PDF Biomass Supply Chains For Bioenergy and Biorefining 1St Edition Ehimen Ebook Full Chapter
PDF Biomass Supply Chains For Bioenergy and Biorefining 1St Edition Ehimen Ebook Full Chapter
PDF Biomass Supply Chains For Bioenergy and Biorefining 1St Edition Ehimen Ebook Full Chapter
https://textbookfull.com/product/innovative-solutions-for-
sustainable-supply-chains-hassan-qudrat-ullah/
https://textbookfull.com/product/maritime-supply-chains-1st-
edition-thierry-vanelslander-editor/
https://textbookfull.com/product/bioenergy-biomass-to-biofuels-
and-waste-to-energy-2nd-edition-anju-dahiya-editor/
https://textbookfull.com/product/optimization-and-decision-
support-systems-for-supply-chains-1st-edition-ana-paula-barbosa-
povoa/
Operations Management Processes and Supply Chains J.
Krajewski
https://textbookfull.com/product/operations-management-processes-
and-supply-chains-j-krajewski/
https://textbookfull.com/product/management-accounting-in-supply-
chains-andreas-taschner/
https://textbookfull.com/product/sustainable-supply-chains-
strategies-issues-and-models-usha-ramanathan/
https://textbookfull.com/product/food-supply-chains-in-cities-
modern-tools-for-circularity-and-sustainability-emel-aktas/
https://textbookfull.com/product/sustainable-logistics-and-
supply-chains-innovations-and-integral-approaches-1st-edition-
meng-lu/
Related titles
Biomass Combustion Science, Technology and Engineering
(ISBN: 978-0-85709-131-4)
The Biogas Handbook
(ISBN: 978-0-85709-498-8)
Handbook of Biofuels Production
(ISBN: 978-1-84569-679-5)
Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy:
Number 94
Edited by
Jens Bo Holm-Nielsen
Ehiaze Augustine Ehimen
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and
the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of
products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
1.1 Introduction
Over the last decade there have been increasing debates over the sensitivity of bio-
masses for all kinds of purposes. Food, feed, and fuel for energy, heating, and cooling
as well as biorefinery products replacing fossil-based chemicals are among the most
important biomass end uses. Depending on use, biomass resources worldwide can
be finite or nonfinite resources. The areas where biomass can be used for energy
and food/feed are commercially exploited forestry and agricultural land areas. When
biomass is harvested, nature conservation issues must be taken very seriously into
consideration.
The future of biomass utilization has been researched and discussed for the last de-
cades, and the global biomass potential for energy sectors reveals the range of
196e530 EJ. This potential shall be utilized using the sustainability criteria and indi-
cators for sustainable bioenergy. However, there is no internationally agreed manda-
tory standard for bioenergy, and various organizations are using overlapping
indicator sets. This chapter consists of the biomass resource potential studies, which
are analyzed including forecasts.
The biomass is
originating from land
areas that are forests
Figure 1.1 The criteria for renewable biomass (United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change, 2006).
All five conditions should comply with nature conservation regulations in the con-
cerned country or region, apply sustainable management in the production of the
biomass, and keep carbon stock levels nondeclining. If none of these conditions apply,
the biomass is considered nonrenewable (UNFCCC, 2006). The next steps of critical
review on biomass potential are its long-term availability and demand for the energy
sectors throughout the world.
The global net primary production of biomass is estimated to be 2280 EJ (Smeets
Edward et al., 2006). In 2007 only 50 EJ of biomass contributed to global energy use
of 470 EJ, mainly in the form of traditional noncommercial biomass (SLU, 2009).
Currently the world consumes nearly 500 EJ of primary energy annually (Bioenergy,
2009; Gregg and Smith, 2010), and projections of primary energy consumption indicate
a range of 601e1041 EJ by the year 2050 (United Nations Development Program et al.,
2000). Simultaneously, projections of biomass potential for energy production show a
range of 50e1500 EJ by the year 2050 (Faaij and Dornburg, 2008). The high biomass
potential ranges emerge because of different methods used to represent determining fac-
tors, such as demand for food, land, soil and water constraints, biodiversity and nature
conservation requirements, and other sustainability issues (Bioenergy, 2009). There is
also doubt regarding the quality of present studies because the dynamics of important
insights to determine biomass potential have been studied in less detail. For instance,
the competition for water resources with other economic sectors, human diets and
Introduction to biomass supply chains 5
alternative protein chains, the demand for wood products, and many others factors have
been included only to a limited extent (Faaij and Dornburg, 2008). Despite the fact that
biomass potential studies do not include the dynamics of all-important insights, these
studies reveal the potential of biomass for energy production.
The important factor for considering biomass production potential and scanning the
regions of the world for potential suppliers of biomass fuels is the world’s needs of
biomass supply as a sustainable renewable energy source. Table 1.1 presents the total
global land area and agricultural area as well as arable land, forest, and permanent
meadows and pastures expressed in million hectares and as a percentage of total area.
Additionally, the definitions of land types are provided in the upper part of the table.
Biomass resources currently available for producing energy can be classified into
woody biomass, agricultural sources, and biowastes (SLU et al., 2009). In this chapter
the main focus is on woody biomass and agricultural sources. Agriculture and forestry
are the biggest sources of biomass around the globe, accounting for 38% and 31% of
the total world’s area, respectively (FAO, 2010b; Holm-Nielsen et al., 2006). Further
sections of this chapter emphasize these two sources of biomass.
One can use Table 1.1 to indicate the particular potential of biomass around the
world. As the agricultural land indicates, the energy crops’ potential, like new planta-
tions and arable land, including the residue potentials of straw and forest areas the
woody biomass potential. Permanent meadows and pastures show the potential to
expand biomass production to these areas via new cropping systems and utilization
systems.
3.07% 720 EJ
Worldʹs land area devoted to
1.54% 360 EJ
energy crops
0.85% 180 EJ
0.38% 90 EJ
0.19% 45 EJ
Figure 1.2 The agricultural land employment and primary energy consumption.
More realistically, biomass potential from growing energy crops could amount to
the range of 120e330 EJ yr1, or between 24 and 66% of current primary energy con-
sumption (Bioenergy, 2009; Holm-Nielsen et al., 2010). Furthermore, the amount of
agricultural residues were estimated to be 36 EJ yr1 in 2005 (Gregg and Smith,
2010) and projected to reach 55e72 EJ yr1 by 2050 (Edward et al., 2004). The global
agricultural biomass potential, including energy cropping, plantations, and agricultural
residues, could range between 175e402 EJ by the year 2050.
30 Production
9 Protection
11 Conservation
4 Social services
24 Multiple use
7 Other
16 Unknown
Figure 1.3 Designated functions of the world’s forests, 2010 (%) (FAO, 2010a).
wood and wood fuel and the supply of wood from forests, forest plantations, and trees
outside forests by the year 2050. The results show the potential of biomass from the for-
est wood (after the demand for industrial wood is met) to be 0e93 EJ yr1 and the po-
tential biomass from wood residues to be 21e35 EJ, which includes wood harvest
residues (22%), process residues (39%), and wood wastes (39%; Smeets Edward
et al., 2006). Based on these results the global biomass potential from wood, including
forest wood and wood residues, could amount to around 21e128 EJ by the year 2050.
The evaluation of these studies led to the assumption that the realistic biomass po-
tential, including agricultural and forest biomasses, ranges between 196e530 EJ by
the year 2050. This assumption is in line with other projections of 200e500 EJ of
biomass harvestable for energy, including wastes. Table 1.2 summarizes biomass
resource potential and includes the projection of primary energy consumption in 2050.
The bulk of this potential comes from the specialized energy crops grown on sur-
plus agricultural land, which is defined as land that is no longer required for food pro-
duction due to increased efficiency.
The highest regional biomass potentials are in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Caribbean
and Latin America, the Commonwealth of Independent States (Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Biomass sustainability
assurance scheme
Sustainability principles
Sustainability criteria
Sustainability
indicators
Sustainability
verifiers
1.4 Conclusions
Biomass resources reveal the potential for energy sectors amounting to 196e530 EJ by
2050. However, more detailed assessments of potential could lead to reduced or
increased amounts of available biomass for energy purposes. For example, the promo-
tion of degraded lands could add up to the potential, and increased food demand could
lead to a decreased potential.
Nevertheless bioenergy will play a big role in the future energy mix, most likely
amounting in the long term to up to 30e35% of the entire world’s energy needs.
The sustainability concerns of biomass utilization are being addressed by sustain-
ability certification schemes, which are mainly voluntary initiatives developed by in-
dustry, governments, and international organizations. As no consensus exists on
sustainability requirements, biomass producers and users are advised to join the
harmonization process by sharing their experiences learned during certification devel-
opment and implementation processes.
Box 1.1 summarizes the main ideas in this chapter
References
van Dam, J., Junginger, M., Faaij, A., Jurgens, I., Best, G., Fritsche, U., 2008. Overview of
Recent Developments in Sustainable Biomass CertificationdAnnex Documents. http://
www.bioenergytrade.org/downloads/ieatask40certificationpaperannexesdraftforcomm.pdf
(accessed 30.05.11.).
van Dam, J., Junginger, M., Faaij, A.P.C., 2010. From the Global Efforts on Certification of
Bioenergy towards an Integrated Approach Based on Sustainable Land Use Planning.
European Commission, 2010. Report from the Commission to the Council and the European
Parliament: Sustainability Requirements for the Use of Solid and Gaseous Biomass Sources
12 Biomass Supply Chains for Bioenergy and Biorefining
Smeets Edward, M.W., Faaij, A.P.C., 2006. Bioenergy potentials from Forestry in 2050, an
assessment of the drivers that determine the potentials. Climatic Change (2007) 81,
353e390.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 2006. Annex 18:
Definition of Renewable Biomass, 1e2. http://cdm.unfccc.int/EB/023/eb23_repan18.pdf
(accessed 07.10.10.).
(UN) United Nations Development Program, United Nations Department of Economic and
Social Affairs, World Energy Council, 2000. World Energy Assessment: Energy and the
Challenge of Sustainability, 338. http://www.undp.org/energy/activities/wea/drafts-frame.html
(accessed 05.08.10.).
World Bioenergy Association (WBA), 2009. WBA Position Paper on Global Potential of
Sustainable Biomass for Energy, 1e4. http://www.worldbioenergy.org/system/files/file/
WBA_PP1_Final%202009-11-30.pdf (accessed 05.08.10.).
Biomass feedstocks
B. Gabrielle
2
AgroParisTech, INRA, Thiverval Grignon, France
H. Wernsdorfer
AgroParisTech, Nancy, France; INRA, Champenoux, France
N. Marron
INRA, Champenoux, France; University of Lorraine, Nancy, France
C. Deleuze
ONF, Dole, France
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Main categories and uses of biomass
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC; Chum et al.,
2011), biomass may be broadly defined as “material of biological origin (plants or an-
imal matter), excluding material embedded in geological formations and transformed
to fossil fuels or peat.” Thus, biomass resources all derive from a photosynthesis pro-
cess (the fixation of atmospheric CO2 by plants) that occurred within a short timeframe
from present, ie, a few years or decades. Biomass is opposed to fossil resources, which
are also a result of photosynthesis but have been preserved and densified over geolog-
ical time scales (millions of years). Peat consists of more recent organic matter but is
not considered as a renewable resource since it takes much longer than plants or trees
to replenish.
Species that have a capacity to photosynthesize include terrestrial vascular plants
and aquatic plants (algae), among which are microorganisms such as plankton and
cyanobacteria. The main sources of biomass currently used for biorefining purposes
include agriculture, forestry, and waste or residue streams arising from the harvest-
ing of crops or trees or their processing. Aquatic biomass produced by micro- and
macroalgae is receiving an increasing focus (Wijffels and Barbosa, 2010) but will
not be covered in this chapter. Readers are referred to the “Further information”
section for more details on the wide possibilities offered by these feedstocks,
some of which have the advantage of alleviating the land constraint for providing
renewable carbon-based feedstock. Animals process vegetal biomass (in the form of
forage) and convert it into more complex forms of organic matter. Thus, they pro-
vide other sources of biomass further down the food chain. Their use for bioenergy
or biorefining is currently restricted to waste products from livestock production or
1
Exa Joule (EJ) ¼ 1018 J or 109 GJ. One ton of lignocellulosic (generic) biomass contains about 15 GJ.
Biomass feedstocks
Trees and shrubs
in forests and Traditional solid
nonforests Woodfuels (fuelwood, dung, charcoal, straw, etc.)
Losses
30 Fuelwood (refinery, transport,
35 transformation)
36,2
Charcoal making1,3 1 1,7
1 0,7 3,7
3 1,2
33 0,1
Wood-based 0
industry Black
Recovered liquor 1 2
wood products Forest Buildings
0 and others
from previous residues Electricity
years 2,1
1,5
1 0,7
2,8 35,1
0,8 0,3
1,7
0,1
1,8 0,7 Heat + CHP 1
Recovered
0,1
woodfuel 1 0,1
Figure 2.1 Main sources of biomass and pathways used for energy purposes worldwide in 2004. The arrows are proportional to the amount of energy
flowing through each pathway Sims et al. (2007).
17
18 Biomass Supply Chains for Bioenergy and Biorefining
Poplar 440
Hemp 390
15
Willow 40
89 83
Sweden
41
Miscanthus 13,500
Miscanthus 35
Miscanthus 2350
183 Finland 20
Poplar 150
Willow 4100
Willow 5500
Willow
550
Willow 555
36 73 15
Miscanthus 400
Willow 300
112
Lithuania 81
Poplar 40
114 UK Denmark
Poplar 1000
Willow 500
4 381 5
14 Ireland 84
Poland 276
Miscanthus
2112 3561
Germany
Miscanthus 1596
Willow+poplar 440
Switchgrass 129
Black locust 80
375
91 141
Austria
39 258
Miscanthus 7500
635
Poplar 6000
1630 France
Miscanthus ?
37 78
Eucalytus ?
33 613 Italy
236
Spain 714
Figure 2.2 Energy crops in Europe in 2010 (as ktoe of bioenergy produced from food crops
or acreage for lignocellulosic crops).
From Don, A., Osborne, B., Hastings, A., Skiba, U., Carter, M.S., Drewer, J., Flessa, H.,
€ Monti, A., Djomo, S.N.,
Freibauer, A., Hyv€onen, N., Jones, M.B., Lanigan, G.J., Mander, U.,
Valentine, J., Walter, K., Zegada-Lizarazu, W., Zenone, T., 2011. Land-use change to bioenergy
production in Europe: implications for the greenhouse gas balance and soil carbon GCB.
Bioenergy 4, 372e391.
Biomass feedstocks 19
by water and land availability, and predicts a somewhat lower likely range of
80e190 EJ yr1 based on technico-economic modeling (Edenhofer et al., 2011).
Sustainability constraints were not explicitly quantified in these estimates but
were taken on board by favoring residual feedstocks and waste streams, marginal
lands for the establishment of dedicated plantations, or increased extraction from
sustainably managed forests. Only a minor fraction of the extra biomass produced
in these potential scenarios was assumed to originate in good agricultural land to
minimize indirect land-use change (LUC) effects.
To illustrate the global distribution of potential biomass plantations, Fig. 2.3
shows the results of a simulation exercise with the ecosystem model LPJm, which
simulates plant productivity as a function of climate, soil properties, and manage-
ment (Beringer et al., 2011). In particular, this assessment thus includes the effect
of water availability on biomass production. The system determines the amount of
land available for biomass in each simulation pixel as a function of regulatory con-
straints (protected areas), land suitability for growing biomass feedstocks, compe-
tition with food to maintain its provision, and the limitation of CO2 emissions
related to LUC. World regions with the largest suitable area include South America
(accounting for one-quarter of the total global potential), Eastern and South Asia,
and Sub-Saharan Africa. Overall, energy crops contributed 20e80% of the biomass
production potential, depending on the share of irrigated area in the prediction
scenarios.
Figure 2.3 Global distribution of potential biomass plantations in one of the scenarios predicted
by Beringer et al. (2011) for 2050. The color keys include the major constraints restricting the
area available for these plantations.
20 Biomass Supply Chains for Bioenergy and Biorefining
Lignin
Fiber Gasification
separation Organic
juice Oil
Pyrolysis HTU
Hydrolysis
Syngas
Anaerobic Extraction Pyrolytic
digestion C6 sugars C5 sugars liquid
Water gas
Separation
shift
Hydrogenation/
Biogas Methanisation
upgrading
Chemical
Upgrading
Fermentation Combustion reaction
Chemical
reaction
Estherification
Upgrading
Steam
reforming
Water
H2 electrolysis
Figure 2.4 Overview of value chains based on agricultural, waste, and marine biomass. Lignocellulosic residues include residues from forestry.
From Landeweerd, L., Surette, M., van Driel, C., 2011. From petrochemistry to biotech: a European perspective on the bio-based economy. Interface
21
Focus, Royal Society 1, 189e195.
22 Biomass Supply Chains for Bioenergy and Biorefining
in the same plot or growing an understory food crop and coppicing the lignocellulosic
species to produce residual biomass for energy. They appear as promising avenues for
easing the tension between food and nonfood usages as well as improving the sustain-
ability of the various feedstocks produced on the same parcel of land.
Primary residues from food crops provide a potentially large and widespread source
of lignocellulose at a relatively cheap cost, although the actual extent is controversial
due to trade-offs with the preservation of soil quality and fertility (Lal, 2008) and the
competition with other uses (for livestock farming in particular). For example, in France
only an estimated 33% of available straw could be removed without jeopardizing soil
organic C, and because of other end uses a mere 23% of the straw produced on arable
land is actually available for biorefining (Labalette et al., 2012). The same reference
estimates that the sustainability constraint in terms of soil quality reduces the amount
of forest residues potentially available over France by around 70%. The sustainable po-
tential for harvesting forest residues would make up 10% of the currently harvested
wood material for fuel, fiber, and material purposes. Nevertheless, forestry-related,
future increases in biomass supply at the European level are expected to originate
from logging residues rather than from industry by-products (secondary waste); the latter
feedstock is clearly higher at present but is expected to increase more slowly (AEBIOM,
2011).
Secondary waste products include animal waste, saw dust, woodchips and shav-
ings, rice hulls, bagasse from sugarcane processing, and waste fats. Except for excre-
ments produced by grazing animals, these streams are less dispersed than primary
residues, being centralized in farm buildings, tanks, or processing units such as sugar
houses or sawmills. Tertiary waste is sometimes distinguished as retail/postconsumer
waste in the form of municipal waste (source-separated organic waste, biowaste from
water treatment, tree clippings, or yard trimmings). Alternative uses should be consid-
ered when assessing the economic and environmental benefits of using waste streams
for biorefining purposes. For instance, municipal waste can be composted and used as
organic amendment and nutrient supply to various plants or crops (Houot et al., 2014;
Marron, 2015). Other forms of end uses may also be competing with biorefining, such
as panels from wood processing residues.
Here they remained three years; and, here, after they had built for
themselves a really “new home,” they long continued to carry on
their school work.
But experience soon convinced them that a new dwelling house
was a necessity. The buildings which they occupied proved to be
both unhealthy and unsuitable for the work they were undertaking.
The unhealthiness arose partly from the location. The ground in that
section of the city is low, and liable to be submerged in the rainy
season. A sluggish little stream ran just in front of the place, passing
through the wall by a low gate, and if this happened to be closed in a
sudden freshet, the water sometimes rose within the houses. There
was a floor at least in the main building, but it was laid upon
scantlings about four inches thick, these being placed on the ground.
The boards were not grooved, and as a consequence while making
a tight enough floor in the damp season, in the dry it opened with
cracks a quarter to half an inch wide. The walls were of stone, built
without lime, and with an excess of mud mortar, and lined on the
inside with sun-dried brick. The result of all this was that the
dampness extended upward several feet above the floor, and by
discoloration showed in the driest season where it had been. The
floor could not be raised without necessitating a change in the doors
and windows, and it was doubtful whether this could be made with
safety to the house. It is no wonder that, under such conditions, Mrs.
Mateer began to suffer seriously from the rheumatism that remained
with her all the rest of her life. Added to the other discomforts, were
the tricks played them by the ceiling. This consisted of cornstalks
hung to the roof with strings, and covered on the lower side with
paper pasted on. Occasionally a heavy rain brought this ceiling down
on the heads of the occupants; and cracks were continually opening,
thus rendering it almost impossible to keep warm in cold weather.
An appeal was made to the Board for funds for a new dwelling.
Happily the Civil War was about over, and the financial outlook was
brightening; so in the course of a few months permission for the new
house was granted, and an appropriation was made. The first thing
to do was to obtain a suitable piece of ground on which to build.
Mateer had in his own mind fixed on a plot adjoining the mission
premises, and understood to be purchasable. Such transactions in
China seldom move rapidly. He bided his time until the Chinese new
year was close at hand, when everybody wants money; then, striking
while the iron was hot, he bought the ground.
Long before this consummation he was so confident that he would
succeed that, foreseeing that he must be his own architect and
superintendent, he wrote home to friends for specific information as
to every detail of house-building. Nothing seems to have been
overlooked. He even wanted to know just how the masons stand
when at certain parts of their work.
Early in February in 1867 he was down at Chefoo purchasing the
brick and stone and lime; and so soon as the material was on hand
and as the weather permitted, the actual construction was begun. It
was an all-summer job, necessitating his subordinating, as far as
possible, all other occupations to this. It required a great deal of care
and patience to get the foundations put down well, and of a proper
shape for the superstructure which was to rest upon them. In his
Journal he thus records the subsequent proceedings:
When the level of the first floor was reached I began the
brickwork myself, laying the corners and showing the masons
one by one how to proceed. I had no small amount of trouble
before I got them broken in to use the right kind of trowel,
which I had made for the purpose, and then to lay the brick in
the right way. I had another round of showing and trouble
when the arches at the top of the windows had to be turned,
and then the placing of the sleepers took attention; and then
the setting of the upper story doors and windows. The work
went slowly on, and when the level was reached we had quite
a raising, getting the plates and rafters up. All is done,
however, and to-day they began to put the roof on.... I hope in
a few days I will be able to resume my work again, as all the
particular parts are now done, so that I can for the most give it
into the hands of the Chinese to oversee.
The early part of November, 1867, the Mateers lived “half in the
old and half in the new.” On November 21 they finally moved. That
was Saturday. In the night there came up a fierce storm of snow and
wind. When they awoke on Sabbath morning, the kitchen had been
filled with snow through a door that was blown open. The wind still
blew so hard that the stove in the kitchen smoked and rendered
cooking impossible. The stair door had not yet been hung, and the
snow drifted into the hall and almost everywhere in the house.
Stoves could not be set up, or anything else done toward putting
things in order, until Thursday, when the storm abated.
But they were in their new house. It was only a plain, two-story,
brick building, with a roofed veranda to both stories and running
across the front, a hall in the middle of the house with a room on
either side, and a dining room and kitchen at the rear. Much of the
walls is now covered by Virginia creeper, wistaria, and climbing rose.
It is one of those cozy missionary dwellings which censorious
travelers to foreign lands visit, or look at from the outside; and then,
returning to their own land, they tell about them as evidence of the
luxury by which these representatives of the Christian churches have
surrounded themselves. Yet if they cared to know, and would
examine, they would out of simple regard for the truth, if for no other
reason, testify to the necessity of such homes for the health and
efficiency of the missionaries, and as powerful indirect helps in the
work of social betterment among the natives; and they would wonder
at the self-sacrifice and economy and scanty means by which these
worthy servants of Christ have managed to make for themselves and
their successors such comfortable and tasteful places of abode.
TENGCHOW MISSION COMPOUND, FROM THE NORTH
Extreme left, Entrance to Dr. Hayes’ House. Behind this, part of back of Dr.
Mateer’s House. Foreground, Vegetable Gardens belonging to Chinese
“I am very conscious that we here are not up to the standard that we ought
to be, and this is our sin. We pray continually for a baptism from on
high on the heathen round us; but we need the same for ourselves
that we may acquit ourselves as becomes our profession. Our
circumstances are not favorable to growth either in grace or in mental
culture. Our only associates are the native Christians, whose piety is
often of a low type; it receives from us, but imparts nothing to us.
Mentally we are left wholly without the healthy stimulus and the
friction of various and superior minds which surround men at home.
Most whom we meet here are mentally greatly our inferiors, and there
is no public opinion that will operate as a potent stimulus to our
exertions. It may be said that these are motives of a low kind. It may
be so; but their all-powerful influence on all literary men at home is
scarcely known or felt till the absence of them shows the
difference.”—letter to the society of inquiry, in the western
theological seminary, October 1, 1867.
A lady who was present tells that when the first of his “boys” were
ordained to the ministry he was so overcome that the tears coursed
down his cheeks while he charged them to be faithful to their vows.
His mother’s love he repaid with a filial love that must have been
to her a source of measureless satisfaction. Julia could not
reasonably have craved any larger measure of affection than she
received from him as her husband; and later, Ada entered into
possession of the same rich gift. One of the things that touched him
most keenly when he went away to China was his separation from
brothers and sisters, toward whom he continued to stretch out his
beneficent hand across the seas.
He was a man who believed in the necessity of regeneration by
the Holy Spirit in order to begin a genuinely Christian life. This is one
of those great convictions which he never questioned, and which
strengthened as he increased in age. When he united with the
church in his nineteenth year, he thereby publicly declared that he
was sufficiently sure that this inward change had passed upon him to
warrant him in enrolling himself among the avowed followers of
Christ. But of any sudden outward religious conversion he was not
conscious, and made no profession. In the brief autobiographical
sketch previously quoted he says:
Surely, the young man who thus opens to our view the secrets of
his inner religious life was not lacking seriously in depth of feeling.
One is reminded of the Psalmist’s hart panting after the water
brooks.
In the seminary he still had seasons of troubled heart-searching
and unsatisfied longings for a better Christian life. After reading a
part of a book called “The Crucible,” he says:
Though he but dimly understood it then, the Lord was in the school
of experience disciplining him in qualities which in all his subsequent
work he needed to put into exercise: to rest on the promises of God
in darkness, to wait patiently under delays that are disappointing,
and to endure in the spirit of Christ the contradictions of the very
sinners for whose higher welfare he was willing to make any
sacrifice, however costly to himself.
On his field of labor he was too busy with his duties as a
missionary to write down much in regard to his own inner life. Nor is
there any reason to regard this as a thing greatly to be regretted.
The fact is that during the decade which extended from his
admission to membership in the church to his entrance on his work
in China, he matured in his religious experience to such a degree
that subsequently, though there was increasing strength, there were
no very striking changes on this side of his character. In the past he
had set before himself, as a mark to be attained, the thorough
consecration of himself to the service of God, and it was largely
because by introspection he recognized how far he fell short of this
that he sometimes had been so much troubled about his own
spiritual condition. Henceforth this consecration, as something
already attained, was constantly put into practice. He perhaps
searched himself less in regard to it; he did his best to live it.
In connection with this, two characteristics of his inner life are so
evident as to demand special notice. One of these was his
convictions as to religious truth. He believed that the Scriptures of
the Old and New Testament are the Word of God, and he was so
sure that this is radically essential in the faith of a missionary that he
was not ready to welcome any recruit who was adrift on this subject.
He believed also with like firmness in the other great evangelical
doctrines set forth in the symbols and theologies of the orthodox
churches. His own creed was Calvinistic and Presbyterian; yet he
was no narrow sectarian. He was eager to coöperate with the
missionaries of other denominations than his own; all that he asked
was that they firmly hold to what he conceived to be the essentials of
Christianity. Because he believed them so strongly, these also were
the truths which he continually labored to bring home to the people.
In a memorial published by Dr. Corbett concerning him, he says: