chen L, Shi X, Wang Z, Sun S, Efferth T
ity of Cymbopogon citratus and Cymbopogon (2007) Antimicrobial activity of clove and rosemary
essential oils alone and in combination. Phytother Res Nenoff P, Haustein UF, Brandt W (1996) Antifungal
21:989–994 activity of the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia
Giordani R, Regli P, Kaloustian J, Mikaı̈l C, Abou L, (tea tree oil) against pathogenic fungi in vitro. Skin
Portugal H (2004) Antifungal effect of various essen- Pharmacol 9:388–394
tial oils against Candida albicans. Potentiation of Park MJ, Gwak KS, Yang I, Kim KW, Jeung EB,
antifungal action of amphotericin B by essential oil Chang JW, Choi IG (2009) Effect of citral, eugenol,
from Thymus vulgaris. Phytother Res 18:990–995 nerolidol and alpha-terpineol on the ultrastructural
Hammer KA, Carson CF, Riley TV (2012) Effects of changes of Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Fitoterapia
Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) essential oil and the 80:290–296
major monoterpene component terpinen-4-ol on the Pattnaik S, Subramanyam VR, Bapaji M, Kole CR (1997)
development of single- and multistep antibiotic resis- Antibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic
tance and antimicrobial susceptibility. Antimicrob constituents of essential oils. Microbios 89:39–46
Agents Chemother 56:909–915 Pinto E, Pina-Vaz C, Salgueiro L, Goncalves MJ, Costa-
Hulankova R, Borilova G, Steinhauserova I (2013) Com- de-Oliveira S, Cavaleiro C, Palmeira A, Rodrigues A,
bined antimicrobial effect of oregano essential oil and Martinez-de-Oliveira J (2006) Antifungal activity of
caprylic acid in minced beef. Meat Sci 95:190–194 the essential oil of Thymus pulegioides on Candida,
Hussain AI, Anwar F, Sherazi STH, Przybylski R (2008) Aspergillus and dermatophyte species. J Med
Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial Microbiol 55:1367–1373
activities of basil (Ocimum basilicum) essential oils Pisseri F, Bertoli A, Nardoni S, Pinto L, Pistelli L,
depends on seasonal variations. Food Chem Guidi G, Mancianti F (2009) Antifungal activity of
108:986–995 tea tree oil from Melaleuca alternifolia against
Iscan G, Kirimer N, Kurkcuoglu M, Baser KHC, Demirci Trichophyton equinum: an in vivo assay.
F (2002) Antimicrobial screening of Mentha piperita Phytomedicine 16:1056–1058
essential oils. J Agric Food Chem 50:3943–3946 Raman A, Weir U, Bloomfield SF (1995) Antimicrobial
Khan MS, Malik A, Ahmad I (2012) Anti-candidal activ- effects of tea-tree oil and its major components on
ity of essential oils alone and in combination with Staphylococcus aureus, Staph. epidermidis and
amphotericin B or fluconazole against multi-drug Propionibacterium acnes. Lett Appl Microbiol
resistant isolates of Candida albicans. Med Mycol 21:242–245
50:33–42 Rattanachaikunsopon P, Phumkhachorn P (2010) Assess-
Kisko G, Roller S (2005) Carvacrol and ρ-cymene inacti- ment of factors influencing antimicrobial activity of
vate Escherichia coli O157:H7 in apple juice. BMC carvacrol and cymene against Vibrio cholerae in food.
Microbiol 5:36 J Biosci Bioeng 110:614–619
Lima IO, de Medeiros Nobrega F, de Oliveira WA, de Rouis Z, Elaissi A, Abid NB, Lassoued MA, Cioni PL,
Oliveira Lima E, Albuquerque Menezes E, Cunha FA, Flamini G, Aouni M (2012) Chemical composition
Formiga Melo Diniz Mde F (2012) Anti-Candida and intraspecific variability of the essential oils
albicans effectiveness of citral and investigation of of five populations of Hypericum triquetrifolium
mode of action. Pharm Biol 50:1536–1541 Turra growing in North Tunisia. Chem Biodivers
Lopez P, Sánchez C, Batlle R, Nerı́n C (2007) Develop- 9:806–816
ment of flexible antimicrobial films using essential oils Shah B, Davidson PM, Zhong Q (2012) Nanocapsular
as active agents. J Agric Food Chem 55:8814–8824 dispersion of thymol for enhanced dispersibility
Meepagala KM, Schrader KK, Wedge DE, Duke SO and increased antimicrobial effectiveness against
(2005) Algicidal and antifungal compounds from the Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria
roots of Ruta graveolens and synthesis of their monocytogenes in model food systems. Appl Environ
analogs. Phytochem 66:2689–2695 Microbiol 78:8448–8453
Mighri H, Akrout A, El-jeni H, Zaidi S, Tomi F, Stashenko EE, Acosta R, Martinez JR (2000) High-
Casanova J, Neffati M (2010a) Composition and intra- resolution gas-chromatographic analysis of the sec-
specific chemical variability of the essential oil from ondary metabolites obtained by subcritical-fluid
Artemisia herba-alba growing wild in a Tunisian arid extraction from Colombian rue (Ruta graveolens L.).
zone. Chem Biodivers 7:2709–2717 J Biochem Biophys Methods 43:379–390
Mighri H, Hajlaoui H, Akrout A, Najjaa H, Neffati M Sudjana AN, Carson CF, Carson KC, Riley TV, Hammer
(2010b) Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of KA (2012) Candida albicans adhesion to human epi-
Artemisia herba-alba essential oil cultivated in thelial cells and polystyrene and formation of biofilm
Tunisian arid zone. C R Chim 13:380–386 is reduced by sub-inhibitory Melaleuca alternifolia
Mohsen H, Ali F (2009) Essential oil composition of (tea tree) essential oil. Med Mycol 50:863–870
Artemisia herba-alba from southern Tunisia. Trombetta D, Castelli F, Sarpietro MG, Venuti V,
Molecules 14:1585–1594 Cristani M, Daniele C, Saija A, Mazzanti G,
Muriel-Galet V, L opez-Carballo G, Gavara R, Bisignano G (2005) Mechanisms of antibacterial
Hernández-Muñoz P (2012) Antimicrobial food pack- action of three monoterpenes. Antimicrob Agents
aging film based on the release of LAE from EVOH. Chemother 49:2474–2478
Int J Food Microbiol 157:239–244
Ultee A, Slump RA, Steging G, Smid EJ (2000) Antimi- warnericin RK and delta-lysin I from Staphylococcus
crobial activity of carvacrol toward Bacillus cereus on warneri. Peptides 29:978–984
rice. J Food Prot 63:620–624 Xu J, Zhou F, Ji BP, Pei RS, Xu N (2008) The
Vale-Silva L, Silva MJ, Oliveira D, Goncalves MJ, antibacterial mechanism of carvacrol and thymol
Cavaleiro C, Salgueiro L, Pinto E (2012) Correlation against Escherichia coli. Lett Appl Microbiol
of the chemical composition of essential oils from 47:174–179
Origanum vulgare subsp. virens with their in vitro Zouari N, Ayadi I, Fakhfakh N, Rebai A, Zouari S (2012)
activity against pathogenic yeasts and filamentous Variation of chemical composition of essential oils in
fungi. J Med Microbiol 61:252–260 wild populations of Thymus algeriensis Boiss. et
Verdon J, Berjeaud JM, Lacombe C, Héchard Y (2008) Reut., a North African endemic species. Lipids Health
Characterization of anti-Legionella activity of Dis 11:28
Adv Exp Med Biol - Advances in Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Public Health (2016) 901: 17–23
DOI 10.1007/5584_2015_5012
Published online: 14 November 2015
Advances in Microbiology, Infectious

Diseases and Public Health: Refractory
Trichophyton rubrum Infections in Turin,
Italy: A Problem Still Present
Vivian Tullio, Ornella Cervetti, Janira Roana, Michele Panzone,

Daniela Scalas, Chiara Merlino, Valeria Allizond,
Giuliana Banche, Narcisa Mandras, and Anna Maria Cuffini
Abstract
Dermatophytosis caused by Trichophyton rubrum is the most common
cutaneous fungal infection in industrialized countries and worldwide with
high recurrence and lack of treatment response. In addition, patients with
cutaneous and concurrent toenail lesions are often misdiagnosed and
therefore treated with an inappropriate therapy. In this study, we evaluated
five previously misdiagnosed cases of T.rubrum chronic dermatophytosis
sustained by two variants at sites distant from the primary lesion. Our
patients were successfully treated by systemic and topical therapy, and
1 year after the end of therapy follow-up did not show any recurrence of
infection.
Our data indicate that the localization of all lesions, the isolation and
the identification of the causative fungus are essential to establish the
diagnosis and the setting of a correct therapeutic treatment to avoid
recurrences.
Keywords
Trichophyton rubrum • Chronic dermatophytosis • Misdiagnosis
O. Cervetti
V. Tullio, J. Roana, D. Scalas, C. Merlino, V. Allizond,
Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin,
G. Banche, N. Mandras, and A.M. Cuffini (*)
Turin, Italy
Bacteriology and Mycology Laboratory, Department of
Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Torino, via M. Panzone
Santena 9, 10126 Turin, Italy A.O.U. Città della Salute e della Scienza, San Lazzaro
e-mail: [email protected] Hospital, Turin, Italy
17
18 V. Tullio et al.
Chronic dermatophytosis is a condition in which opening of hair follicles in the inguinal region
the clinical symptoms persist for more than 1 year (Fig. 2a, b). An intense erythema involved both
with episodes of exacerbation and remission (Hay buttocks and thighs (Fig. 2c). Examination of the
1982; Zaias and Rebell 2003; Prasad et al. 2005). left foot revealed sole and toenail/fingernail
The main etiologic agent is Trichophyton rubrum hyperkeratosis, with nail plate thickened, friable
responsible for 90 % of chronic infections (Di and yellowish (Fig. 2e, f). The left knee (Fig. 2d)
Chiacchio et al. 2014; Nenoff et al. 2014). and the right leg were also involved with flaking
Chronicity is probably related both to fungal cell in net margins.
wall components, such as mannan, that play an
important role in the process of down-modulation Case 4 A Caucasian female of 69 years, with
of cell-mediated immune response of the host and rheumatoid arthritis, treated for 20 years with
to a lack of treatment response (Blake et al. 1991; therapeutic cycles of methotrexate (7.5 mg/
Sato and Tagami 2003; Waldman et al. 2010). week) and prednisone (5 mg/day), presented a
Patients with cutaneous and concurrent toenail chronic erythematous scaly dermatitis extended
lesions are often misdiagnosed and, therefore, to the lower back and rear thigh area, diagnosed
treated with an inappropriate therapy (Larruskain as psoriasis (Fig. 3e). Since 2006, she was treated
et al. 2005). with emollient cream and topical steroids with-
In this study, we evaluated previously out benefit. On physical examination, the patient
misdiagnosed cases of T.rubrum chronic revealed tinea pedis and tinea unguium with sole
dermatophytosis in five patients admitted to the and toenails plate hyperkeratosis (Fig. 3a, b),
Medical Sciences Department, University of squamous lesions on the elbow, on the back and
Torino (Italy), through an investigation of clini- left palm (Fig.3c, d, g). Involvement of the scalp
cal and mycological infection aspects. with flaking dandruff and thinning hair was
observed (Fig. 3f).
Case 1 A 42-year old male, born in Ecuador,
reported a 7-year history of itchy and squamous Case 5 A Caucasian female of 68 years, with
lesions on the soles, toenails, palms and the nail rheumatoid arthritis, treated for several years
plates, before arriving in Italy (Fig. 1a–d). Despite with prednisone (25 mg/day), presented a history
therapies with topical antibacterial agents in his of chronic erythematous scaly dermatitis
native country, the patient had extensive erythema diagnosed as psoriasis and treated with emollient
with painful papules, pustules and crusts in the cream without benefit. A closer examination
chin and beard (Fig. 1e, f). Incomplete alopecia, revealed an intense lamellar desquamation of
associated with follicular nodules most prevalent the toenails and fingernails, hyperkeratosis of
above the upper lip was seen. Hands and the soles and the palms, scaling lesions with
fingernails examination revealed hyperkeratosis sharp margins in the breast, abdomen, inguinal
and distal onycholysis. area, buttocks and thighs, neck and chin.
Mycological analysis of all patient lesions
Case 2 A Caucasian male of 48 years presented was performed. Skin and nail samples were col-
erythematous and squamous lesions on the feet lected, examined under a light microscope (20 %
and toenails. A closer examination revealed scal- KOH + 40 % DMSO preparation) and
ing lesions on the inguinal area and buttocks, inoculated into Mycobiotic agar (Merck,
hands and fingernails plate hyperkeratosis and KGAA, Germany) to detect dermatophytes.
distal onycholysis. Molds identification was based on macroscopic
and microscopic characters of the colonies after
Case 3 A Caucasian female of 78 years reported 15 days of incubation at 25 C.
a 2-week history of extensive erythema with All patients had dermatophytosis and concur-
papules and fine pustules appearing at the rent lesions caused by two variants of T.rubrum:
Advances in Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Public Health. . . 19
Fig. 1 Case 1. A 42-year old, male, born in Ecuador. Squamous lesions on the soles, toenails, palms and nail plates
(a–d); extensive erythema in the chin and beard with follicular nodules above the upper lip (e, f)
downy white-colored colonies with reverse pig- studies (Larruskain et al. 2005). Secondary
ment brownish-yellow (Cases 1, 2, and 3) or deep lesions distributed in other sites were the main
wine-red (Cases 4, and 5). Scant teardrop-shaped demand for medical consultation: in all five
microconidia along septate hyphae were cases, the anatomical sites mainly interested
observed on microscopic colonies examination. were the inguinal area, buttocks, palms and
The primary lesion was localized always in fingernails (tinea unguium). In only one case,
the foot (tinea pedis), in agreement with other tinea capitis was observed (Case 4). Patient
20 V. Tullio et al.
Fig. 2 Case 3. A 78-year old, female, Caucasian. Exten- knee with flaking in net margins (d); toenail and fingernail
sive erythema with papules at the opening of hair follicles hyperkeratosis (e, f)
in the inguinal region (a, b), buttocks and thighs (c); left
4 under methotrexate therapy and patient For all patients a successful treatment with
5, under corticosteroid therapy had risk factors topical (azoles) and systemic (terbinafine hydro-
predisposing them to fungal spread. Tinea in chloride 250 mg/day) antimycotics was carried
such cases tends to be chronic and extended, out. In details, in patient 1, after 4 weeks of
mimicking various skin diseases, such as psoria- treatment, all skin lesions were completely
sis, eczema, etc., as in Patients 4 and 5 (Atzori healed and culture results were negative; both
et al. 2012; Tan et al. 2014). direct mycological and culture were negative
Fig. 3 Case 4. A 69-year old, female, Caucasian, with erythema on lower back and rear thigh area diagnosed as
rheumatoid arthritis. Sole and toenails hyperkeratosis (a, psoriasis (e); scalp with flaking dandruff and thinning hair
b); back and left palm squamous lesions (c, d); extensive (f); squamous lesions on the elbow (g)
22 V. Tullio et al.
also for nails after 3 months. In patient 2, all In conclusion, our data indicate that in all
lesions were completely healed and culture cases of suspected syndrome or when skin
results were negative after 12-weeks of treat- involvement is extended to multiple sites, the
ment. In patient 3, all skin lesions were localization of all lesions, the isolation and the
completely healed after 6 weeks of treatment; identification of the causative fungus are essen-
both direct mycological and culture were nega- tial to establish the diagnosis, prognosis and the
tive for nails after 4 months. In patient 4, after setting of a correct antifungal therapy to avoid
4-weeks of treatment, all skin lesions were recurrences.
completely healed; both direct mycological and
culture were negative also for nails and scalp
after 5 months. In patient 5, after 6-weeks of
References
treatment, all skin lesions were completely
healed and culture results were negative; the Atzori L, Pau M, Aste N et al (2012) Dermatophyte
nail lesions were alleviated after 5-months infections mimicking other skin diseases: a
therapy. 154-person case survey of tinea atypica in the district
The five clinical cases reported in this study of Cagliari (Italy). Int J Dermatol 51:410–415
Balci DD, Cetin M (2008) Widespread, chronic, and
are considered dermatophytosis, affecting both fluconazole-resistant Trichophyton rubrum infection
immunocompetent and immunodeficient in an immunocompetent patient. Mycoses 51:546–548
patients, and fulfilled the diagnostic criteria of Blake JS, Dahl MV, Herron MJ et al (1991) An
T.rubrum chronic dermatophytosis, as indicated immunoinhibitory cell wall glycoprotein (mannan)
from Trichophyton rubrum. J Invest Dermatol
by the literature (Zaias and Rebell 1996; 96:657–661
Böhmer and Korting 1999; Kick and Korting Böhmer U, Korting HC (1999) Trichophyton rubrum syn-
2001; Balci and Cetin 2008; Piñeiro drome with axillary tinea infection. Hautarzt
et al. 2010; Kong et al. 2015). Since in our 50:292–294
Di Chiacchio N, Madeira CL, Humaire CR et al (2014)
group of patients from the beginning a correct Superficial mycoses at the Hospital do Servidor
therapeutic treatment was not carried out or Público Municipal de São Paulo between 2005 and
misapplicated, a gradual spread of the infection 2011. An Bras Dermatol 89:67–71
occurred to the toenails, as secondary site Gupta AK, Cooper EA (2008) Update in antifungal ther-
apy of dermatophytosis. Mycopathologia
involved, constituting the reservoir of infection 166:353–367
that spread later to other sites, such as legs, Hay RJ (1982) Chronic dermatophyte infections. Clinical
groin, hands, face and scalp. On the other and mycological features. Br J Dermatol 106:1–7
hand, it has to be underlined that tinea unguium Kick G, Korting HC (2001) The definition of
Trichophyton rubrum syndrome. Mycoses
is an infection usually more resistant to treat- 44:167–171
ment, whose eradication is difficult even with Kong QT, Du X, Yang R et al (2015) Chronically recur-
appropriate therapy (Gupta and Cooper 2008). rent and widespread tinea corporis due to
For fungal infection eradication, diagnosis Trichophyton rubrum in an immunocompetent patient.
Mycopathologia 179:293–297
must be based on both a correct patient history Larruskain J, Piñeiro L, Idigoras P et al (2005)
and an adequate microbiological study that Dermatophytosis with concurrent lesions in distant
includes the identification of the species isolated. locations. Prognostic and therapeutic significance.
Therefore, it is essential a careful examination of Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 23:191–193
Nenoff P, Krüger C, Schaller J et al (2014) Mycology – an
the patient in toto to avoid inappropriate or update. Part 1: dermatomycoses: causative agents,
wrong therapeutic treatment. In fact, as in the epidemiology and pathogenesis. J Dtsch Dermatol
first patient, the antibiotic treatment was Ges 12:749–777
established solely on the observation of highly Piñeiro L, Larruskain J, Idigoras P et al (2010)
Trichophyton rubrum syndrome: the tip of the iceberg
inflammatory facial injuries that did not present and a preventable outcome. Mycoses 53:186
the typical clinical features of T.rubrum infection Prasad PVS, Priya K, Kaviarasan PK et al (2005) A study
(Yin et al. 2011); hence, the treatment being of chronic dermatophyte infection in a rural hospital.
wrong was ineffective. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 71:129–130
Advances in Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and Public Health. . . 23
Sato N, Tagami H (2003) Severe measles in a young Yin X, Du X, Zhang H (2011) A case of tinea barbae due
female patient with chronic, generalized Trichophyton to Trichophyton rubrum infection by autoinoculation
rubrum infection showing type 2 helper T cell- from the infected fingernails. Mycoses 54:e864–e866
dominant immunologic reactivity. J Am Acad Zaias N, Rebell G (1996) Chronic dermatophytosis
Dermatol 48(5 Suppl):S43–S46 caused by Trichophyton rubrum. J Am Acad Dermatol
Tan Y, Lin L, Feng P et al (2014) Dermatophytosis caused 35:S17–S20
by Trichophyton rubrum mimicking syphilid: a case Zaias N, Rebell G (2003) Clinical and mycological status
report and review of literature. Mycoses 57:312–315 of the Trichophyton mentagrophytes (interdigitale)
Waldman A, Segal R, Berdicevsky I et al (2010) CD4+ syndrome of chronic dermatophytosis of the skin and
and CD8+ T cells mediated direct cytotoxic effect nails. Int J Dermatol 42:779–788
against Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton
mentagrophytes. Int J Dermatol 49:149–157
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
OUR SERMON.
In adopting this heading for a series of articles, which will be
continued as occasion offers, we are very far from intending to
startle our readers with a rush of theological disquisition. In proof of
our sincerity, and as an earnest of the gist of our discourses, we
have chosen as a standing text, or motto, the golden rule of “peace
and goodwill to all men;” but while we leave intact the functions of
the divine, it is our business, as we conceive it to be our duty, to
sermonize on the morals of trade, the social relations of every-day
life, and even the proprieties which enhance every species of
domestic enjoyment.
A right understanding of the relative duties of master and man, or
of employer and the employed, yields to no subject in importance;
peculiar incidents, induced by a rapidly increasing population, the
tendency of commercial wealth to accumulate in masses, and its
employment under the familiar term “capital,” through the agency of
individuals, in the construction of great works, constitutes, however,
an era in the Building trade to which former periods bear no very
strict analogy. In offering our humble opinions upon actuating causes
and their effects, be the subject what it may, we will never lose sight
of our text; we shall make use neither of angry words nor
denunciations; peace is too lovely to our minds, and charity too
imperative to be abandoned; we would dispel the darker and sterner
passions, giving every brother full credit for good intentions, and
assign occasional deviations from the path of right rather to
misfortune than intention. Whatever the class of men addressed or
dealt with, this, we are convinced, is the best and only true policy. It
may be very well for any one to talk of their anger being aroused, or
their indignation excited, and so on, and under such pleas to vent
abuse, imprecate a thousand vengeances, and the like, but, depend
upon it, fear is less to be relied on than love; we would win a child to
our love, not deter it by frowns and coercion;—we would have a
thousand friends rather than a single enemy.
Who has not heard of the tale of the traveller, upon whom the sun
and wind essayed their power? These elements, as the fable puts it,
were at issue as to which was superior, and agreed to rest the
decision upon the effect they should produce upon the first wayfarer.
Well, first the wind fell to work, and blew with all his might, to compel
the subject of their experiment to throw off his cloak, but the more
vehemently the man was assailed, the closer he wrapped the
garment about him; in turn the sun made trial of his power, and
genial warmth soon accomplished what the bluster of the ruder
element had made more and more difficult. So in human policy the
kindly glow excited by generous sentiments and actions will succeed
where threats, force, and even punishments have failed. The human
heart has no such obduracies but that charity will overcome them.
It is a part of our present purpose to refer to practical benevolence
of this nature, and it will be found in an extract from the Leeds
Mercury, given in another part of our paper, on the subject of the
treatment of workpeople, by Sir John Guest, at Merthyr Tydvil, and
the Messrs. Marshall, of Leeds. These, thank God, and for the
honour of our country, are not solitary instances. These gentlemen
stand not alone in the practice of that soundest principle of Christian
political economy which instructs the rich to dispense of their
abundance for the benefit of their poorer brethren. We have Master
Builders in every department, proprietors of large works and
establishments, whose names we could hold up to the admiration of
their craft and country, but we will not do this violence to their
unobtrusive merit, neither will we invite invidious comparisons by
such selections; we would rather hold up these Christian duties for
common emulation, and call upon all to “go and do likewise.”
We open, then, our exhortations to Masters, because we know
that the first impulse of benignant power must originate with them;
kindness from them may be likened to the sun in its influence, and
most surely will it be returned with usurious interest “into their basket
and their store.”
Who ever saw the good father of a family putting firm faith in virtue
and honour, and regulating his household by their dictates, failing to
raise up virtuous, amiable, and honourable citizens? or, to put the
case stronger, who ever knew the man that acted upon opposite
principles succeed in sowing any thing but vice and discord? Depend
upon it, then, the same principles and rules apply in business, from
the overseer of the smallest undertaking to the governor of a nation.
Fatherly solicitude for those under our care, or for whom we bear
any responsibility, is as solemn and sacred a duty as the fulfilment of
contracts or engagements; nay, it is the first of duties between man
and man.
On the other hand, as to the workman,—fidelity—and more, the
same generous kindness towards his master is required, as that he
would receive; in fact, “to do unto others us you would be done by,”
is the great and universal secret of social happiness.
It is with this view of relative duties that we deem it of as much
importance to engage ourselves in giving good counsel to our craft,
as in enlightening them on principles of science pertaining to their
several callings; for of what avail will it be to a man to possess all the
knowledge of his art, if his heart be corrupt, or continue under vicious
influences? Away with, as dross, all the ability of the engineer,
architect, master builder, or workman, if the man be not endowed
with moral excellence. What are beautiful designs, imposing
structures, mechanical skill, or ingenious artifice in workmanship,
without a mind and heart in harmony with the superior inspirations
which virtue alone bestows? This, this indeed must come first as the
base of the pyramid. In any other case the pyramid may be there,
but it topples, leans, or lies on its side; the same inherent beauty
may exist, but its position and action are superadded elements of
deformity. Oh, how beautiful the human mind when lit up and guided
by the impulses of virtue! how terrible and loathsome when passion
and gaunt sensuality have their sway!
Guard, my beloved countrymen, against avarice, envy, malice;
avoid contentions; be moderate in the desire of gain; repine not at
another’s success in life, or the distinctions he may attain to; cast all
rancorous suggestions far from your heart; contend not in any unholy
spirit of craving competition; “live, and let live,” is a maxim which we
conjure you at all times to observe.
In times of commercial depression, aggravate not your own or
another’s suffering; these, like seasons of sickness and malady,
must and will have their recurrences, and they will recur more
frequently, and press more grievously, where brotherly love and
charity, the great preventative and remedy of human ills, are
neglected. Let none imagine it his privilege to be exempt from these
obligations; let us not, because we see a neighbour unmindful of his
duties in any of the multifarious walks of life, think ourselves justified
in departing from our superior policy; neither must we judge and
condemn; inflict, if you will, pains and penalties on yourself, but you
have no right to do so on another.
Pardon us, good brothers of our building fraternity, and you who
do us the favour to lend an ear to our counsellings, if we thus seek to
engage your attention, and offer our well-meant importunings.
Should your approving suffrages incite a continuance of our
vocation, it will be our ambition to discuss the relative duties of the
stations you respectively fill—master, apprentice, or workman; father,
brother, son, or husband; neighbour or friend; and to do as we have
now done, namely, try to improve each and all, and in doing so,
promote, in some degree, the cause of human happiness.
TREATMENT OF WORK-PEOPLE BY
THEIR EMPLOYERS.
In an article under this head it was mentioned that the
parliamentary inquiry into the payment of wages in goods had
shewn, that there are persons extensively engaged in manufactures
of various kinds, who feel that the employment of bodies of
workpeople involves a degree of responsibility to care for their
general well-being, and who act on that conviction in a manner
highly creditable to themselves, and conducive to the excellent
object they have in view. These employers are of opinion that to
regard as a machine a man whose skill or industry assists them to
maintain their own families in respectability, is altogether unchristian,
and that by viewing workpeople in such a light, they would deprive
themselves of some of the finest opportunities of usefulness, and of
cementing the bonds of society.
Of course, as the intention in moving for a committee of the House
of Commons was to expose grievances, it was not likely that any
examples of conduct distinguished for its humanity would be found in
the pages of the report. As we remarked, however, when formerly
writing on the subject, illustrations of this kind might be obtained by
any one from our own neighbourhood. We had only last week the
pleasure of visiting an extensive range of school buildings just
erected on the best principles, in connection with Messrs. Marshall’s
mill at Holbeck. In that suite of rooms there are between 300 and
400 children under daily instruction, independent of about 160 boys,
who work half-time at the factory, and are at school either in the
morning or afternoon of every day; the same gentlemen have also
instituted girls’ and infant schools (which are situated elsewhere),
and a night school, attended by young men and women from the
mill, whose improvement in conduct as well as attainments, in
consequence of this arrangement, is spoken of as highly gratifying.
In the several schools every thing seems to be done to promote the
comfort of the young, and to cultivate habits of cleanliness and
decorum, as well as to impart an excellent plain education.[2] Plans
for affording the means of recreation to the adult workpeople have
also been devised in connection with these buildings; and all
manifests that a sincere interest is felt by the members of the firm in
the welfare of every class in their employ.
The principal example of attention to the interests of workpeople
which came under the notice of the parliamentary committee, was
that of Sir John Guest and Co., at their iron and coal works, Dowlais.
These works, which were established from thirty to forty years since,
“in an isolated place on the top of a hill,” in Glamorganshire, have
now a town around them (Merthyr Tydvil), and nearly 5,000 persons
are employed by this firm alone. In the first instance, great difficulty
was experienced by the workpeople in procuring the means of
lodging, but in the course of time this was removed by the erection of
a large number of cottages at the expense of the company, and by
the people being encouraged to build dwellings for themselves. The
cottages belonging to the firm are stated to be low-rented,
convenient, well built, well drained, and the taking of them is quite
optional with the workpeople; while the granting of loans to steady
men to build cottages for themselves has been pursued to a
considerable extent, and has been found to attach them to the place,
to keep them from the ale-house, and to produce and confirm in
them a feeling of independence.
The amount of each individual’s wages at this extensive
establishment is settled every Friday evening, and the whole of the
hands are paid on the morning of Saturday; shewing that a large
number of workpeople is no barrier to the early payment of wages if
employers are determined to adopt that highly beneficial practice.
Nearly twenty-four years ago, Sir John Guest and his partners
recognised the responsibility which attached to them as employers
by erecting large schools, near the works at Dowlais, chiefly for the
education of the children of their workmen, but (like Messrs.
Marshall) not confined to them. There are at present about 220 girls
and 250 boys under instruction, the children being admitted at the
age of six, and usually remaining until thirteen years old. The
teachers are well paid, and the whole expenses of the schools are
defrayed by the workpeople and employers together, in the following
manner:—Twopence in the pound is stopped every week “for the
doctor” from the wages of every one in the works, of which 1½d. is
appropriated to provide medical attendance for the families of the
workmen, and the remainder goes towards the support of the
schools. Each child is also expected to pay one penny a week, and
whatever is wanting to make up the amount incurred in maintaining
the educational establishments is contributed by the company. In
connection with the schools, it is worthy of notice that Mr. Evans, the
manager at Dowlais (from whose evidence our facts are drawn),
expressed before the committee a strong conviction, as the result
both of his own observation for above twenty years, and of the
statements of colliers themselves, that for a collier to put his child to
work in the pits very young is decidedly bad economy; instead of
gaining, the family loses by it in the long run, while the unfortunate
victim of error or cupidity becomes decrepit and unfit for work when
individuals of the same age are in possession of mature strength.
Very few of the children taught in the schools at Dowlais become
colliers, the greater number being qualified for employment as
carpenters, smiths, and, in some instances, even book-keepers. “We
derive very great advantage,” says Mr. Evans, “from having children
in the works who have been educated there; they are of great use to
us.” Here, then, is a proof to masters who have not yet exerted
themselves for the elevation of the families dependent on them, but
are disposed to do so, that such a course is not only beneficial to
others, but brings a reward to every one who adopts it. The medical
attendants on the workpeople at Dowlais consist of three regular
surgeons and a dispenser, whose services are remunerated chiefly
by the money stopped from the wages. In 1827 a fund for the relief
of the sick and aged was formed, one penny in the pound being
stopped every week to furnish the necessary supply for the wants of
those who are thus unable to provide for themselves; this fund is at
the disposal of a committee, elected yearly by all the contributors.
From the peculiar circumstances of the district, when the works of
Sir John Guest and Co. were established, and for many years after,
it was desirable and even needful that the firm should afford their
workpeople the means of obtaining the necessaries of life by
maintaining a shop on the premises. In 1823, however, they closed
it, but once again opened it at the request of the men in 1828. On the
act against truck shops being passed in 1831, the workmen were
called together and desired to state whether they wished the store
belonging to the firm still to be continued. The votes were taken by
ballot, and thirteen only were given for the discontinuance; but as
there was not perfect unanimity, the company thought it best that the
shop should be finally closed at that time; and the increase of
population having had the usual effect of attracting private
individuals to supply the wants of the community, the only result of
this step was to shut up an establishment where the labouring
classes were always sure of buying good articles at a moderate
price. The accommodation being no longer necessary, we think the
company’s decision was a wise one.
It is gratifying to find that no loss whatever has been entailed on
Sir John Guest and Co. by all the beneficial regulations adopted by
them on behalf of their workpeople. On the contrary, “by the
education of the people,” Mr. Evans states, “we have gained more
than we have spent upon them.” And this gentleman expressed
himself as feeling certain that if a similar system were extended over
the manufacturing and mining districts of the whole country, it would
prove the cheapest and most effectual mode of benefiting both the
working classes and employers, and consequently society at large.
Of course, the details of the system at Dowlais, or at any other
establishment of which an account is before the public, are not
essential to its being adopted with advantage in other parts of the
country, though the success which has attended those plans gives
them a title to careful consideration; the thing to be desired is, that
each employer should ask himself how far he can adopt the
principle, and then carry into operation the dictates of his own
judgment and conscience.—Leeds Mercury.
[2] The ventilation of the new school-rooms appears to be

remarkably effective—a point of great importance where so many
individuals are for three hours at a time congregated together.
The playground also is being extremely well laid out.
Reviews.
Temples, Ancient and Modern, or Notes on Church Architecture. By
William Bardwell, Architect. London: Fraser & Co., and
Williams.
Mr. Bardwell, in the Preface to this work, states his object to be
—
“To endeavour to excite among architects a spirit of inquiry such
as cannot fail to prevent a repetition of those improprieties the
existence of which in our public edifices has so long afforded subject
for complaint and matter for criticism;” and “to put an end to that
inconsistency which is the cause of error,—namely, the tyranny of
custom and the caprice of fashion: which, while they compel the
modern architect to copy in little and with meaner materials the
sublime works of revered antiquity, indulge a laugh at his expense,
because his reproduction fails to excite those sensations of pleasure
and admiration which are inseparable from a contemplation of the
original.”
Passing over the first three chapters of the work, which, although
they contain much excellent matter of opinion, to which all may
subscribe, do nevertheless open a door to controversy, and this it is
our desire to avoid,—we come to Chapter IV. This is headed “Errors
in the details of late-erected Churches, a connected series of critical
observations;” and has for its object, by stringing together a number
of critiques from the Gentleman’s Magazine and other sources, to
call attention to the prevalent errors of past design, and to enunciate
correct principles for future practice. We quite agree with Mr.
Bardwell, that “notwithstanding the querulous tone in which the
writers have occasionally indulged, the extracts contain many hints
that may be permanently useful;” and would wish that the spirit of a
following paragraph could be always borne in mind by the critic and
reviewer. “The legitimate object of criticism,” says our author, “is to
improve the future, rather than to cast ill-natured censure upon the
past.” However, we cannot take exception to Mr. Bardwell’s
discharge of his duty. He has most appositely given these extracts
through a whole chapter, and placed them in admirable order for
study and profitable reflection. No one can read through this chapter
attentively without being impressed with a desire to contribute his
part to the rectification of such errors as are therein pointed out—it
will awaken many to an active investigation where other modes of
expression or remonstrance would probably fail.
In Chapter V. Mr. Bardwell enters into the great question that
awaits us at every approach to a comprehensive study in
architecture—the origin. Speculation on this point is in its nature
endless; but it is highly gratifying to feel occasionally that we are
thrown in the way of facts, and such it is the province of this chapter
to treat us to. With a little prefatory matter in the way of an assault
upon the hitherto deemed orthodox authorities on such subjects, and
upon the principle of adherence to rule and precedent, and upon the
little fables of an inventive tradition, assigning to this accident or that
the origin of this or that feature, plan, and style, we come to the
“burden of the book,”—Temples; and have a most interesting
dissertation on those of ancient character, or on what we may more
aptly term sacred edifices, memorials, or monuments.
“An altar of turf or of stones, stones of memorial, such as that set
up at the grave of Jacob’s beloved Rachel, the great stone near the
oak at Shechem, Absalom’s Pillar, Jacob’s Bethel, Samuel’s
Ebenezer, the Gilgal, or circle of stones, of Joshua; a heap of
unhewn stones, the Pandoo Koolies, of Hindostan, the numerous
pillars set up by the Phœnician merchants, on the shores of the
Mediterranean, in France, in Sweden; and in Great Britain, circles
and rows of huge stones, like those of Stonehenge, Abury, &c.;
cromlechs and logan stones, a portable ark, or tabernacle, were the
first sacred monuments. Next came the pyramid, a cylinder, whether
a cippus or a column; a cubical block, with a particular member
superadded to the regularity of mathematical proportions. A sphere
and a tetrahedron; and last succeeded a vase covered with a flat lid,
and adorned with various sculptures from the vegetable and marine
world.”
Thus Mr. Bardwell connects with religion the first memorable and
permanent efforts of Building Art—sacrifice he shows to have been
associated with, and to have guided the workings of, the first
builders, from the “primeval altar of little more than a raised hearth,
built generally of unhewn stones,” to the “column or stone pillar of
mystic character—‘And Jacob rose up early in the morning, and took
the stone that he had put for his pillow, and set it up for a pillar, and
poured oil upon the top of it; and he called the name of that place
Beth-El.’” “The Greeks also erected pillars which they called
‘Baitulia,’ evidently derived from Beth-El, involving the same mystery,
and both supposed to be symbols of the Divine Presence.”
Chapter VI. increases in interest, and is devoted to the Temple of
Ammon.
“The Temple of Ammon, the remains of which archæologists, for
many powerful reasons, agree are extant in the enormous pile
known as the Temple of Karnac, is by far the most extensive, as well
as the most ancient, of the Theban edifices; properly belonging to
the whole period of the monarchy, and may with propriety be termed
the Temple of the Pharaohs, the majority of whom, in succession,
more particularly such as are celebrated in history, contributed their
efforts to its enlargement and magnificence. From numerous
authorities it seems clear that Ham, the son of Noah, the Amun,
Ammon, or Osiris of the Egyptians, must be considered as the
original founder of Thebes, or the city of Ammon, as his son
Mizraim, Misor, or Menes, was by common consent the founder of
Memphis; so that the temple of Ammon or Ham was, in all
probability, originally named from its founder, like the Temple of
Solomon at Jerusalem.”
We cannot take our readers along with us as we would by quoting
largely from this interesting chapter, nor will we presume to dispose
of the work by this brief and imperfect notice; it deserves much more
at our hands; it is written with an enlarged feeling, and a genuine
spirit of devotion to the sublime art upon which it treats; it is erudite,
and occasionally profound; but we must take our leave of it for the
present, concluding with another extract from the same chapter.
“The remains of Karnac are about 2,500 feet from the banks of the
Nile, on an artificial elevation, surrounded by a brick wall, about
6,300 yards in circuit. The chief front of the temple (the western) is
turned towards the river, with which it was connected by an alley of
colossal crio-sphinxes, leading down to the bank of the river. Here
the devotee would land who came from a distance to the shrine of
Ammon, and with amazement and a feeling of religious awe would
he slowly walk along between the majestic and tranquil sphinxes to
the still more magnificent propylæ of the building. This colossal
entrance is about 360 feet long and 148 high; the great door in the
middle is 64 feet high. Passing through this door-way, he would enter
a long court, occupied by a row of pillars on the north and south
sides, and a double row of taller pillars running down the middle.
These pillars terminated opposite to two colossal statues in front of a
second propylon, through which, after ascending a flight o’ twenty-
seven steps, we enter the great hypostyle hall, which had a flat stone
roof, supported by one hundred and thirty-four colossal pillars, some
of which are twenty-six feet in circumference, and others thirty-four.
The width of this magnificent hall (for the entrance is in the centre of
the longest side) is about 338 feet, and the length or depth 170 feet.
The centre column supported a clere-story, in which were small
windows. Four beautiful obelisks mark the entrance to the adytum,
which consists of three apartments entirely of granite. The centre or
principal room is 20 feet long, 16 wide, and 13 feet high. Three
blocks of granite form the roof, which is painted with clusters of gilt
stars on a blue ground. Beyond this are other porticos and galleries,
which have been continued to another propylon at the distance of
2,000 feet from that at the western extremity of the temple.”
English Patents for 1841. By Andrew Pritchard, M.R.I., &c.

Whitaker and Co., London. 2s. 6d.
We had commenced the selection of a list of patents from this
excellent compendium, with the intention of laying before our readers
all those pertaining to the Building Art, but found that we should have
to reprint nearly the whole of the book; so comprehensive is the
range we have chosen, and so ingenious the class we have the
honour to serve. Of 441 patents herein entered, by far the largest
proportion are as we have stated; and we can only, therefore, refer
to the work itself. Besides the above list of patents, there is
appended a copy of Letters Patent, an abstract of the Registration of
Designs Act, and a notice respecting its operation, concluding with a
useful Index, which shews at one glance what you would refer to.
The value of such a work as this is not to be estimated. All persons
intending to take out patents should look over its pages, as it may
save much trouble and expense. We know of many who would have
been great gainers had they had such a guide at their elbows.
MISCELLANEOUS.
There is a consideration which entitles architecture to a decided
pre-eminence amongst the other arts. It is itself the parent of many
separate professions, and requires a combination of talents and an
extent of knowledge for which other professions have not the
smallest occasion. An acquaintance with the sciences of geometry
and mechanical philosophy, with the arts of sculpture and design,
and other abstruse and elegant branches of knowledge, are
indispensable requisites in the education of a good architect, and
raise his art to a vast height above those professions which practice
alone can render familiar, and which consist in the mere exertion of
muscular force. From these considerations it appears there is some
foundation in the very nature of architecture for those extraordinary
privileges to which masons have always laid claim, and which they
have almost always possessed—privileges which no other artists
could have confidence to ask, or liberty to enjoy.—Ency. Brit., Vol.
XIV., p. 280.
Alison on French Architecture.—In France we find that public
works have been reared at an expense not exceeding that of edifices
of little or no excellence in our own country, even although the
charges of building are not materially different in the two countries.
So true it is, that the most essential elements in architectural beauty
—genius and taste in the architect, are beyond the power of mere
wealth to command—that it is not money to construct beautiful
edifices, but the mind to conceive them, which is generally wanting.
It would seem, therefore, that it is the pure taste and noble
conceptions of the artists of Southern Europe, rather than in any
great excellence in the materials at their command, or the wealth of
which they have the disposal, to which we must ascribe their
remarkable superiority to those of this country.
Devonshire House, Piccadilly.—The additions and alterations
which are being made to this fine old mansion, the residence of His
Grace the Duke of Devonshire, are proceeding rapidly, and will add
considerably to the extent as well as to its internal arrangements. Mr.
Decimus Burton is the architect, and Messrs. Woolcott and Son are
the contractors, for these works, which will yet take many months to
complete. The Duke is for the present staying at his princely abode,
Chatsworth.
Church Extension.—There are now twelve new churches
building, or about to be commenced, in various parts of the
metropolis; one in the Kent-road, in the parish of St. George,
Southwark; one in the parish of Paddington; another on the site of
the Old Broadway Chapel, Westminster; a large church, with a lofty
Gothic tower, in which a musical peal of bells is to be placed, in
Wilton-square, Knightsbridge; three in Bethnal-green parish, and a
church in St. Pancras parish. Sites have been chosen for a new
church in the Waterloo-road district of Lambeth parish; another in St.
Botolph Without, Aldgate, in the county of Middlesex; and a third in
St. George’s-in-the-East. The new parish church of St. Giles’s,
Camberwell, building on the site of the old edifice, which was
destroyed by fire, is progressing rapidly, and will be a noble and
spacious edifice. The new church at Paddington will be a great
ornament to that neighbourhood. The University of Durham has
granted 400l. towards the erection of a new church at South Shields.
It is intended to build a new Roman Catholic Church in the eastern
part of the metropolis. The site chosen is a large piece of ground on
the south side of the Commercial-road, and it is expected that the
total cost of the edifice and the purchase of the ground will not fall
short of 30,000l.
NOTICES.
To Advertisers.—This first impression of Five Thousand is
reserved for sale in London and the large Provincial Towns. The next
impression of five thousand will be stamped, so as to pass post-free,
and will be circulated gratuitously on the 7th of January, 1843,
amongst that number of the nobility, gentry, clergy, professional men,
and principal tradesmen, all over the United Kingdom, according to a
list which has most generously been placed at our disposal for that
purpose by a friend. It is important, therefore, to advertisers that they
should seize the opportunity thus afforded them of a special and
select notification of their business among a class of such
importance. It may be affirmed, indeed, that a circulation of this
character and amount is superior to one of four times the number of
copies dispersed at random, in the ordinary way of sale. Additional
advertisements, therefore (if sufficient in number) will be inserted in a
Supplement to accompany this gratuitous circulation, as well as the
future sale, and should be sent to the Office at latest, on Thursday,
the 5th of January. The charge for advertisements in the Supplement
will be 15s. per quarter column, 1l. 10s. per half column, and so on;
smaller advertisements according to agreement. To insure more
attention to the Supplement, as well as to secure an additional
circulation for it, it will contain matter of interest as to the progress of
the first impression, correspondence, and the like. Our prospects
hitherto have been so far gratifying as to give us confidence that the
whole number of 20,000 copies of the Precursor will be disposed of!
To our Readers.—As we do not choose to trust our own

judgment on a subject in which so many are interested besides
ourselves, and as it is so easy to obtain an opinion by which we may
be guided, we think it right in this place to invite attention to our
views on the subject of the future character of “The Builder.” Before
a month shall have elapsed, at least 20,000 numbers of this paper
will, in all probability, have been circulated, and will have passed
under the review of twenty times that number of readers. They, and
in particular our Building friends, will have made up their minds as to
whether “The Builder” is a work to be encouraged—it certainly is
not our desire to attempt to force the point, although we would use a
little “gentle violence” to develope the evidence—and this we may be
supposed to be doing now. We have said that there are two parties
to this, as to every other question—the public and ourselves. It is not
for us to tell the public that they know nothing of their own wants,
and to attempt to force them into the belief that such a paper as “The
Builder” is absolutely necessary, but unless we had taken this step
on our own responsibility, the question would have remained
undetermined. What we would ask of the Building public then is—Do
you wish to have a periodical devoted to your interests, as we
propose? and whether would you have it a Magazine and Advertiser
simply, or as a Newspaper conjoined? In the former case it might be
weekly or monthly, in the latter it must necessarily be weekly. As to
the price and size: If a Magazine and Advertiser of twelve pages of
the size of our present number, we should say 3d. the number,
stamped 4d.; if a Newspaper of sixteen pages, we do not think it
could be less than 6d. Every body has seen the Illustrated London
News, and allowing for difference in the character of the illustrations
(those in “The Builder” being devoted entirely to art and science),
you will be able to judge of the appearance which the latter will
present. We are only anxious to undertake no more, or, no less, than
can reasonably be expected to be carried out. If it should appear
from experience of the working that more can be accomplished, we
shall most gladly acknowledge and act upon it, by either enlarging
the paper, or reducing the price. But we still think that to conjoin the
character of a Magazine and Newspaper, and at the cost of one to
give the advantages of both, will be to study the true economy of our
cause.
The readers, therefore, have much of the settlement of the
question in their own hands—even to the influencing of the
advertisers. All advertisers look for papers of large circulation, and
as advertisements are a great means of support to a newspaper, it is
evident that the more “The Builder” is supported by the mere
reader, by so much the more does it stand a chance of support from
advertisers. We venture, therefore, to speak in this business as
though we were ourselves less concerned in its issue than we really
feel to be—and we urge upon our honoured fellow-craftsmen to
make this paper their own. Let it be a sign or standard of union.
We do not ask to have subscriptions forwarded, but we would
respectfully request to be favoured by an immediate intimation front
all parties as to their willingness to subscribe, and which they would
prefer, a Magazine alone, or Magazine and Newspaper.
We trust it will be considered that we are pursuing a
straightforward and ingenuous course, willing to be guided by
circumstances, rather than to seek to force or control them, or to
stake upon our own presumptuous judgment that which a prudent
and discreet man would say should be left to the decision of the
common voice and experience.
Pardon us if we once more urge you to rally round “The Builder.”
ADVERTISEMENTS.
BAZAAR PANCLIBANON, 58, BAKER-STREET, PORTMAN-
SQUARE.—KITCHEN RANGES, STOVE GRATES, FURNISHING
IRONMONGERY.—The stock of this vast establishment has been
renewed, with an extensive selection of every description of
domestic furniture, usually found in the ironmongery department.
Every requisite for the Kitchen, in Copper, Iron, or Tin, of first-rate
qualities, the prices being marked in plain figures, for READY
MONEY. Kitchen ranges and cooking apparatus upon approved
principles, including useful and modern improvements. The higher
class of goods comprises an enlarged assortment of register and
stove grates, in steel and black metal, with fenders and fire-irons to
correspond, suitable to drawing and dining rooms, libraries, halls,
and chambers, in various styles of ornamental embellishment now in
vogue, and of improved modes of construction, calculated to insure
safety with economy.
A very large assemblage of baths, of sound make, and adapted to
all purposes of health and comfort; comprehending shower, plunge,
and vapour baths; those proper to the nursery, with hip, foot, and
knee baths, and peculiar shapes convenient for embrocation; among
these enumerated, are varieties fitted with practical improvements
for the ready application of this valuable resource to the invalid, or in
cases of sudden indisposition.
A commodious saloon has been added to receive a new stock
containing Appendages to the tea table, including papier maché and
iron tea trays of great beauty of design, and tasteful display of
ornament. Tea and coffee urns and coffee machines of the best
quality, of London make, comprising every useful improvement in
those articles.
Tea services in Britannia metal, of superior quality, and in
considerable variety of shape and pattern. A costly display of plain

PDF Advances in Microbiology Infectious Diseases and Public Health Volume 2 1St Edition Gianfranco Donelli Eds Ebook Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PDF Advances in Microbiology Infectious Diseases and Public Health Volume 2 1St Edition Gianfranco Donelli Eds Ebook Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PDF Advances in Microbiology Infectious Diseases and Public Health Volume 2 1St Edition Gianfranco Donelli Eds Ebook Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Advances in Microbiology Infectious

Diseases and Public Health Volume 2

Advances in Microbiology Infectious Diseases and Public

Advances in Microbiology Infectious Diseases and Public

Advances in Microbiology, Infectious Diseases and

Fungal Biofilms and related infections Advances in

A Modern Approach to Biofilm-Related Orthopaedic

Practical clinical microbiology and infectious

Infectious Diseases of the Horse Diagnosis pathology

Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology: Volume 2:

Gianfranco Donelli Editor

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13513

ISSN 0065-2598 ISSN 2214-8019 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016935504

# Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Comparative evaluation of the antimicrobial activity

Emergence of Escherichia coli Sequence Type 131 (ST131)

Comparative evaluation of the

Naouel Chaftar, Marion Girardot, Jérôme Labanowski,

N. Chaftar (*) M. Girardot, J. Frère, and C. Imbert

1 Introduction micellar solutions, as suggested by Edris and

2.2 Terpenic Derivatives

2.1 Essential Oils Carvacrol, thymol, amoxicillin and fluconazole

Pseudomonas aeruginosa 910704 (laboratory concentration inhibiting visible microbial

Table 1 Chemical composition of the 14 EOcom

Citrus Cymbopogon Eucalyptus Melaleuca

5.50 >5.50 0. 70 8.80 8.80 8.80 8.80 >8.80 8.80 8.80

0.62 0.62 0.62 0.35 0.17 0.17 – – – –

Advances in Microbiology, Infectious

Vivian Tullio, Ornella Cervetti, Janira Roana, Michele Panzone,

[2] The ventilation of the new school-rooms appears to be

English Patents for 1841. By Andrew Pritchard, M.R.I., &c.

To our Readers.—As we do not choose to trust our own

You might also like