Advances in Human Factors in Training

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Proceedings of the AHFE 2020 Virtual
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Sciences July 16 20 2020 USA Salman
Nazir
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Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 1211

Salman Nazir
Tareq Ahram
Waldemar Karwowski Editors

Advances in Human
Factors in Training,
Education, and
Learning Sciences
Proceedings of the AHFE 2020 Virtual
Conference on Human Factors in
Training, Education, and Learning
Sciences, July 16–20, 2020, USA
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing

Volume 1211

Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland

Advisory Editors
Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
Rafael Bello Perez, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Computing,
Universidad Central de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
Hani Hagras, School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering,
University of Essex, Colchester, UK
László T. Kóczy, Department of Automation, Széchenyi István University,
Gyor, Hungary
Vladik Kreinovich, Department of Computer Science, University of Texas
at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
Chin-Teng Lin, Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chiao
Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
Jie Lu, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Patricia Melin, Graduate Program of Computer Science, Tijuana Institute
of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico
Nadia Nedjah, Department of Electronics Engineering, University of Rio de Janeiro,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen , Faculty of Computer Science and Management,
Wrocław University of Technology, Wrocław, Poland
Jun Wang, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering,
The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications
on theory, applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent
Computing. Virtually all disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer
and information science, ICT, economics, business, e-commerce, environment,
healthcare, life science are covered. The list of topics spans all the areas of modern
intelligent systems and computing such as: computational intelligence, soft comput-
ing including neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computing and the fusion
of these paradigms, social intelligence, ambient intelligence, computational neuro-
science, artificial life, virtual worlds and society, cognitive science and systems,
Perception and Vision, DNA and immune based systems, self-organizing and
adaptive systems, e-Learning and teaching, human-centered and human-centric
computing, recommender systems, intelligent control, robotics and mechatronics
including human-machine teaming, knowledge-based paradigms, learning para-
digms, machine ethics, intelligent data analysis, knowledge management, intelligent
agents, intelligent decision making and support, intelligent network security, trust
management, interactive entertainment, Web intelligence and multimedia.
The publications within “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” are
primarily proceedings of important conferences, symposia and congresses. They
cover significant recent developments in the field, both of a foundational and
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** Indexing: The books of this series are submitted to ISI Proceedings,
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156

Salman Nazir Tareq Ahram
• •

Waldemar Karwowski
Editors

Advances in Human Factors

in Training, Education,
and Learning Sciences
Proceedings of the AHFE 2020 Virtual
Conference on Human Factors in Training,
Education, and Learning Sciences,
July 16–20, 2020, USA

123
Editors
Salman Nazir Tareq Ahram
Department of Maritime Operations University of Central Florida
University of South-Eastern Norway Orlando, FL, USA
Borre, Norway

Waldemar Karwowski
University of Central Florida
Winter Park, FL, USA

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
ISBN 978-3-030-50895-1 ISBN 978-3-030-50896-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
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Advances in Human Factors
and Ergonomics 2020

AHFE 2020 Series Editors

Tareq Z. Ahram, Florida, USA
Waldemar Karwowski, Florida, USA

11th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics and the
Affiliated Conferences

Proceedings of the AHFE 2020 Virtual Conference on Training, Education, and

Learning Sciences, July 16–20, 2020, USA

Advances in Neuroergonomics and Cognitive Hasan Ayaz and Umer Asgher

Engineering
Advances in Industrial Design Giuseppe Di Bucchianico, Cliff Sungsoo
Shin, Scott Shim, Shuichi Fukuda,
Gianni Montagna and Cristina Carvalho
Advances in Ergonomics in Design Francisco Rebelo and Marcelo Soares
Advances in Safety Management and Human Pedro M. Arezes and Ronald L. Boring
Performance
Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics in Jay Kalra and Nancy J. Lightner
Healthcare and Medical Devices
Advances in Simulation and Digital Human Daniel N Cassenti, Sofia Scataglini,
Modeling Sudhakar L. Rajulu and Julia L. Wright
Advances in Human Factors and Systems Isabel L. Nunes
Interaction
Advances in the Human Side of Service Jim Spohrer and Christine Leitner
Engineering
Advances in Human Factors, Business Jussi Ilari Kantola, Salman Nazir and
Management and Leadership Vesa Salminen
Advances in Human Factors in Robots, Drones Matteo Zallio
and Unmanned Systems
Advances in Human Factors in Cybersecurity Isabella Corradini, Enrico Nardelli and
Tareq Ahram
(continued)

v
vi Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics 2020

(continued)
Advances in Human Factors in Training, Salman Nazir, Tareq Ahram and
Education, and Learning Sciences Waldemar Karwowski
Advances in Human Aspects of Transportation Neville Stanton
Advances in Artificial Intelligence, Software and Tareq Ahram
Systems Engineering
Advances in Human Factors in Architecture, Jerzy Charytonowicz
Sustainable Urban Planning and Infrastructure
Advances in Physical, Social & Occupational Waldemar Karwowski, Ravindra S.
Ergonomics Goonetilleke, Shuping Xiong,
Richard H.M. Goossens and Atsuo
Murata
Advances in Manufacturing, Production Beata Mrugalska, Stefan Trzcielinski,
Management and Process Control Waldemar Karwowski, Massimo Di
Nicolantonio and Emilio Rossi
Advances in Usability, User Experience, Wearable Tareq Ahram and Christianne Falcão
and Assistive Technology
Advances in Creativity, Innovation, Evangelos Markopoulos, Ravindra S.
Entrepreneurship and Communication of Design Goonetilleke, Amic G. Ho and Yan
Luximon
Preface

This book provides researchers and practitioners a forum to share research and best
practices in the application of human factors to training, education, and learning
sciences. Just as human factors’ discipline has been applied to hardware, software,
and the built environment, there is now a growing interest in the optimal design of
training, education, and learning experiences. Principles of behavioral and cognitive
science are extremely relevant to the design of instructional content and the
effective application of technology to deliver the appropriate learning experience.
These principles and best practices are important in corporate, higher education, and
military training environments.
This book also aims to share and transfer not just knowledge, learning experi-
ences, and best training approaches that are of real value in practical terms; a value
that can help leaders ensure their organizations stay ahead of the competition
through continued innovation, strong competitive advantage, and inspired
leadership.
This book is organized into five sections that contain the following subject areas:
Section 1 Education and Learning Strategies
Section 2 Healthcare Education and Mobile Learning Systems
Section 3 Competency Achievement Through Interactive Multimedia and
Gamification
Section 4 Training and Certification
Section 5 Learning Technologies and Preparation of Future Workforce
Each section contains research papers that have been reviewed by members
of the International Editorial Board. Each section contains research papers that have
been reviewed by members of the International Editorial Board. Our sincere thanks
and appreciation to the board members as listed below:
S. Abramovich, USA
D. Al Thani, Qatar
T. Alexander, Germany
T. Barath, Hungary

vii
viii Preface

J. Bartnicka, Poland
J. Castro-Alonso, Chile
J. Elliott, USA
M. Freeman, USA
A. Gronstedt, USA
C. Madinger, USA
S. Mallam, Norway
B. Mansoor, Qatar
C. McClernon, USA
K. Moore, USA
K. Orvis, USA
B. Pokorny, USA
R. Roper, USA
D. Sampson, Greece
J. Smith, Canada
J. Syversen, Norway

July 2020 Salman Nazir

Tareq Ahram
Waldemar Karwowski
Contents

Education and Learning Strategies

A Platform for Tracking Teacher-Student Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Nicholas Elleman and Nicholas Caporusso
Optimizing the Learning Experience: Examining Interactions
Between the Individual Learner and the Learning Context . . . . . . . . . . 10
Summer Rebensky, Maria Chaparro, and Meredith Carroll
Novice and Experienced EAP Practitioners’ Pedagogical Content
Knowledge: Teachers’ Cognitions and Students’ Perceptions . . . . . . . . . 17
Mohadeseh Khazaee
Exploring the True Motivation of Faculty Members to Promote
Technological Innovation in Their Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Nitza Davidovitch and Eyal Eckhaus
Predict Trainee’s Comprehension from Computer Operations
with Deep Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Koga Kobayashi and Hironobu Satoh
The Infographic Process of Synthesizing Complex Information About
the Individual Legacies of Retired Teachers and Researchers
in Art and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Nuno Martins, Susana Barreto, Eliana Penedos-Santiago, Cláudia Lima,
and Inês Calado
Augmented Reality Based Scientific Gateway as Education Form . . . . . 43
Eva Pajorová and Ladislav Hluchý
Strengthening Teacher Service Capacities to Improve Empowerment
in School Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Ernesto Hernandez, Manuel Sanchez, William Miranda,
Roberto Seminario, Leandro Vallejos, and Miguel Hernandez

ix
x Contents

Performance in Mathematical and Scientific School Subjects

as an Indicator of Success in Undergraduate Modules in Construction
Economics in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Danie Hoffman and Inge Pieterse
Research on Digital Reading App Design to Stimulate Reading
Motivation of Teenagers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Yijie Cao and Bing Xiao
The Design and Implementation of Effective Teaching Based
on Human Factors Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Qing Xue and Lin Gong
Ethical Considerations on Using Learning Analytics in Finnish
Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Jussi Okkonen, Tanja Helle, and Hanna Lindsten
The Rise of Communication Design in Portugal:
An Overview of the Higher Education Teaching Methodologies . . . . . . 86
Eliana Penedos-Santiago, Nuno Martins, Susana Barreto, Heitor Alvelos,
and Cláudia Lima
Educational Deprivation in Latin America: Structural Inequality
Beyond Borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Harvey Sánchez-Restrepo and Jorge Louçã
Research on the Reform of Higher Engineering Education from the
Perspective of Smart Service Management—Based on the Program
Comparison Between USA’s MIT and China’s Tianjin University . . . . . 99
Wenjuan Zhang, Xinyan Zhang, and Ying Yu
Matrix for the Planification from the Formative and Scientific
Investigation that Helps the Teaching-Learning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
César Enríquez, Georgina Arcos, and Cintia Chugá
Teaching-Learning Ergonomics in Virtual and Distance Education:
Bibliometric Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Wilder Alfonso Hernández Duarte and Luis Gabriel Gutiérrez Bernal
Garbage Classification Education Application Design – Taking
Shanghai, China as an Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Lijuan Guo and Jiping Wang
Academic School Performance as an Indicator of Success
in Undergraduate Studies in Construction Economics
in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Danie Hoffman and Inge Pieterse
Contents xi

Research Competency Training for Students of the Superior

Technological Institute of Administrative and Commercial Training . . . 129
Evelyn De la Llana Pérez, Yoenia Portilla Castell,
Belinda Marta Lema Cachinell, Emma Zulay Delgado Saeteros,
and Rafael Bell Rodríguez

Healthcare Education and Mobile Learning Systems

Improving Children’s STEAM Education and Their Global
Competence Through Collaborative Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Mohadeseh Khazaee and Layla Sabourian
The Sustainable Business Model of Health Resort Enterprise
and the Role of Education in Pro-ecological Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Adam R. Szromek
Mobile Phones in Laboratory: Effects on Laboratory
User Performances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Bankole K. Fasanya, Jesus De La Cruz Jr., Karen Abad, Shuyu Wang,
and Wenyi Wang
Digital Prequalification for Nursing Trainees
with Migration Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Jan A. Neuhöfer and Sabine Hansen
Developing a Reinforcement Learning Agent for the Game
of Checkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Henning Knauer, Andrea Dederichs-Koch, and Daniel Schilberg
Mobile App for Psycho-Statistics Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Carlos Ramos-Galarza, Mónica Acosta-Rodas, Mónica Bolaños-Pasquel,
and Jorge Cruz-Cárdenas
Mental Health in Different College Education Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Brenda Rivero-Orozco, Alberto Rossa-Sierra, and Fabiola Cortes-Chavez
The Effects of the Exposure to an Aromatic Environment on Students
During University Engineering Final Exam – A Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . 182
Gabriela G. Reyes-Zárate, Miguel X. Rodríguez-Paz,
and Jorge A. González-Mendívil

Competency Achievement Through Interactive Multimedia

and Gamification
From Technical and Non-technical Skills to Hybrid Minds:
Reconceptualizing Cognition and Learning
in Semi-automated Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Charlott Sellberg and Martin Viktorelius
xii Contents

Quantifying Video Gaming Expertise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

Lisa Jo Elliott, Tyler Hampton, Jessica McCoy, Kathryn Kriebs,
Melissa Rowlison, Autumn Waite, and Abigail Blackwell
Developing a Model on the Effects of Management Games for Human
Resource Development: From a Benefit Delay
and Acquisition Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Kazuhiro Fujimura and Fumiyo Ozaki
Development of Video Games to Improve the Learning
of Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Luis Salvador-Ullauri, Belén Salvador-Acosta, Carlos Ramos-Galarza,
and Patricia Acosta-Vargas

Improve Learning Performance with Diverse

Teaching Methods
Visual Scanning and Reading Speed Following 5-Days
of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction: A Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Valerie Rice, Leah Enders, and Angela Jeter
Collaborative Cognitive Training Game to Enhance Selective
Sustained Attention in Preschoolers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Carlos Arce-Lopera, Mateo Torres, and Steven Vacilescu
The Practice of TBL+ Flipped Classroom in the Music Aesthetics
Course Under the Music Gesture Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Haiyang Qu and Dahai Xing
Development of a Game-Based Learning Platform for U.S. Navy
Netted Force Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Jordan Haggit, Rod Ford, Ryan Meyer, Dan Roseman, Marc Gacy,
Terence Andre, Anna Grome, Peter Simon, Michael Arnold,
and Elijah Lofgren

Training and Certification

Aircrew Performance Measurement and Proficiency:
A Need for Better Operational Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Mark Bunn, Paul Ditch, and Brent D. Fegley
What the Maritime Industry Can Learn from Safety Training
in the Process Industry and Why Non-technical Skills are
Indispensable for Mariners in Critical Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Marina Klostermann, Sebastian Brandhorst, and Annette Kluge
From Tacit Knowledge to Visual Expertise: Eye-Tracking Support
in Maritime Education and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Rikard Eklund, Charlott Sellberg, and Anna-Lisa Osvalder
Contents xiii

Using Virtual Worlds as an Integrated Part of Virtual Distance

Learning (VDL) Networks in Simulator-Based Education . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Per Haavardtun, Steven Mallam, Amit Sharma, and Salman Nazir
The Influence of Multi-media Related to Creative Learning . . . . . . . . . 283
P. W. Chau and Amic G. Ho
Review of German “Master Craftsman Qualification
Certificate” Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Guanni Dong, Guojun Chen, and Bin Liu

Learning Technologies and Preparation of Future Workforce

Innovations, Agile Management Methods
and Personnel Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Martin Kröll
Using AI to Decrease Demand and Supply Mismatch
in ITC Labour Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Jussi Okkonen, Harri Ketamo, Hanna Lindsten, Teemu Rauhala,
and Jarmo Viteli
Preparing Students for the Challenging Job Markets
over the Next Decade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Albertus Retnanto, Hamid R. Parsaei, and Boback Parsaei
Methodology of Dictionaries of Sector Competences (DCS), to Design
Standards of Professional Competences, Research and Labor . . . . . . . . 323
Rodolfo Martinez-Gutierrez
E-learning as a Strategic Solution for the Preservation
and Revitalization of Disappearing Industrial Cultures
in Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Nuno Martins, Heitor Alvelos, Susana Barreto, Abhishek Chatterjee,
Eliana Penedos-Santiago, Cláudia Lima, and Mariana Quintela
Multisensory Learning System Applying Augmented Reality . . . . . . . . . 336
Cesar Guevara and Dennys Mauricio Coronel Vallejo
The Effect of Curriculum Integrated Technology-Based Universal
Design of Learning Approach on Academic Achievement
of Elementary School Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Rahat Javaid, Tahira Anwar Lashari, Imran Haider, Erum Afzal,
Umer Farooq, Sabahat Javed, Areeba Javaid, and Naqash Gerard
VR in Education: Ergonomic Features and Cybersickness . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Olha Pinchuk, Oleksandr Burov, Svitlana Ahadzhanova,
Victoriya Logvinenko, Yana Dolgikh, Tetyana Kharchenko,
Olena Hlazunova, and Andrii Shabalin
xiv Contents

AHP for a Comparative Study of Tools Used

for Programming Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Mónica Gómez Rios, Doris Juliana Castillo Herrera,
Karla Stefania Narváez Lucio, and Maikel Yelandi Leyva Vazquez

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

Education and Learning Strategies
 A Platform for Tracking Teacher-Student
Interaction

Nicholas Elleman(&) and Nicholas Caporusso

Department of Computer Science, Northern Kentucky University,

Highland Heights Louie B Nunn Dr, 41099, USA
[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. The value and effectiveness of office hours held by faculty and other
staff members involved in student mentoring (e.g., advisors and tutors) has been
investigated by several studies that have demonstrated that One-On-One (1:1)
interaction, whether in person or via remote communication tools, has signifi-
cant impact on academic success. Despite teacher-student meetings are a crucial
component of the learning experience, very little is known about office hours
practices beyond the requirements of faculty and staff handbooks: attendance,
utilization, and outcome are seldom reported or sparsely tracked, mostly on an
individual basis, and without standards.
In this paper, we introduce a novel system especially designed for educational
institutions to support them in measuring and enhancing engagement with office
hours and mentoring sessions.

Keywords: Learning analytics
Office hours
Learning Management Systems

1 Introduction

Several aspects contribute to delivering quality learning experiences in higher educa-

tion, including commitment of instructors, design of lectures and coursework, time
spent with peers, and mentoring from faculty and advisors [1]. Specifically, over the
last decade, the importance of teacher-student relationships in contexts other than
lectures is gaining interest. Research has demonstrated that especially student-faculty
contact outside of the classroom has a positive impact on students’ academic success.
Particularly, first-year students benefit from interaction with an advisor or a faculty
mentor [2]. Moreover, 1:1 meetings are especially important in colleges and univer-
sities that serve first-generation students or minority, underrepresented, and financially
disadvantaged individuals, where mentoring and interaction with faculty and advisors
is a crucial part of academic success [3]. Also, building student-teacher relationships
via face-to-face communication with instructors, whether in person or using computer-
mediated tools, has beneficial impact on students enrolled in commuter campuses and
institutions located in rural areas [4]. As nowadays most faculty and staff handbooks in
educational institutions require instructors to dedicate some of their time to 1:1
meetings with students, weekly office hours (OH) represent the most widespread form
for having face-to-face conversations. Indeed, they offer a convenient opportunity for
checking learning progress and commitment, identifying and preventing potential

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 3–9, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_1
4 N. Elleman and N. Caporusso

issues, and building a professional and personal relationship that results in increased
mutual understanding. Nevertheless, several studies found that actual 1:1 interaction
between faculty and their students is infrequent and largely limited to formal and
structured situations, such as classroom lectures, grades and feedback to assignments,
or e-mail communication [5]. This is mainly because, despite prescribed rules adopted
at the organization level, current practices in terms of OH are mainly left to the
individual initiative and commitment of single instructors, mentors. Unfortunately, as
reported by [6], time conflicts, poor advertisement, other coursework and duties, and
commuting to campus, lead to students having poor engagement with OH. On the other
hand, in addition to students’ non-attendance, instructors’ failure to be present and
available during scheduled time [6] discourages students from seeking face-to-face
interaction.
As a result, despite communication between teachers and learners is becoming
more personal thanks to the use of Social Media, face-to-face interaction is among the
most overlooked factors: although Learning Management Systems (LMS) are
becoming more advanced and support unprecedented personalization options [7], there
are no systems for measuring and incorporating learning analytics about interpersonal
communication between instructors and students. In addition to the lack of data, the
scientific literature focusing on face-to-face interactions in higher education involves
different objectives and criteria. As a result, it is difficult to compare the findings of
multiple studies involving very limited samples, scopes, or time frames, and aggregate
them in an actionable framework and in standard guidelines. Regardless of the means
by which OH are offered and of the type and purpose of 1:1 meetings, there is a
demand for systems for helping faculty and staff in educational institutions track
opportunities for interaction and monitor their performance. However, addressing the
current lack of data is the very first step required for offering insights on key dimen-
sions of academic success, increasing teachers’ and students’ awareness about the value
of their interaction, and optimizing allocation of their time and effort.

2 Related Work

Individual meetings with faculty are an essential element of good teaching: either in the
context of scheduled OH or in the form of appointments, they create unique oppor-
tunities for 1:1 mentoring that are very different in quality and outcome than group
conversations. Particularly, OH were found to positively affect several dimensions of
academic success [1]. As reported by several studies, visiting faculty and advisors
regularly has been positively correlated with several indicators of student learning
performances in the context of different disciplines [8].
However, research about OH shows that teachers and learners find it difficult to
leverage this instrument to the fullest: the former are often discouraged by low par-
ticipation and consequently avoid investing a significant amount of time in reaching out
to students; also, at each step in their career, several aspects prevent them from feeling
incentivized to advertise their availability outside class [1]. On the other hand, students
might overlook the value of mentoring or feel intimidated by 1:1 interaction with their
teachers and, therefore, fail to attend OH on a regular basis for substantive and intrinsic
 A Platform for Tracking Teacher-Student Interaction 5

reasons. In the last decades, the increasing availability and adoption of technology,
such as instant messaging tools facilitated creating touch points between students and
faculty and advisors, as demonstrated by [4]. For instance, the success of distance
learning and the consequent transition of courses and programs to on-line education
favored the introduction of the concept of Virtual Office Hours (VOH), or Cyber-Office
hours, in which 1:1 meetings are held over the phone or using computer-mediated
tools. Several studies investigating the effectiveness of VOH in helping build student-
teacher relationships demonstrated that, in addition to having a positive impact on
students who are located remotely or commute from nearby areas, they are particularly
suitable for workers, parents, and learners live in the local community who have other
types of commitments [5, 9]. Unfortunately, despite their convenience, the transition to
on-line systems and the introduction of new forms of communication did not result in
any progress in terms of acquiring data about the value of the personal relationship
between students and their instructors and advisors: nowadays there are no systematic
approaches for measuring the outcome of 1:1 meetings and incorporating them in
student performance analytics. Although current LMS offer multiple instruments for
communicating and capture several metrics about user activity and interaction with
content, they offer little support to analyzing the outcome of face-to-face mentoring.
In [10], the authors present the case study of a drop-in center that was designed to
provide students with an informal replacement to traditional OH. They installed a
digital system in a writing center with the aim of tracking interaction between students
and their teaching assistants and obtaining statistics about attendance to face-to-face
meetings: students check in and out meetings by scanning their identification card
using a magnetic reader located at the entrance of the facility. By doing this, they
collect information about participants, acquire additional feedback about user satis-
faction, and calculate the average duration of a meeting, which, in turn, is utilized to
manage an electronic queuing system that optimizes waiting times.

3 System Design

In this paper, we suggest a system for adopting a more structured and systematic
approach in quantitatively acquiring, analyzing, and improving faculty-student
engagement. To this end, we introduce a novel web-based platform that supports
scheduling 1:1 meetings during and outside OH, tracking their attendance and duration,
and obtaining analytics about their outcome that can be incorporated into learning and
performance reports. The ultimate objective of our work is to create a solution that is
compatible with the different university policies in terms of appointments and OH
management as well as with the diverse practices adopted by individual faculty and
staff, and to provide users with a flexible system that requires minimal integration
overhead and a short adoption and learning curve. To this end, we involved a group of
faculty, staff, and students in analyzing the key dynamics, requirements, specifications:
as most OH meetings happen impromptu or without prior notice (e.g., open door
policies) and in a limited time window, the use of technology that introduces an
additional step, that is, clocking the details in an agenda (e.g., start and end time) is
among the main barriers to adoption. As a result, we co-designed a modular workflow
6 N. Elleman and N. Caporusso

based on metaphoric micro-interactions with technology that mimic and replace actual
gestures realized before and at the end of meetings. Specifically, we modeled our
solution around tasks that students already realize in physical interaction in the context
of OH, that is, (1) knocking on the door to verify whether the instructor is available,
(2) entering the office, which determines the beginning of the appointment, and
(3) exiting the room, which indicates that the meeting is over. Similarly, the proposed
system is based on an interactive label posted on instructor’s door that works as follows
(see Fig. 1):
1. ping: students use their phone to scan the label; by doing this, they access a
webpage where they can check instructor’s current availability;
2. check in: if the instructor is available, this logs the start of the meeting; otherwise,
students can add their name to the queue or book an appointment in a different time;
3. check out: after the meeting ends, either the student or the faculty can scan the label
again or use a web interface, respectively, which allows the system to acquire the
duration of the meeting and release instructor’s availability for the next
appointment.
The interactive label can be in the form of a QR code or a Near Field Commu-
nication (NFC) chip that encodes the link to the instructor’s page on the platform, so
that students can simply take a picture of or tap on the tag as they enter or exit the
office. By leveraging metaphors and natural interaction via physical gestures, our
approach aims at lowering barriers to adoption and facilitating the transition to a
technology that renders keeping a log of OH and meetings transparent to the user and,
thus, minimizes its effort. Nevertheless, students can directly operate the web platform
in a traditional fashion. The interactive label can be posted on office doors, so that
students can conveniently scan it when they enter the meeting, whereas the link can be
shared in course material (e.g., in the Syllabus), on LMS, and it can be included in
announcements, invitations, and e-mails (e.g., as part of the signature). As a result, the
proposed solution can be suitable for face-to-face meetings, as well as for sessions held
remotely using video-conferencing tools. In addition to accessing the system directly, a
web component (i.e., widget) in the form of an HTML code snipped can be embedded
in existing external web pages, so that faculty and staff can incorporate the proposed
solution in their personal page on their organization website, and make it more intuitive
for students to use the service. By doing this, the system offers an intuitive tool for
collecting data about office hour utilization as well as other types of 1:1 mentoring.
Furthermore, as the objective of our design is to adjust to individuals’ practices, the
system can automatically activate and deactivate the check-in feature based on the
scheduled OH; alternatively, faculty and staff can manually indicate their availability.
Also, the proposed system enables students to leave a message in case instructor’s
office is unattended; simultaneously, the system can notify users if teachers have other
duties that requires them to leave their office and cancel scheduled meetings. As a
result, the system can also be utilized to track and analyze attendance and commitment
of faculty and staff, and it can help address the lack of data in studies about their
availability and presence during required times [6].
Also, the system includes features that enable collecting feedback at the end of each
meeting. To this end, its default forms can be customized at the faculty, department,
 A Platform for Tracking Teacher-Student Interaction 7

college, or university level, to collect standard and in-depth Key Performance Indi-
cators (KPIs). As with teaching evaluations, student feedback can be shared with
faculty and staff.
Finally, the system incorporates a reporting section that features learning analytics
and provides faculty, staff, and students with detailed information about availability,
utilization, and attendance with respect to OH and meetings. By doing this, we aim at
increasing individuals’ awareness about their commitment to opportunities for 1:1
mentoring. Reports are also available to managers and the administrative staff (e.g., the
Chair, Dean, and Provost), so that they can access standardized KPIs that can help them
obtain an actionable overview of OH practices at their institution, identify successful
approaches, and implement interventions and initiatives to promote attendance, as
highlighted in [5]. Also, reports generated by the proposed solution can be utilized as
an additional dimension for evaluating the performance of faculty and staff. Moreover,
the data exported from the system can be utilized in combination with other learning
analytics to realize further research on academic success.

Fig. 1. Sequence diagram of the proposed system. no interaction with the user interface of the
platform is required in case the instructor is available, which renders technology completely
transparent in the process.

4 Conclusions and Future Work

Nowadays it is extremely difficult to obtain a clear picture about the quantity, quality,
and impact of faculty-student interaction: despite several studies focused on OH and
investigated their correlation with academic success, there is a general lack of data that
prevents any systematic approach to analyzing the value of OH at the level of the
individual faculty member, department, and educational institution. In this paper, we
proposed a web-based platform that enables managing face-to-face meetings between
students and their faculty and advisors in the context of OH or other types of mentoring
8 N. Elleman and N. Caporusso

sessions. On the one hand, the aim of our system is to address the current lack of data
about teacher-student interactions and obtain metrics about this important component
of learning experiences; on the other hand, our objective is to provide users with a
customizable one-size-fits-all technology that seamlessly integrates with the diverse
existing practices adopted by organizations and operated by individual faculty and staff
members. To this end, we involved key stakeholders in a participatory process that
helped identify the main user constraints and barriers to adoption, and we co-designed a
solution based on micro-interactions that mimic physical gestures that already occur in
office appointments. Specifically, we utilize QR codes and NFC chips to enable stu-
dents check in and out meetings by simply scanning with their smartphones the
interactive labels placed on the instructors’ doors. In addition to facilitating interaction
with and management of OH, interactive tags can be utilized to augment the signs
currently posted on the office doors of faculty and staff, so that students and visitors can
simply access digital content that: (1) makes information accessible to individuals with
disabilities, (2) enables faculty to add more material (e.g., out-of-office video message,
bio, links, and calendar availability), (3) supports services (e.g., booking an appoint-
ment, sending a message, checking in during OH), and (4) tracks interactions between
faculty and students to understand and improve engagement dynamics. Also, the
proposed system can effectively be employed in advising and tutoring centers, inter-
national offices, and other contexts in which measuring interaction. In addition to
increasing quality, gaining more information about the impact of mentoring and
tutoring can produce insights on aspects that are crucial for academic success, such as
student retention, timely completion, adequate financial planning, and overall satis-
faction with their choice of institution and career. Furthermore, although the system is
especially suitable for educational institutions, it can be effectively utilized in other
types of private and public organizations, such as banks and government offices. The
system and its features can be accessed and used for free by individual instructors at
http://tools.addemy.com.

References
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academic performance. J. Polit. Sci. Educ. 9(4), 403–416 (2013)
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Educ. 4(2), 114–133 (2005)
3. Chang, J.C.: Faculty student interaction at the community college: a focus on students of
color. Res. High. Educ. 46(7), 769–802 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-004-6225-7
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campus through instant messaging and online office hours. Electron. J. Sci. Educ. 14(1)
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6. Pfund, R., Rogan, J., Burnham, B., Norcross, J.: Is the professor in? Faculty presence during
office hours. Coll. Stud. J. 47(3), 524–528 (2013)
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7. Caporusso, N.: Personality-aware interfaces for learning applications. In: Proceedings of the
37th Annual ACM SIGUCCS Fall Conference: Communication and Collaboration, pp. 189–
196. ACM (2009)
8. Leal, A.J.: Evaluating the impact flexible late policy, revision opportunities, and office hours
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 Optimizing the Learning Experience:
Examining Interactions Between the Individual
Learner and the Learning Context

Summer Rebensky(&), Maria Chaparro, and Meredith Carroll

Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, USA

[email protected]

Abstract. The modern educational environment extends beyond the lecture-

based classroom and now involves virtual, simulated, and applied learning
contexts. Due to innate individual differences, no learning environment is ideal
for all individual learners. Each learner exhibits individual difference factors that
can impact one’s involvement, achievement, and satisfaction in learning across
different learning contexts. This paper discusses the unique dynamics between
individual difference variables and modern learning environments including
online classrooms, simulation-based, and applied learning contexts. Recom-
mendations to better support the full range of individual learners are discussed
and presented.

Keywords: Individual differences
Modern learning environments
Learner

engagement

1 Introduction

The educational environment has evolved over time from a standard classroom setting
to an array of technology-based environments. Now, in addition to traditional lecture-
based classrooms, individuals can learn through online classes, simulation-based
training, and applied hands-on learning platforms such as makerspaces or project-based
learning. K-12 schools, universities, military training programs, and industry
employers have adapted their education and training programs to integrate these new
learning platforms. Organizations are also using these learning platforms to individu-
alize learning, which is a topic of growing interest and demand in the education and
military domains [1]. Educators now integrate learning strategies such as adaptive
training, gamification, problem-based learning, and flipped classrooms to revamp the
learning experience and more fully engage the learner [2]. These interventions often
facilitate learning gains [3, 4]. However, there is also research that illustrates that
widespread application of these techniques across an array of individual learners may
not always achieve the desired learning outcomes.
The impact of individual differences such as self-efficacy, motivation, ability, and
interest on learning and training effectiveness has been researched extensively [5–7].
Carroll et al. [8] developed an Applied Model of Learner Engagement that illustrates the
numerous individual difference factors that can be leveraged in learning environments to

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. Nazir et al. (Eds.): AHFE 2020, AISC 1211, pp. 10–16, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50896-8_2
 Optimizing the Learning Experience 11

increase engagement and learning. Research efforts to explore the impacts of these
factors in modern educational environments has revealed equivocal impacts dependent
on interactions between characteristics of the individual learner and the learning envi-
ronment [9]. Generally speaking, the following factors have positive effects on learning
outcomes: intrinsic motivation, conscientiousness, mastery-oriented learning orienta-
tions, interest, self-efficacy and cognitive ability. In contrast, anxiety, neuroticism, and
performance-avoidance motivations generally have negative effects on learning out-
comes. For a full discussion of each of these variables, please see [8].
Traditionally, it is expected that the higher a learner’s intrinsic motivation the more
likely they are to engage in self-regulating behaviors, leading to increased attention,
effort and engagement during learning [10, 11]. However, there is research to suggest
that certain learning strategies may interact with intrinsic motivation. Research in
modern educational settings has shown that intrinsically motivated individuals feel less
competent, less motivated, and ultimately disengage in gamified learning contexts [12].
This interaction between the impact of intrinsic motivation and the learning environ-
ment was also observed in Carroll et al. [9] in an applied Unmanned Aircraft Systems
(UAS) training task, where intrinsic motivation was negatively correlated with
engagement during a gamified learning task. This highlights the need to examine
research questions related to “Who will learn best in emerging learning contexts?” and
“What can we do to support various learners in emerging contexts?”.
Educators must be aware of the interactions that exist between individual learner
characteristics, and learning interventions and environments, in order to develop
contingencies for the use with a range of individual learners. While there has been a
great deal of research into the isolated relationships between individual difference
factors and learning in a traditional classroom learning environment, there has been
limited research into the interplay between individual difference factors and different
learning contexts. This presentation will present a discussion of (a) interactions
between a range of individual characteristics and learning contexts, (b) considerations
for how educators can leverage this knowledge to achieve desired learning outcomes,
and (c) future research needed in this area.

2 Online Learning

Online learning and online classrooms typically consist of self-paced learning that can
include reviewing lecture slide decks, completing independent assignments, and social
interactions such as discussion boards. Longitudinal studies have found conscien-
tiousness and neuroticism to be the factors most predictive of academic success in
traditional learning environments (with conscientiousness exhibiting a positive impact
and neuroticism exhibiting a negative impact; [13, 14]). Research has shown similar
trends in online learning with conscientiousness being related to higher levels of
motivation and satisfaction [15]. Similar research has shown neuroticism leading to
reduced online engagement due to the anxiety and fear associated with adapting to new
technology and learning strategies [16, 17]. However, additional personality dimen-
sions have been shown to have a significant impact in online learning. Studies focusing
on online classroom learning have revealed that openness to experience is just as
12 S. Rebensky et al.

predictive of academic achievement [18]. In addition, openness, conscientiousness, and

agreeableness are key traits predictive of engagement, positive impressions, perceived
value, and satisfaction with online classes [19, 20]. Conscientiousness can lead to
improved satisfaction with online learning, however, in online learning contexts,
openness is just as predictive of satisfaction [20]. This is not the case in traditional
learning contexts [21]. Individuals high in openness are more likely to adapt and accept
new methods of learning, a trait necessary in the modern learning environment of
online classrooms [18]. Research on ideal learning conditions reveals that those high in
openness experience higher satisfaction in learning environments where there is little
structure [22], suggesting that in online learning environments, individuals high in
openness may perform better due to the self-directed structure of online learning.
One other facet of online learning that interacts with personality is the level of
social interaction. Some research shows that introverts thrive in online learning as
introverts prefer asynchronous communication and are more active in online settings
[23]. With respect to extraversion, some studies show that extraversion is not related to
engagement, perceptions, and perceived value of online learning [19]. However, other
studies have shown extraversion to be negatively correlated with activity in online
classrooms [16]. Incorporating social elements, such as discussion boards, into online
classroom environments may help foster a learning environment for those high in
extraversion [19]. Students who feel the course addresses their social and emotional
needs are more likely to continue in online classes [17].
Similar to findings in traditional learning contexts, anxiety can lead to disen-
gagement in online learning environments [24]. Providing clear instructions and
structure to the course can reduce anxiety and support the traits that can negatively
impact online learner engagement such as anxiety and neuroticism [16, 24, 25]. In
addition, those who elect to engage in online learning tend to be more intrinsically
motivated [26]. Therefore, it is key to design online learning to be supportive and
provide a sense of connection to the course by satisfying intrinsic needs and goals, and
through social interaction [24–26]. Incorporating aspects such as discussion boards and
tying the course content to students learning goals can support learner needs.

3 Simulation-Based Learning

Simulated and gamified learning environments seek to either mimic real-life tasks or
layer interactivity and motivational tools to more fully engage the learner. Gamification
in a learning context has been shown to help foster intrinsic motivation and combat
lack of motivation [27]. However, the effectiveness of gamification at improving
learning gains and perceptions towards learning is dependent on individual personality
traits [27, 28]. Individuals who are high in agreeableness and are open to experiences,
such as online classrooms, do best in cooperative simulation settings [29]. This may be
because individuals high in openness prefer to interact in novel ways and therefore are
not as motivated by techniques such as the use of conventional avatars in virtual
environments [28]. However, unlike online classrooms, where acceptance of online
learning contexts is predicted by openness and conscientiousness, individual accep-
tance of gamified learning environments has been found to be most predicted by
 Optimizing the Learning Experience 13

neuroticism and extraversion [28, 30]. Those high in extraversion perform well under
competitive settings [29], as extraverted individuals tend to be more motivated by
gamification elements such as points, levels, and leaderboards [28, 31]. Extroverts tend
to perform poorly if they are placed in cooperative groups or lack feedback on their
ranking relative to others [29]. On the other hand, introverted individuals perform best
in cooperative learning environments where progress is not tracked or compared to
others [31].
Neuroticism, which has been found to have a negative influence on learning in both
traditional and online learning contexts [32, 33], has shown to have positive results in
the gamified learning environment. Research has shown that gamification elements
have a positive influence on learners with high levels of neuroticism; however, learners
with low levels of neuroticism often perceive gamified elements as gimmicks [28].
Research has also shown that individuals high in neuroticism are more likely to be
impacted emotionally by gamified elements [34]. For example, a gamified element
meant to motivate a learner, such as a leaderboard, may invoke a higher motivational
response from an individual with high levels of neuroticism. However, research has
shown mixed results with respect to neuroticism’s impact on performance in gamified
learning tasks. Research has shown little to no effect on task performance in cooper-
ative and competitive settings, whereas other studies have shown negative impacts in
highly competitive gamified settings [29, 34]. Potentially, as long as the competitive
environment does not foster anxiety, the methods utilized in gamified situations may
elicit a high motivational response in those high in neuroticism.
Intrinsic motivation has also been associated with negative perceptions of gamifi-
cation (e.g., as silly or gimmicky; [12]). For example, those high in conscientiousness
(who tend to exhibit intrinsic motivations) have shown less motivation with gamifi-
cation [34]. The researchers hypothesize that this is due to intrinsically motivated
individuals not being motivated by aspects of gamification.
For gamified learning environments, the learner base is divided. As designers
develop these environments it is important to consider the potential learner population
and the impact that gamification will have on a range of different personality profiles.
Customizing or personalizing learning strategies, such as gamification, based on the
learner’s personality traits may provide benefit. Personalization will allow individual
learners who prefer motivational tools such as levels, badges, and leaderboard to
benefit, while avoiding the negative side effects that other learners might experience.

4 Applied Learning

Applied hands-on learning is becoming more prevalent in the educational environment

through methods such as problem-based learning, makerspaces, and engineering design
projects. It is important to understand how these learning contexts interact with individual
learner characteristics. However, there is limited research on the interaction between
individual difference factors and applied learning contexts. Researchers in STEM
domains that are currently implementing makerspace technology posit that the most
impactful aspects of these types of learning environments include their exposure of
learners to teamwork and critical thinking [35]. Similar research has found that
14 S. Rebensky et al.

conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness led to more cooperative behavior in

an applied learning context that was utilized in management classes; while neuroticism
led to less cooperative behavior [36]. This is in line with research in traditional classrooms
which has found that conscientiousness and neuroticism play a role in learner success
[13]. Similar to online learning, extraversion and agreeableness traits are likely important
in hands-on cooperative learning contexts due to the social aspects and the cooperative
elements like gamification [19, 29]. Also similar to findings in online learning contexts,
where openness to experience is associated with learners more quickly adapting to this
new learning situation, research in engineering programs has revealed openness to be the
trait most predictive of student retention [37]. While these findings from similar learning
environments shed light on the likely interaction between individual difference factors
and applied learning contexts, empirical research is needed to examine these interactions
and identify any unique interactions that may emerge. It is possible that this newer
dynamic of learning could have unexpected interactions with individual differences.
More research is needed to determine how to best utilize applied learning contexts and to
optimize learning effectiveness across various individuals.

5 Conclusion

The findings from the studies presented herein illustrate the complex interplay between
learning context and individual difference factors. In a traditional learning context,
utilizing strategies that attempt to reduce anxiety for individuals high in neuroticism
and tools that foster intrinsic motivation for individuals high in conscientiousness can
improve performance and learner engagement [8, 14]. In an online learning context
supporting individuals with low levels of openness and extraversion through structure
and social elements can increase student activity [18, 19]. For simulation-based or
gamified learning contexts, adding or removing gamified elements that support the
opposite spectrums of extraversion and neuroticism is important to prevent negative
impacts [28]. For applied learning, it is likely that individuals with traits that are
aligned with cooperative, social, and novel learning contexts will thrive, and that
individuals high in conscientiousness, openness, agreeableness, and extraversion, and
low in neuroticism will succeed. However, research is needed to more fully explore
individual difference factor interactions with applied learning contexts. As new
approaches to learning are developed, designers and educators need to assess the
potential interactions between learning context and individual difference variables such
as personality. This will help ensure new learning environments and strategies are
accessible and engaging to a broader range of learners.

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degraded, and that the true prescription to elevate, reform, and
purify the public service is to prevent the clerks from being removed
out of their places in the Departments. This brotherhood has not
been hitherto very largely re-enforced from the Democracy. If there
has been an original civil-service reformer who has deserted from the
ranks of the Democracy, history does not record his name. It has
been left to the party to which I belong to afford conspicuous and
shining illustrations of that class of political thinkers who are never
quite sure that they are supporting a party unless they are reviling
the candidates and denouncing its platform, who are not positive
that they are standing erect unless they are leaning over backward,
and whose idea of reforming the organization in which they profess
to be classified is to combine with its adversaries and vote for
candidates who openly spurn their professions and depreciate the
stock in trade which they denominate their principles. Standing on
the corners of the streets, enlarging the borders of their phylacteries,
they loudly advertise their perfections, thanking God that they are
not as other men, even these Republicans and Democrats; they
traffic with both to ascertain which they can most profitably betray.
Mr. President, the neuter gender is not popular either in nature or
society. “Male and female created He them.” But there is a third sex,
if that can sex be called which sex has none, resulting sometimes
from a cruel caprice of nature, at others from accident or malevolent
design, possessing the vices of both and the virtues of neither;
effeminate without being masculine or feminine; unable either to
beget or to bear; possessing neither fecundity nor virility; endowed
with the contempt of men and the derision of women, and doomed to
sterility, isolation, and extinction. But they have two recognized
functions. They sing falsetto, and they are usually selected as the
guardians of the seraglios of Oriental despots.
And thus to pass from the illustration to the fact, these political
epicenes, without pride of ancestry or hope of posterity, chant in
shrill falsetto their songs of praise of non-partisanship and civil-
service reform, and apparently have been selected as the harmless
custodians of the conscience of the national Executive.
Sir, I am not disposed to impugn the good faith, the patriotism, the
sincerity, the many unusual traits and faculties of the President of
the United States. He is the sphinx of American politics. It is said
that he is a fatalist; that he regards himself as the child of fate—the
man of destiny; and that he places devout and implicit reliance upon
the guiding influence of his star. Certainly, whether he be a very
great man or a very small man, he is a very extraordinary man. His
career forbids any other conclusion.
The Democratic party was not wanting when its convention
assembled at Chicago in many renowned and illustrious characters;
men who had led the forlorn hope in its darkest and most desperate
days; men for whose character and achievements, for whose fame
and history, not only that organization but the country had the
profoundest admiration and respect. There was Thurman, and
Bayard, and Hendricks, and Tilden, and McDonald, and others
perhaps not less worthy and hardly less illustrious, upon whom the
mantle of that great distinction might have fallen; but the man at the
mature age of thirty-five abandoned a liberal and honored profession
to become the sheriff of Erie, without known opinions and destitute
of experience or training in public affairs, outstripped them all in the
race of ambition; and when but little more than a year ago he entered
this Chamber as the President elect of the United States, he
encountered the curious scrutiny of an audience to whom he was a
stranger in feature as in fame; a stranger to the leaders of his own
party as well as to the representatives of all the nations of the earth
who had assembled to witness the gorgeous pageant of his
inauguration.
Sir, the career of Napoleon was sudden, startling, and dramatic.
There have been many soldiers of fortune who have sprung at one
bound from obscurity to fame, but no illustration of the caprices of
destiny so brilliant and bewildering is recorded in history as the
elevation of Grover Cleveland to the Chief Magistracy of sixty
millions of people.
If when he was inaugurated he had determined that the functions
of Government should be exercised by officers selected from his own
party the nation would have been content; but he did not so
determine, and herein and hereon is founded the justification that
the majority of the Senate can satisfactorily use and employ in
demanding that no action shall be had in connection with these
suspensions from office until there has been satisfactory assurances
that injustice has not been done. If it were understood that these
suspensions and removals were made for political reasons the
country would be content, the Republican majority in the Senate
would be content. But what is the attitude? Ever since his
inauguration and for many months before, by many utterances,
official and private, in repeated declarations never challenged, Mr.
Cleveland announced that he would not so administer this
Government. At the very outset, in his letter of acceptance, he
denounced the doctrine of partisan changes in the patronage, and
through all of his political manifestoes down to the present time he
has repeated these assurances with emphatic and unchanging
monotony.
He has declared that there should be no changes in office, where
the incumbents were competent and qualified, for political reasons,
but that they should be permitted to serve their terms. Like those
who were grinding at the mill, one has been taken and another has
been left. Some Republicans have been suspended and others have
been retained. What is the irresistible inference? What is the logic of
the events, except that, in view of what the President has declared,
every man who is suspended is suspended for cause, and not for
political reasons? It is not possible to suspect the President of
duplicity and treacherous deception.
For the purpose of illustration, let me call the attention of the
Senate and through the Senate the attention of the country, which is
to judge of this matter, to the basis on which this inquiry proceeds. I
read from the letter of Grover Cleveland, dated Albany, August 19,
1884, accepting the nomination for the Presidency of the United
States. He says:
The people pay the wages of the public employés, and they are entitled to the fair
and honest work which the money thus paid should command. It is the duty of
those intrusted with the management of their affairs to see that such public service
is forthcoming. The selection and retention of subordinates in Government
employment should depend upon their ascertained fitness and the value of their
work, and they should be neither expected nor allowed to do questionable party
service.
There is another utterance in this document to which I might
properly allude further on, but which appears to me to be so
significant that I will read it now. It has a singular fitness in
connection with this subject that we have been discussing. Speaking
of honest administration, he says,
 I believe that the public temper is such that the voters of the land are prepared to
support the party which gives the best promise of administering the Government
in the honest, simple, and plain manner which is consistent with its character and
purposes.
And now:
They have learned that mystery and concealment in the management of their
affairs cover tricks and betrayal.
Yes, they have learned that mystery in the administration of the
patronage of the Government, by the concealment from the people of
the documents and papers that bear upon the character and conduct
of officials suspended and those that are appointed, cover tricks and
betrayal. “I thank thee for that word.” A “Daniel” has “come to
judgment.” No more pertinent and pungent commentary upon the
facts of the present situation could be formulated than that which
Grover Cleveland uttered before his foot was upon the threshold, that
mystery and concealment in the management of the affairs of the
people covered tricks and betrayal. There are tricks and somebody
has been betrayed.
Again, on the 20th day of December, 1884, after the election, some
of the contingent of Republican deserters who elected Mr. Cleveland
to the Presidency, becoming apprehensive that there might be
trouble about their thirty pieces of silver, formulated their
uneasiness in words and addressed him a letter calling his attention
to the professions upon which he had been elected and demanding
further guarantee. To that letter, on the 25th day of December, 1884,
Mr. Cleveland replied, and from that reply I select certain
paragraphs, not being willing to tax the patience of the Senate or
waste my own strength in reading what is not strictly material.
I regard myself pledged to this—
That is, to this practical reform in the civil service, this refusal to
turn out competent and qualified officials and put in Democrats—
because my conception of true Democratic faith and public duty requires that
this and all other statutes should be in good faith and without evasion enforced,
and because, in many utterances made prior to my election as President, approved
by the party to which I belong and which I have no disposition to disclaim, I have
in effect promised the people that this should be done.
Not his party, but the people, Republican as well as Democrats.
Then he proceeds to castigate the Democratic party:
 I am not unmindful of the fact to which you refer that many of our citizens fear
that the recent party change in the national Executive may demonstrate that the
abuses which have grown up in the civil service are ineradicable. I know that they
are deeply rooted, and that the spoils system has been supposed to be intimately
related to success in the maintenance of party organization, and I am not sure that
all those who profess to be the friends of this reform will stand firmly among its
advocates when they find it obstructing their way to patronage and place.
He goes on thus, and this is a most significant promise and pledge:
There is a class of Government positions which are not within the letter of the
civil-service statute but which are so disconnected with the policy of an
administration that the removal therefrom of present incumbents, in my opinion,
should not be made during the terms for which they were appointed solely on
partisan grounds, and for the purpose of putting in their places those who are in
political accord with the appointing power—
And then follows that celebrated definition which lifted the lid
from the box of Pandora—
but many men holding such positions have forfeited all just claim to retention
because they have used their places for party purposes in disregard of their duty to
the people, and because, instead of being decent public servants, they have proved
themselves offensive partisans and unscrupulous manipulators of local party
management.
The letter closes with this somewhat frigid assurance of
consolation to the Democratic party.
If I were addressing none but party friends, I should deem it entirely proper to
remind them—
That is, party friends—
that though the coming administration is to be Democratic—
Strictly Democratic—
a due regard for the people’s interest does not permit faithful party work to be
always rewarded by appointment to office, and to say to them that while
Democrats may expect a proper consideration, selections for office not embraced
within the civil-service rules will be based upon sufficient inquiry as to fitness,
instituted by those charged with that duty, rather than upon persistent importunity
or self-solicited recommendations on behalf of candidates for appointment.
“Here endeth the first lesson!” This was in the year 1884. I now
come to the declaration of 1885. Just as the Democratic State
convention which nominated the present governor of New York for
the position that he now holds, was about to assemble at Saratoga on
the 24th, I think, of September, the President gave out for
publication the letter of resignation of Dorman B. Eaton, a civil-
service commissioner, which was dated July 28, 1885, and
accompanied it with a letter of his own accepting that resignation
which was dated September 11, 1885. It was alleged in Democratic
newspapers that the President held back these letters in order to give
publicity to his reply at that time for effect upon the convention, and
it was remarked that it had caused a panic among the Democracy.
His letter is dated, as I said, September 11, 1885, and I will read a few
paragraphs showing his opinion of the Democratic party and the
course that they had pursued in attempting to force him off the civil-
service reform platform. After some rather glittering platitudes in
regard to the work accomplished by Mr. Eaton, he proceeds:
A reasonable toleration for old prejudices, a graceful recognition of every aid, a
sensible utilization of every instrumentality that promises assistance and a
constant effort to demonstrate the advantages of the new order of things, are the
means by which this reform movement will in the future be further advanced, the
opposition.
Now, this is an epithet to which I desire to call particular attention
—
The opposition of incorrigible spoilsmen rendered ineffectual and the cause
placed upon a sure foundation.
But not content with applying his scourge to the “incorrigible
spoilsmen” of the Democratic party, the President took occasion to
express his opinion in rather picturesque language of another class of
politicians that had somewhat afflicted him, and to whom he was
under bonds:
It is a source of congratulation that there are so many friends of civil-service
reform marshaled on the practical side of the question; and that the number is not
greater of those who profess friendliness for the cause, and yet, mischievously and
with supercilious self-righteousness, discredit every effort not in exact accord with
their attenuated ideas, decry with carping criticism the labor of those actually in
the field of reform, and ignoring the conditions which bound and qualify every
struggle for a radical improvement in the affairs of government, demand complete
and immediate perfection.
“Supercilious self-righteousness, attenuated ideas, and carping
criticism,” can not be regarded as complimentary phrases when
applied to the apostles of this new evangel of political reformation.
He continues—
I believe in civil-service reform and its application in the most practicable form
attainable, among other reasons, because it opens the door for the rich and the
poor alike to a participation in public place-holding. And I hope the time is at hand
when all our people will see the advantage of a reliance for such an opportunity
upon merit and fitness, instead of a dependence upon the caprice or selfish interest
of those who impudently—
To whom does he refer?—
who impudently stand between the people and the machinery of the
Government.
You will agree with me, I think, that the support which has been given to the
present administration in its efforts to preserve and advance this reform by a party
restored to power after an exclusion for many years from participation in the
places attached to the public service, confronted with a new system precluding the
redistribution of such places in its interest, called upon to surrender advantages
which a perverted partisanship had taught the American people belonged to
success, and perturbed with the suspicion, always raised in such an emergency,
that their rights in the conduct of this reform had not been scrupulously regarded,
should receive due acknowledgment and should confirm our belief that there is a
sentiment among the people better than a desire to hold office, and a patriotic
impulse upon which may safely rest the integrity of our institutions and the
strength and perpetuity of our Government.
The first official utterances of President Cleveland upon the 4th of
March, 1885, renewed the assurance that had been given. He
declared:
The people demand reform in the administration of the Government and the
application of business principles to business affairs. As a means to this end civil-
service reform should be in good faith enforced. Our citizens have the right to
protection from the incompetency of public employés who hold their places solely
as the reward of partisan service, and from the corrupting influences of those who
promise and the vicious who expect such rewards. And those who worthily seek
public employment have the right to insist that merit and competency shall be
recognized instead of party subserviency or the surrender of honest political belief.
How this system, thus inaugurated, this amphibious plan of
distributing the patronage of the country among his own partisans
and at the same time insisting upon the enforcement of civil-service
reform doctrines practically resulted finds its first illustration in the
celebrated circular of the Postmaster-General that was issued on the
29th of April, 1885. I do not propose to defile my observations by
reading that document. I allude to it for the purpose of saying that a
more thoroughly degraded, loathsome, execrable and detestable
utterance never was made by any public official of any political
persuasion in any country, or in any age. It was an invitation to every
libeller, every anonymous slanderer, every scurrilous defamer, to
sluice the feculent sewage of communities through the Post-Office
Department, with the assurance that, without any intimation or
information to the person aspersed, incumbents should be removed
and Democratic partisans appointed. I offered a resolution on the
4th of this month calling on the Postmaster-General for information
as to the number of removals of fourth-class postmasters, not
requiring confirmation by the Senate, between the 4th day of March,
1885, and that date. It was a simple proposition. It required nothing
but an inspection of the official register and a computation of
numbers. No names were required and no dates. There was a simple
question of arithmetic to ascertain the number of removals of fourth-
class postmasters not included in the list sent to the Senate by the
President, the salary being less than $1,000. Eighteen days elapsed.
There seemed to be some reluctance on the part of the Department
to comply with that request, and I thereupon offered a supplemental
resolution, which was adopted by the Senate, asking the Postmaster-
General to advise us whether that first resolution had been received,
and, if so, why it was not answered, and when a reply might be
expected.
On the second day following an answer came down. It does not
include the number of places that were filled where there had been
resignations. It does not include the list of those appointed where
there had been vacancies from death or any other cause; but simply
those who had been removed without cause and without hearing in
the space of the first twelve months of this administration pledged to
non-partisanship and civil-service reform. The number foots up
8,635. Eighty-six hundred and thirty-five removals of fourth-class
postmasters under an administration pledged by repeated utterances
not to remove except for cause, making an average, counting three
hundred and thirteen working days in that year, of twenty-eight
every day; and, counting seven hours as a day’s work, four removals
every hour, or at the rate of one for every fifteen minutes of time
from the 4th day of March, 1885, until the 4th of March, 1886. And
that is civil-service reform! That is non-partisanship in the
administration of this Government! That is exercising public office as
a public trust!
Mr. Cockrell. How many of these fourth-class postmasters are
there?
 Mr. Ingalls. I do not know.
Mr. Cockrell. About fifty-one thousand, are there not?
Mr. Ingalls. It makes no difference how many; they did the best
they could, and angels could do more. I see that the Senator from
Missouri is impatient; he is anxious that the axe should fall more
rapidly.
The President pro tempore. The Senator from Kansas will pause
a moment. It is the duty of the Chair to inform the occupants of the
galleries that the rules of the Senate forbid any expression of
approbation or disapprobation. It will be the painful duty of the
Chair to enforce that rule, if it is insisted upon.
Mr. Ingalls. I hope the Senator from Missouri will curb his
impatience and restrain his impetuosity. The Postmaster-General
will get through if you only give him time.
Mr. Cockrell. He will get through in four years at this rate.
Mr. Ingalls. One every fifteen minutes!
Mr. Cockrell. Fifty-one thousand is the number of fourth-class
postmasters, I believe, and only eight thousand in a year have been
removed.
Mr. Ingalls. Only one every fifteen minutes! How often do you
expect them to be removed? He has done the best he could. And this
does not include the number of those who resigned; this does not
include any except those who have been removed. To the Senator
from Missouri rising in his seat, impatient at the dilatory
procrastination of the Post-Office Department in not casting out
more Republican postmasters, I say this does not include all.
Undoubtedly many more than eighty-six hundred and thirty-five
have fallen beneath the axe of the Department or have been filled by
partisans of the party in power as a reward for efficient and faithful
party service in consequence of the retirement of thousands of
patriotic Republicans: and when the Senator from Missouri attempts
to convey the impression here that out of fifty-one thousand fourth-
class postmasters only eighty-six hundred and thirty-five have been
changed during this past year he is entirely outside the record. It is to
be observed that this is but a single Department. How many have
gone out of the State department, how many have gone out of the
Interior department, how many out of the Army and Navy
departments, and out of that illuminated Department of Justice, and
out of the Treasury, of course is entirely unknown, and probably will
always remain unknown till the secrets of earth are revealed at the
last day. They are carefully concealed; there are no lists furnished to
the press for publication. Therefore I trust that the friends of the
administration will be consoled, that the complaints which have been
so frequent hitherto of the want of activity on the part of the
administration in finding places for their friends will be tempered by
the consideration that they have done the best they could in the time
at their disposal.
Mr. President, the list of official utterances is not yet complete. On
the first day of this session President Cleveland again repeated his
declaration that the civil service was to be divorced from
partisanship, and he took occasion to inflict some more castigation
upon those who were endeavoring to force him off the civil-service
platform which he had declared he intended to occupy. This was his
language:
Lay siege to the patronage of Government, engrossing the time of public officers
with their importunities, spreading abroad the contagion of their disappointment,
and filling the air with the tumult of their discontent.
Rather florid, rather oriental phrase, but in its exactness
mathematical; a demonstration in geometry could not be more
explicit and satisfactory than that description by President Cleveland
of the occupation and the lamentations of the Democratic party. It
will bear repetition.
Lay siege to the patronage of Government, engrossing the time of public officers
with their importunities, spreading abroad the contagion of their disappointment,
and filling the air with the tumult of their discontent.
A besieging, importunate, contagious, tumultuous, discontented
organization.
There is more to the same effect in this document that I should like
to read, but time does not serve, nor is it material, because there are
other independent utterances to which I must pass; and I do this for
the purpose of showing the consistent and persistent adhesion of the
President of the United States to the declarations with which he
started out when he commenced to administer the Government.
On the 30th day of January, 1886, the ordinary avenues of
communication with the public being inaccessible, President
Cleveland availed himself of the interviewer, and in the Boston
Herald was printed a long letter detailing in quotations a
conversation with President Cleveland, the many points of which will
be found below. This was after this controversy, if you call it so,
between the President and Senate, had begun to develop and there
were some indications of approaching misunderstanding or
disagreement:
He next spoke of his position toward the Senate in the matter of confirmations to
office. He said it gave him some anxiety, for the Senate had been a good while in
disclosing what it meant to do. “They seem”—
He says plaintively—
“to distrust me,” said he, “if I am to accept what I hear from others. But I hear
nothing from them. They have not called upon me for information or for
documents.”
That complaint no longer exists.
“I have tried”—
He says—
“to deal honorably and favorably by them. My purpose was announced at the
beginning of my administration. I meant then to adhere to it. I have never changed
it. I do not mean to change it in the future. It seems to me unjust and ungenerous
in them”—
That is, in the Senate—
“unjust and ungenerous in them to suspect that I do. If I had not meant to
adhere to my policy it would have been foolish in me to begin it. I should have
escaped much in refusing to begin it. It is not at all pleasant for me to disappoint,
and I fear sometimes to offend, my party friends. Nothing but a sense of duty has
brought me to this step. Why run all this risk and incur this hard feeling only in the
end to retreat? It seems to me it would have been as impolitic as it is wrong. No; I
have tried to be true to my own pledges and the pledges of my party. We both
promised to divorce the offices of the country from being used for party service. I
have held to my promise, and I mean to hold to it.”
Then there was an answer to a question propounded by the
interviewer, in which he defines his relation toward offensive
partisanship in the Democratic party:
“I did not propose to hold party service in the past in the Democratic ranks as
against a man. On the contrary, it gave him a strong, equitable claim to office. He
had been excluded for twenty-four years because he was a Democrat. He should be
remembered for the same reason when a Democratic administration came into
power, provided he was a competent man for the position to be filled. What I
understand by civil-service reform, as I am carrying it out, is that the office-holders
shall be divorced from politics while they fill their positions under this
government. That rule I have meant to stand by.” I asked him if he was aware of
any deviation from it among his appointees. “If there has been any,” said he, “it has
not been called to my attention.” I suggested that some such charge had been made
in New York. He said he did not believe that there was any foundation for it, and
that it was well known there that his wishes were that the office-holders should
attend to the duties of their positions, and interfere neither with candidates nor
election contests.
And here comes in the significant statement bearing upon the duty
of Republicans in connection with these suspensions and removals
from office:
“My removals from office, such as are made,” said he, “are made for cause. It
would be absurd for me to undertake to give the country my reasons in all cases,
because it would be impracticable. When I have removed a Republican for political
reasons or for any other reasons, I would apply the same rule to my own party. I
think the Republican Senators should be just enough to believe this of me. They
ought to appreciate that I am trying to do my duty. Why they should continue to
distrust me I do not see. They do not come to me either personally or by committee
to get an understanding of my attitude, or to obtain explanations on points of
action to which they object. They stand off and question the sincerity of my
purposes.”
The eight thousand six hundred and thirty-five fourth-class
postmasters and the six hundred and forty-three suspensions before
the Senate and the thousands of changes in other departments “are
made for cause,” not for political reasons merely; but to give those
who have been so removed the opportunity to explain or defend
themselves would be “absurd” and “impracticable.”
But this is not all. Later in the winter the Civil Service Commission
was reorganized, and in a newspaper printed in this city appeared a
statement alleged to be “personal” and included in quotation marks,
and which it is commonly reported was in the handwriting of the
President.
I cannot rid myself—
He said, after speaking about the personnel of the Civil Service
Commission—
I cannot rid myself of the idea that this civil-service reform is something
intended to do practical good and not a mere sentiment invented for the purpose of
affording opportunity to ventilate high-sounding notions and fine phrases.
He alludes to the action of the Civil-Service Commission about a
weigher in the city of Brooklyn, and says:
 When the Civil Service Commission consulted with me as to the status of Mr.
Sterling and the true construction of the rule bearing upon that subject, I agreed
with them in their second opinion that the position of weigher was subject to an
examination, and that it should be filled by one who by means of a proper
examination under the law proved himself competent and eligible. But it seemed to
me that the good of the service required that the person to be appointed should be
possessed of certain traits and qualifications which no theoretical examination
would develop. One having in charge two or three hundred men of the class with
which a weigher has to deal should possess personal courage, energy, decision and
firmness of character. It is entirely certain that the possession of such
qualifications could not in the least be determined by the result of an examination
organized for the purpose of testing an applicant’s knowledge and education.
And he closes:
No cause can gain by injustice or by a twisting of its purposes to suit particular
tastes. And when a result is fairly reached through the proper operation of methods
adopted to further a reform, it should be accepted—especially by the friends of the
movement. They should not permit those of whom they require submission to say,
with any semblance of truth, that they themselves submit only when the result
accords with their views.
This closes the public declarations of the President of the United
States upon the views which he entertains as to the method and
plans and system upon which the public service is to be conducted
under his administration. There are some interesting details as to the
practical effects and results of the effort of the administration to
purify the public service, which I would be glad if I had time to refer
to, but I believe I will forbear. I can only say that it seems from an
inspection of the record as if the cry “put the rascals out” had been
changed in effect to “put the rascals in.” Of course Mr. President, no
party is exempt from accidents, no organization has a monopoly
either of good men or of bad men, and in calling attention to the
results of civil-service reform as applied to this administration, I
should be insincere if I were to assume that such results had followed
from any predetermined purpose to put bad men into office.
We heard a great deal during the campaign about the corruptions,
profligacy, misdeeds, and maladministration of Republican officials.
I can only say that in view of what has occurred under this
administration, if I were inclined to be uncharitable I could with
entire propriety say that while the Republican party was in power it
endeavored whenever it detected crime anywhere to punish it; but
one of the practical results of Democratic administration has been
the reverse, and that is to place in office a very large number of
admitted and convicted felons. I have before me a selection from
which I will, I believe, in support of this view of the case, give a law
extract, stating in advance that these compilations are made from
Democratic newspapers which, of course, is a mitigation of the
slander, though it does not necessarily destroy its credibility.
Mr. ——, of Baltimore, who was made an Indian inspector in 1885,
had been involved in notorious election frauds and was condemned
by the civil-service reform Independents of Maryland as a
companion of Higgins, as a ballot-box stuffer, and a professional
gambler.
The postmaster at Sioux City, Iowa, was convicted and sentenced
in Dakota for violation of the pension laws. The man who was
removed to make a place for this eminent civil-service reformer had
eight months yet to serve, and there was no complaint against him
even to the extent that he was an offensive partisan.
Mr. Holmes, a postmaster in Mississippi, had been involved in
notorious election-fraud scandals.
Mr. Shannon, appointed postmaster at Meriden, Miss., was the
editor of the Mercury newspaper, which after President Grant’s
death contained a rabid editorial attacking the General’s character;
and he had been indicted in the United States court for “unlawfully
and criminally conspiring with many others for the evasion of the
civil rights law.”
In Rhode Island a Democratic postmaster was appointed who had
been in the preceding three months arrested nine times for violation
of the liquor law.
In Pennsylvania a man was appointed in the Philadelphia Mint
who openly confessed to writing a forged letter from Neal Dow to be
used in influencing the German vote in the State of Ohio the
preceding year.
There have been some strange things done in Maine. I almost
hesitate to quote this, but if I am wrong the Senators from that State
will undoubtedly correct me. It is alleged that the postmaster in the
town of Lincolnville was at the time of his appointment actually in
the Portland jail, where he was serving a term for a misdemeanor.
 An agent by the name of Judd, who was appointed in the Bureau of
Labor Statistics, was, upon inquiry as to the fact whether he had
been a horse-thief and served in the penitentiary, suspended from
office. The writer states that the only ground for supposing that he
was not a horse thief arose from the fact that they do not put men in
the penitentiary for stealing horses out West: that if he was alive it
was a reasonable, natural conclusion that he had not stolen any
horses. Nobody denied the penitentiary.
A gentleman named Richard Board, of Kentucky, was appointed in
July, on the recommendation of Comptroller Durham, clerk in the
railway mail service and assigned to duty in New Mexico. This is
under the Postmaster-General, who found leisure between removing
postmasters every fifteen minutes to appoint this man in another
branch of the service where he incautiously mentioned to his friends
something about his previous history, and it appeared that he had
been three times arrested in Cincinnati for obtaining money under
false pretenses, that he had been twice arrested for stealing in
Kentucky, and once in Texas—a variegated and diversified career.
“No pent up Utica” contracted his powers. He had stolen in three
states. His father was a very wealthy man in high standing who had
spent a great deal of money to protect his son, and through him he
secured the endorsement of Comptroller Durham, and after he had
been in service for a few weeks he committed a number of robberies,
stole $163 from the money order service, and at the date of this
communication was lying in jail at Santa Fé awaiting trial.
The Senator from Indiana [Mr. Voorhees] yesterday took
occasion to advert with somewhat of animated hilarity to the
suggestion of the Senator from Iowa about the evolutionary
condition of the Democratic party, and dwelt with considerable
unction upon a term that the Senator from Iowa had applied to the
Democracy in his very able and interesting speech: “a protoplasmic”
cell, and the Senator then proceeded to give us the definition of the
term as it appears in the dictionaries, and suggested that if those
facts had been known at the time when the canvass was pending Mr.
Cleveland would undoubtedly have been counted out in New York.
The Senator from Iowa might have gone further in his application
of the doctrine of evolution with much propriety. Geology teaches us
that in the process of being upward from the protoplasmic cell,
through one form of existence to another there are intermediary and
connecting stages, in which the creature bears some resemblance to
the state from which it has emerged and some to the state to which it
is proceeding. History is stratified politics; every stratum is
fossiliferous; and I am inclined to think that the political geologist of
the future in his antiquarian researches between the triassic series of
1880 and the cretaceous series of 1888 as he inspects the jurassic
Democratic strata of 1884 will find some curious illustrations of the
doctrine of political evolution.
In the transition from the fish to the bird there is an anomalous
animal, long since extinct, named by the geologists the pterodactyl,
or the winged reptile, a lizard with feathers upon its paws and
plumes upon its tail. A political system which illustrates in its
practical operations the appointment by the same administration of
Eugene Higgins and Dorman B. Eaton can properly be regarded as in
the transition epoch and characterized as the pterodactyl of politics.
It is, like that animal, equally adapted to waddling and dabbling in
the slime and mud of partisan politics and soaring aloft with
discordant cries into the glittering and opalescent empyrean of civil-
service reform.
The President closes his recent message to the Senate in this
language:
The pledges I have made were made to the people, and to them I am responsible
for the manner in which they have been redeemed. I am not responsible to the
Senate and I am unwilling to submit my actions and official conduct to them for
judgment.
There are no grounds for an allegation that the fear of being found false to my
professions influences me in declining to submit to the demands of the Senate. I
have not constantly refused to suspend officials, and thus incurred the displeasure
of political friends, and yet willfully broken faith with the people for the sake of
being false to them.
Neither the discontent of party friends nor the allurements constantly offered of
confirmation of appointees conditioned upon the avowal that suspensions have
been made on party grounds alone, nor the threat proposed in the resolution now
before the Senate that no confirmations will be made unless the demands of that
body be complied with, are sufficient to discourage or deter me from following in
the way which I am convinced leads to better government for the people.
He is not responsible to the Senate, nor is the Senate responsible
to him; both are alike responsible to the people. But in the cases at
bar we are compelled to inquire, in justice to the people, whether
those pledges have been redeemed, or whether they have been
broken, violated, and disregarded. Had the patronage of the
Government, within proper limits, been turned over for its exercise
to the party intrusted with power by a majority of the people there
could have been no complaint, but upon the assurances that I have
read, the declaration was made that in every case where an
incumbent was competent and qualified he should remain in office
till the expiration of his term.
When, therefore, some were suspended and others were left, what
is the irresistible inference, after the declarations of the President,
except that these persons were suspended for cause either affecting
their personal integrity or their official administration? Upon the
ground, then, of personal justice, if no other, we are entitled to know
whether wrong has been done by the accusations that have been filed
in the Departments, so that we may protect those who are unable to
defend themselves from injustice and defamation.
But there is another reason, and to me a still more convincing
reason, why we should be advised in the case of these suspensions
what are the papers, the official documents, and the reports on the
files of the departments affecting the administration of these offices,
and that is this: under the tenure-of-office act, every official
suspended is reinstated by the provisions of section 1768 of the
Revised Statutes, if the Senate adjourns without confirming the
designated person, and continues to exercise and discharge the
duties of that office, until he is again suspended by the President.
Therefore, in acting upon these cases we have a double duty to
perform; in the first place, to decide whether the person suspended
was properly suspended, and in the next place, whether he is a
competent person to be restored to office under and by virtue of the
operation of the statute under which he was suspended. If he is not a
competent person then he ought not to be restored, and we cannot
determine whether he is competent and qualified and fit to discharge
the duties of that office until we have the official declarations and
statements upon which the action of the President was based.
Since this debate began, there are indications that the President
has become convinced that his position is untenable, and that he has
concluded to yield to the reasonable requests of the Senate and
relieve suspended officials from the otherwise inevitable imputations
upon their conduct and character. I find the following
correspondence in one of the metropolitan journals, which if
authentic relieves the relation between the President and the Senate
of the principal restraint:
Committee on Finance, United States Senate, March 17, 1886.

Dear Sir: Will you please advise the Committee on Finance whether or not there
are any papers or charges on file reflecting against the official or moral character of
——, late collector of internal revenue for the first district of ——, suspended?
If there are any such papers or charges will you please communicate their nature
and character to the committee?

Very truly, yours,

JUSTIN S. MORRILL.

Hon. Daniel Manning,

Secretary of the Treasury.

March 19, 1886.

Sir: Your communication on behalf of the Finance Committee of the Senate,

dated March 17, 1886, asking whether or not there are any papers or charges on file
reflecting against the official or moral character of ——, late collector of internal
revenue for the first district of ——, suspended, is received.
In reply thereto I have the honor to state that, so far as this inquiry relates to a
suspension from office, I feel bound by the rules laid down in the President’s recent
message to the Senate upon the general subject of such suspensions.
But in order that I may surely act within the requirements of the statute relating
to the furnishing by this Department of information to the Senate, I beg leave to
remind the committee that the office referred to has no fixed term attached to it,
and to further state that the President is satisfied that a change in the incumbency
of said office will result in an improvement of the public service, and that the policy
of the present administration will be better carried out by such change.
Except as the same may be involved in these considerations, no papers
containing charges reflecting upon the official or moral character of the suspended
officer mentioned in your communication are in the custody of this Department.

Respectfully, yours,
D. MANNING, Secretary.

Hon. Justin S. Morrill,

Chairm’n of the Senate Com. on Finance.
 But whether this be true or not, this is not the forum in which this
controversy is to be ultimately decided. The Executive is not on trial
before the Senate; the Senate is not on trial before the Executive; but
both, as to the sincerity of their professions and the consistency of
their actions, are on trial before that greater, wiser, and more
powerful tribunal—the enlightened conscience of the people, from
whose verdict there is neither exculpation nor appeal.
 THE GREAT TARIFF CAMPAIGN OF 1888.

The views which point to the tendency of the Democratic party in

the direction of Free Trade, at least to their antagonism to the theory
of Protection for protection’s sake, are well given in the special
message of President Cleveland, given elsewhere in this work. A wing
of the Democratic party, headed by Samuel J. Randall, of
Pennsylvania, dissented from this view, and opposed both the
Morrison and the Mills bills. For the purpose of illustrating the views
of this class of Democrats, as well as because of the distinction of the
speaker, we append