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Gas Well Deliquification
Third Edition
James F. Lea Jr
Consultant, PLTech LLC,
Lubbock, TX, United States
Lynn Rowlan
Engineer, Echometer,
Wichita Falls, TX, United States
Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
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Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or
methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom
they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any
liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or
otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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ISBN: 978-0-12-815897-5
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Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India

Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Multiphase flow in a gas well 2
1.3 Liquid loading 4
1.4 Deliquification techniques 4
1.5 Most used systems for deliquification 5
Reference 6
Further reading 6
2 Recognizing symptoms of liquid loading in gas wells 7

2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Predictive indications of liquid loading 8
2.2.1 Predict or verify liquid loading using critical
velocity correlations, Nodal Analysis, and multiphase
flow regimes 8
2.3 Field symptoms of liquid loading 12
2.3.1 Increase in difference between surface values of casing
and tubing pressures 13
2.3.2 Pressure survey showing liquid level 14
2.3.3 Appearance of slug flow at surface of well 15
2.3.4 Acoustic fluid level measurements in gas wells
(Echometer) 16
2.3.5 Determining well performance from a fluid shot 20
2.4 Summary 22
Further reading 23
3 Critical velocity 25
3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 Critical flow concepts 25
3.2.1 Turner droplet model 26
3.3 Critical velocity at depth 27
3.4 Critical velocity with deviation 34
References 35
Further reading 35
4 Nodal Analysis 37
4.1 Introduction 37
vi Contents
4.2 Nodal example showing liquid loading and solutions 38

4.2.1 Liquid-loaded well 38
4.2.2 Solutions to the loading situation 39
4.3 Summary 44
Further reading 45
5 Compression 47
5.1 Introduction 47
5.2 Compression horsepower and critical velocity 48
5.3 Systems Nodal Analysis and compression 49
5.4 The effect of permeability on compression 53
5.5 Pressure drop in compression suction 54
5.6 Wellhead versus centralized compression 55
5.7 Developing a compression strategy using Integrated Production
Modeling 55
5.8 Downstream gathering and compression’s effect on uplift from
deliquifying individual gas wells 56
5.9 Compression alone as a form of artificial lift 57
5.10 Compression with foamers 58
5.11 Compression and gas lift 58
5.12 Compression with plunger lift systems 59
5.13 Compression with beam pumping systems 60
5.14 Compression with electric submersible pump systems 61
5.15 Types of compressors 62
5.15.1 Liquid injected rotary screw compressor 62
5.15.2 Reciprocating compressor 63
5.16 Gas jet compressors or ejectors 64
5.17 Other compressors 66
5.18 Centrifugal compressors 66
5.19 Natural gas engine versus electric compressor drivers 66
5.20 Optimizing compressor operations 67
5.21 Unconventional wells 68
5.22 Summary 68
References 68
Further reading 69
6 Plunger lift 71
6.1 Introduction 71
6.2 Plunger cycles 73
6.2.1 The continuous plunger cycle 73
6.2.2 The conventional plunger cycle 76
6.2.3 When to use the continuous/conventional plunger cycle 78
6.2.4 Additional plunger types 78
6.3 Plunger lift feasibility 81
6.3.1 Gas/liquid ratio rule of thumb 81
Contents vii
6.3.2 Feasibility charts 82

6.3.3 Maximum liquid production with plunger lift 85
6.4 Plunger system line-out procedure 86
6.4.1 Considerations before kickoff 87
6.5 Optimization 90
6.5.1 Oil well optimization 91
6.5.2 Gas well optimization 91
6.5.3 Optimizing cycle time 91
6.6 Monitoring and troubleshooting 92
6.6.1 Decline curve 92
6.6.2 Supervisory control and data acquisition data 92
6.6.3 Some common monitoring rules 94
6.6.4 Tracking plunger fall and rise velocities in well 94
6.7 Controllers 116
6.8 Problem analysis 120
6.9 Operation with weak wells 120
6.9.1 Progressive/staged plunger system 120
6.9.2 Casing plunger for weak wells 122
6.9.3 Gas-assisted plunger 123
6.9.4 Plunger with side string: low-pressure well production 124
6.10 Summary 124
References 125
Further reading 126
7 Hydraulic pumping 127

7.1 Introduction 127
7.2 Application to well deliquification—gas, coal bed methane,
and frac fluid removal 130
7.3 Jet pumps 131
7.4 Piston pumps 135
7.5 Summary 138
Further reading 138
8 Liquid unloading using chemicals for wells and pipelines 139

8.2 Chemical effects aiding foam formation 140
8.2.1 Surface tension 140
8.2.2 Foam formation and foam density measurement 141
8.3 Flow regime modification and candidate identification 141
8.4 Application of surfactants in field systems 143
8.5 Surfactant application for increased ultimate recovery 146
8.6 Summary and conclusion 146
References 147
9 Progressing cavity pumps 151

9.2 The progressing cavity pumping system 152
viii Contents
9.3 Water production 154

9.4 Gas production 155
9.5 Handling of sand/solids/fines 157
9.6 Critical flow velocity 160
9.7 Design and operational considerations 160
9.8 Implications of pump setting depth 161
9.8.1 Open-hole completion 161
9.8.2 Cased-hole completion 161
9.8.3 Presence of CO2 and its effects 162
9.9 Selection of progressing cavity pumps 162
9.10 Elastomer selection 163
Further reading 165
10 Use of beam pumps to deliquefy gas wells 167

10.1.1 The surface unit 168
10.1.2 Wellhead 169
10.1.3 Polish rods 170
10.1.4 Sucker rods and sinker rods 170
10.1.5 Sinker bars 170
10.1.6 Pumps 173
10.1.7 Pump-off controls 173
10.2 Beam system components and basics of operations 175
10.2.1 Prime movers 176
10.2.2 Belts and sheaves 177
10.2.3 The gearbox 177
10.3 Design basics for SRP pumping 177
10.3.1 Example designs 179
10.3.2 Rod designs with dog leg severity present 183
10.3.3 Sinker bars 185
10.3.4 Design with pump-off control 185
10.4 Handling gas through the pump 187
10.4.1 Gas lock or loss of valve action: summary 190
10.5 Gas separation 191
10.5.1 Principle of gas separation 191
10.5.2 Casing separator with dip tube: for use in horizontal
wells 197
10.5.3 Compression ratio 198
10.5.4 Variable slippage pump to prevent gas lock 202
10.5.5 Pump compression with dual chambers 202
10.5.6 Pumps that open the traveling valve mechanically 204
10.5.7 Pumps to take the fluid load off the traveling valve 204
10.5.8 Gas Vent Pump to separate gas and prevent gas lock
(Source: B. Williams, HF Pumps.) 205
10.6 Inject liquids below a packer 206
Contents ix
10.7 Summary 207

References 208
Further reading 208
11 Gas lift 209

11.2 Continuous gas lift 211
11.3 Intermittent gas lift 212
11.4 Gas lift system components 213
11.5 Continuous gas lift design objectives 214
11.6 Gas lift valves 215
11.6.1 Orifice valves 216
11.6.2 Injection pressure operated valves 216
11.6.3 Production pressure operated valves 217
11.7 Gas lift completions 218
11.7.1 Conventional gas lift design 218
11.7.2 Chamber lift installations 220
11.7.3 Intermittent lift and/or gas-assisted plunger lift 223
11.7.4 Horizontal or unconventional wells 224
11.7.5 Examples of using gas lift to deliquefy gas wells 225
11.7.6 Horizontal unconventional well 230
11.8 Single-point/high-pressure gas lift 234
11.9 Gas lift summary 236
References 236
Further reading 236
12 Electrical submersible pumps 237

12.2 The electric submersible pump motor 240
12.2.1 Electric submersible pump induction and permanent
magnet motor RPM 242
12.2.2 Electric submersible pump motor voltage variation
effects 244
12.2.3 Defining electric submersible pump motor frame sizes 246
12.2.4 Electric submersible pump motor, or frame, winding
temperature 247
12.2.5 Electric submersible pump motor insulation life 249
12.2.6 Applying the National Electrical Manufactures
Association method to the electric submersible
pump motor’s class N insulation 250
12.2.7 Electric submersible pump motor insulation
life—sensitivities 252
12.3 Electric submersible pump seals 253
12.3.1 The labyrinth seal 253
12.3.2 Positive barrier or bag seal 256
x Contents
12.3.3 Seal thrust bearing 257

12.3.4 Seal horsepower requirement 257
12.4 Electricsubmersible pump intakes 261
12.4.1 Standard intake 261
12.4.2 Determining the gas volume fraction 262
12.4.3 Estimating natural separation efficiency 263
12.4.4 Estimating the probability of stage head degradation 266
12.4.5 Avoiding the gas—intake below the production
interval—motor shrouded intake 269
interval—recirculating system 270
interval—permanent magnet motor without cooling 271
12.4.8 Avoiding the gas—intake above the production
interval—motor shrouded intake or pod with a tail
pipe or dip tube 272
12.4.9 Avoiding the gas—intake above/below the production
interval—encapsulated system 272
12.4.10 Avoiding the gas—intake above the production
interval—pump shrouded intake—upside-down shroud 272
12.4.11 Removing the gas—gas separators—rotary gas
separator 274
12.4.12 Removing the gas—gas separators—vortex gas
separator 275
12.5 Electric submersible pumps 277
12.5.1 The pump stage 277
12.5.2 Pump radial flow stages 279
12.5.3 Pump mixed flow stages 282
12.5.4 Pump gas handler stage 282
12.5.5 Pump gas handler helico-axial stage 282
12.5.6 Pump performance curve, mixed and radial
flow stages 283
12.5.7 Pump performance curve, helico-axial stage 285
12.5.8 Pump performance curve changes with changes
in impeller RPM 285
12.5.9 Pump stage thrust 287
12.5.10 Floater pump construction 289
12.5.11 Compression pump construction 290
12.5.12 Abrasion resistant modular construction 291
12.5.13 Designing a pump for gas handling 292
12.6 Summary 306
12.6.1 ESP motors 306
12.6.2 ESP seals 306
12.6.3 ESP intakes 306
12.6.4 ESP pumps 307
References 307
Contents xi
13 Coal bed methane (CBM) and shale 309

13.1.1 History 311
13.1.2 Economic impact 311
13.2 Organic reservoirs 312
13.2.1 Reservoir characteristics 312
13.2.2 Flow within an organic reservoir 315
13.2.3 Adsorption site contamination 317
13.2.4 Coal mechanical strength 317
13.3 Organic reservoir production 318
13.3.1 Deliquification plan 319
13.3.2 Wellsite and gathering plan 322
13.4 Pressure targets with time 325
13.4.1 Wellbore 325
13.4.2 Flow lines 326
13.4.3 Separation 326
13.4.4 Compression 327
13.4.5 Deliquification 328
References 328
14 Production automation 329

14.2 Brief history 331
14.2.1 Wellsite intelligence 331
14.2.2 Desktop intelligence 331
14.2.3 Communications 332
14.2.4 System architecture 332
14.3 Automation equipment 333
14.3.1 Instrumentation 333
14.3.2 Electronic flow measurement 335
14.3.3 Controls 339
14.3.4 Remote terminal units and programmable logic
controllers 344
14.3.5 Host systems 347
14.3.6 Communications 348
14.3.7 Database 353
14.3.8 Other 355
14.4 General applications 356
14.4.1 User interface 357
14.4.2 Scanning 357
14.4.3 Alarming 358
14.4.4 Reporting 360
14.4.5 Trending and plotting 361
14.4.6 Displays 362
14.4.7 Data historians 364
xii Contents
14.5 Unique applications for gas well deliquification and oil well
production 364
14.5.1 Plunger lift 365
14.5.2 Sucker rod pumping 370
14.5.3 Progressive cavity pumping 377
14.5.4 Electrical submersible pumping 385
14.5.5 Hydraulic pumping 394
14.5.6 Chemical injection 395
14.5.7 Gas-lift 396
14.5.8 Wellhead compression 405
14.5.9 Heaters 406
14.5.10 Cycling 407
14.5.11 Production allocation 407
14.5.12 Other unique applications 408
14.6 Automation issues 408
14.6.1 Typical benefits 409
14.6.2 Potential problem areas 410
14.6.3 Justification 412
14.6.4 Capital expenditure 414
14.6.5 Operational expense 414
14.6.6 Design 415
14.6.7 Installation 417
14.6.8 Security 418
14.6.9 Staffing 419
14.6.10 Training 421
14.6.11 Commercial versus “in-house” 423
14.7 Case histories 424
14.7.1 Success stories 424
14.7.2 Failures 426
14.7.3 Systems that have not reached their potential 427
14.8 Summary 428
Further reading 428
Appendix A: Development of critical velocity equations 433

Appendix B: Nodal concepts and stability concerns 439
Appendix C: Plunger troubleshooting procedures 451
Appendix D: Gas lift terminology 467
Index 469
Introduction
1
James F. Lea’s experience includes about 20 years with Amoco Production
Research, Tulsa, OK; 7 years as Head PE at Texas Tech; and the last 10 years or
so teaching at Petroskills and working for PLTech LLC consulting company. Lea
helped to start the ALRDC Gas Dewatering Forum, is the coauthor of two previous
editions of this book, author of several technical papers, and recipient of the SPE
Production Award, the SWPSC Slonneger Award, and the SPE Legends of Artificial
Lift Award.
1.1 Introduction
Liquid loading in a gas well is the inability of the produced gas to lift the produced
liquids from the wellbore. Under this condition, produced liquids will accumulate
in the wellbore leading to reduced production and shortening of the time till the
well no longer produces.
According to EIA, there are about 600,000 gas wells in the United States (see
Fig. 1.1).
By some estimates, 70%80% of gas wells are low rate and below about
300 Mscf/D. Therefore perhaps 400,000500,000 gas wells are at risk of lower or
no production from liquid loading unless artificial lift (AL) is properly applied.
Methods of diagnosing the occurrence of liquid loading will be presented here
for both near vertical conventional wells and horizontal rapidly declining unconven-
tional wells. Methods of solution will be presented and discussed in detail to help
optimize the solution of liquid loading using various forms of AL including:
1. Newer techniques of rod design and rod protection in deviated wells using sucker rod
systems
2. New methods for SRP (sucker rod pump) systems to allow deeper intake for the systems
in horizontal wells
3. Design of gas lift systems for conventional and also declining unconventional wells
using conventional gas lift with bracketed valves for anticipated changing rates
4. Use of high-pressure gas lift to allow more drawdown initially and to eliminate some
downhole equipment
5. New techniques of tracking plungers, various forms of plunger lift, new plunger optimi-
zation techniques, new equipment, and plungers in horizontal wells
Gas Well Deliquification. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815897-5.00001-9

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 Gas Well Deliquification
Number of elements
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
U.S. Natural Gas Number of Gas and Gas Condensate Wells
Figure 1.1 Number of gas wells.

Source: US Energy Information Administration.
6. Use of electric submersible pumps (ESPs) to dewater including design for lower rate
wells requiring needed cautions
7. Optimization of progressing cavity pumpings (PCPs) that usually operate in shallower
wells. Rod protection in deviated and horizontal wells
8. The latest in application of foamer chemicals and methods of application
9. Details and methods of application for gas separation for all the pumping systems
10. New advances in automation are presented in a separate chapter. Automation is a neces-
sity if optimum conditions are to be achieved
1.2 Multiphase flow in a gas well

To understand the effects of liquids in a gas well, we must understand how the liq-
uid and gas phases interact under flowing conditions.
Multiphase flow in a vertical conduit can be described by a number of available
flow regime maps. These can be used to decide whether or not a well is predicted
to be in a loaded condition. However, the well would have to be evaluated at both
the surface and depth for a complete analysis. The flow regime of annular mist
would be where one would like to flow a gas well and if it drops out of the flow
regime, AL (artificial lift) would be required to remove liquid and lighten the gradi-
ent in the tubing. In the mist flow the effects of liquid production are felt the least
by the well (Fig. 1.2).
Coincidentally the rate of 320 Mscf/D at 100 psi is the critical for 2 3/8
tubing. When pressure (200 psi), the point drops below critical and the line between
annular and slug/churn for both values of bpd/Mscf. When the pressure is
less than 100 psi, the velocity is more than critical for both 88 and 200 bbls/Mscf
liquid/gas fractions. In Chapter 3 and Appendix B the expression derived and
used for critical velocity and rate is independent of the liquid/gas fraction and
Introduction 3
Approximate flow regime illustration
Dispersed bubble
0.7
Annular
Vsl (ft/s)
Bubble
mist
Slug or churn 6 5 4
3 2 1
0.07
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Vsg (ft/s)
Figure 1.2 Illustration of possible flow regime map for vertical flow.
For above what numbers in bold indicate: (all for 2 3/8’s tubing)
1: 88 bbls/Mscf, 50 psi, velocity for 320 Mscf/D, 120 F;
2: 88 bbls/Mscf/100 psi, velocity for 320 Mscf/D, 120 F;
6: 200 bbls/Mscf/50 psi, velocity for 320 Mscf/D, 120 F.
this shows why the critical, without this dependency, is still shown to work in
this example.
This example uses an approximate flow regime map and if one is to use the flow
regime chart to suggest if an operational point is above/below critical (in Annular
Mist or not), then one should find a flow regime chart that is tested to agree with
well data.
More details will be shown on the critical velocity and critical rate. Also it will
be shown that Nodal Analysis (Chapter 4) can infer above/below critical or not.
However, this example ties the critical to the multiphase aspects of the calculated
critical rate. It is shown that the flow regime map, the calculated critical rate/
velocity model, and Nodal Analysis will be predictive techniques for critical rate
and under what conditions liquid loading can occur.
A well may initially have a high gas rate so that the flow regime is in mist
flow in the tubing near the surface, but is more liquid rich flow regimes in the
tubing at depth. As time increases and production declines, the flow regimes from
perforations to surface will change as the gas velocity decreases. Liquid produc-
tion may also increase as the gas production declines.
Flow at surface will remain in mist flow until the conditions change sufficiently
at the surface so that the flow exhibits a more liquid rich regime such as slug flow.
At this point, the well production will be observed to become somewhat erratic,
progressing to slug flow as gas rate continues to decline. This will often be
accompanied by a marked increase in the decline rate. Note this type of analysis is
more complicated than presented here as conditions in a well can be different from
the surface to the bottom hole of the well. For instance liquids may be starting to
accumulate in a more liquid-rich flow pattern downhole and the conditions uphole
can still be in mist flow.
Eventually, the unstable slug flow at surface will transition to a stable, fairly
steady production rate again as the gas rate declines further. This occurs when the
gas rate is too low to carry liquids to surface and simply bubbles up through a stag-
nant liquid column at the bottm of the well.
If corrective action is not taken, the well will continue to decline and eventu-
ally log off. It is also possible that the well continues to flow for a long period in
a loaded condition with gas produces up through liquids with no liquids coming
to the surface. Note that the well can continue to flow below critical, sometimes
for a long time, but it would flow more if the liquid loading problem could be
solved.
1.3 Liquid loading

Nearly all gas wells produce some liquids even if the rate of liquid production
is small; if the gas velocity is below the critical (to be defined in more detail in
Chapter 3), then the well will experience liquid loading. In other words, liquids
will accumulate in the wellbore and reduce production. This is shown by the
fact that there are many gas wells on plunger lift that produce 5 or less bpd of
liquids. If not on plunger, they will produce less or no gas. Critical velocity correla-
tions (Chapter 3) do not require the liquid rate as an input. If more liquid is being
produced then once below the critical the well can load faster. If little liquids
are still being produced below critical, the well will eventually liquid load. Liquid
loading modeling is sensitive to the liquid rate when using Nodal Analysis
(Chapter 4).
1.4 Deliquification techniques

The below list1 (modified) introduces some of the possible methods to deliquefy
gas wells that will be discussed in this book. These methods may be used singly or
in combination in some cases.
G
Initial high rates (for unconventional well on sharp decline)
Unconventional wells may come in high rates initially which are well above critical
rate. For maximum PVP (present value profit) use Nodal to look at flow up casing, flow
up casing/tubing annulus and to look at tubing size effect on flow. Some operators are
considering annular gas lift and high-pressure gas to boost the high rates. Most of the
profits from unconventional wells are in the first year or two, and then later with low rates
and required AL, the returns are much lower.
Introduction 5
G
Lower rates but still above critical (perhaps 3001000/2000 bpd)
Being above critical, the choice is available to flow the wells. However, the use of AL
can exceed the rates above even the most optimum flow situation (which can be deter-
mined by Nodal). So higher rate ALs such as ESP, gas lift, or other pumping systems
may be used to accelerate the rate above flowing conditions. Lower surface pressure helps
all ALs and all above-critical flowing situations. Once AL is selected for the mid-range or
even higher rates, then the process of AL staging begins (from higher rate systems to
lower rate systems).
Conditions may determine the method/s of lift. For instance, if the well is very gassy
or has solids then one may choose gas lift for long-term lift as excessive gas makes use of
pumping systems more difficult. Also excesssive solids production and excesssive devia-
tion or dog-leg severity can make one consider something other than pumping systems.
On the other hand, SRP systems are one of the most profitable methods of lift and
with not too much gas, solids, and well-deviation SRPs can be used for a wide range of
production rates.
Other systems have particular advantages that may help with selection.
G
Below critical production
Here AL is required to prevent loading.
Plunger, surfactants, compression, pumping systems, and gas lift can be considered.
Pumps and then plunger could be sequentially applied. Or gas lift and then plunger
could be a strategy. Discussion of the lift possibilities in the following chapters will help
with the selection or staging of lift possibilities.
G
Low to very low production rates
Beam pumps, hydraulics, and ESPs can be used to low rates. However, low rates for
ESPs can be damaging and a lower limit on production or special precautions should be
considered for EPSs at low rates. PCPs can be used for moderate to low rates but are
more depth-limited. Ineffective gas separation can lead to poor drawdown with pumping
systems.
Gas lift can be used to low rates but a smaller tubing allows for more efficient lift.
Plungers are designed for low rates and modified plunger lift sysstem such as GAPL
(gas-asssisted plunger lift) and progressive plunger lift (use of two or more plungers run-
ning in one well, i.e. one plunger moving up and down in the top part of the well and
another plunger moving up and down in the lower part of the well) can be efficient for
lower rates and lower available well pressures. Sand limits or prevents the use of plunger
lift. Again sand/deviation/gas production tends to lead to gas lift for longer life and fewer
problems but most likely not as good of drawdown under certain circumstances.
1.5 Most used systems for deliquification

The top most used four AL methods of dewatering are as follows:
G
Plunger
G
SRPs
G
Surfactants
G
Gas lift
Augmenting the choices includes intermitting the well with no AL system, spe-
cial pumping systems, heating systems, velocity strings, compression (which should
be used in combination with all systems for maximum performance), combination

systems, and more.
The best economical system or the most profitable system should be used. One
such economics decision might be to use plunger lift because it is cheaper to install
and operate but it may not give the best drawdown, especially with an on/off sys-
tem. You might then choose a pumping system but it would cost more initially,
also most likely cost more to operate, but might get better drawdown depending on
conditions and time spent operationally. It seems that the industry chooses a lot of
plunger because of low initial/operating costs, and to save the time spent to judge if
another system may produce more or slightly more. Plunger does pretty well for a
long time for producing rates for the lower range of liquids production. Some con-
ditions such as sand/solids, not enough gas/liquid ratio, or low-pressure build up
can rule out plunger.
All of these factors are covered in more detail in the following chapters.
Reference
1. Coleman SB, et al. A new look at predicting gas well liquid load-up. J Petrol Technol
1991;32932.
Further reading
Lea JF, Tighe RE. Gas well operation with liquid production. In: SPE 11583, presented at
the 1983 production operation symposium, Oklahoma City, OK, February 27March 1;
1983.
Libson TN, Henry JT. Case histories: identification of and remedial action for liquid loading
in gas wells-intermediate shelf gas play. J Petrol Technol 1980;68593.
Recognizing symptoms of liquid
loading in gas wells 2
James F. Lea’s experience includes about 20 years with Amoco Production
Research, Tulsa, OK; 7 years as Head of PE Department at Texas Tech; and the
last 10 years or so teaching at Petroskills and working for PLTech LLC consulting
company. Lea helped to start the ALRDC Gas Dewatering Forum, is the coauthor
of two previous editions of this book, author of several technical papers, and recipi-
ent of the SPE Production Award, the SWPSC Slonneger Award, and the SPE
Legends of Artificial Lift Award.
Lynn Rowlan, BSCE, 1975, Oklahoma State University, was the recipient of the
2000 J.C. Slonneger Award bestowed by the Southwestern Petroleum Short Course
Association, Inc. He has authored numerous papers for the Southwestern Petroleum
Short Course, Canadian Petroleum Society, and Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Rowlan works as an Engineer for Echometer Company in Wichita Falls, Texas. His
primary interest is to advance the technology used in the Echometer Portable Well
Analyzer to analyze and optimize the real-time operation of all artificial lift produc-
tion systems. He also provides training and consultation for performing well analy-
sis to increase oil and gas production, reduce failures, and reduce power
consumption. He presents many seminars and gives numerous talks on the efficient
operation of oil and gas wells.
2.1 Introduction
As gas rate declines in a gas well (conventional or unconventional), a point will
be reached where liquids will begin to accumulate in the tubing and either further
diminish the production or possibly stop the production altogether.
If the liquid loading in wellbore goes unnoticed, the liquids can accumulate in
the wellbore and the adjoining reservoir, possibly causing temporary or even per-
manent damage. It is important that the effects caused by liquid loading are
detected early to prevent costly losses during production and possible reservoir
damage.
This chapter discusses methods to recognize the occurrence of liquid loading.
Methods can be predictive or can be observations of field symptoms. Actual field
symptoms are more preferable as predictive methods may have some deviation
from reality. However, field symptoms can also have their problems as drop in pro-
duction could be due to formation damage, sand accumulations, or scaling which
could be erroneously attributed to liquid loading.
Gas Well Deliquification. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815897-5.00002-0

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Indications of loading can be from:

Predictive methods
G
Use of critical velocity/rate correlations
G
Use of Nodal Analysis
G
Use of multiphase flow regime maps
Field symptoms
G
Slugs of liquid begin to be produced
G
Erratic flow and production dropping below the target decline curve
G
Difference between the surface measured tubing/casing pressures begins to increase
G
Pressure survey or acoustic analysis indicates presence of a liquid level in the well
G
Shoot fluid level or do a wireline survey down the tubing and diagnose for posssible liq-
uid loading
2.2 Predictive indications of liquid loading

Predictive indications of loading can be quick and easy. However, there can be a
difference in what actually goes on and the predictions made. Instead of relying
only on the predictive indications, it is a good idea to compare field symptoms with
the results of predictive methods before making a final conclusion. Another use of
predictive methods is to see what happened in the past occurrences of liquid loading
in wells and see which predictive or adjusted predictive method fits best in that sce-
nario and then such standalone predictions can be viewed with more confidence in
future.
2.2.1 Predict or verify liquid loading using critical velocity

correlations, Nodal Analysis, and multiphase flow
regimes
See Chapter 4 where critical velocity relationships are reviewed and the details of
development are presented. Chapter 4 and Appendix review Nodal Analysis and
Nodal Analysis concepts. Chapter 5 reviews compresssion and discusses about how
to analyze it using critical velocity and Nodal Analysis. Chapter 1 briefly reviews
multiphase flow regimes which can be used to predict or verify liqiuid loading.
Critical velocity
Critical velocity correlations predict at what rate liquid loading will occur as the
well rates decline. It is not a function of liquid production or bbl/mmscf. It is
(for some widely used correlations) based on what rate or velocity will carry the
liquid droplets up and when they can no longer be foreseen to travel up, then liquid
loading is predicted. Turner and Coleman are two widely used methods but there
are many other models.
Recognizing symptoms of liquid loading in gas wells 9
The critical flow chart, shown in Fig. 2.1, shows that the critical rate for 2 3/8’s
tubing at 100 psi is about 320 Mscf/D with water production. If liquid is only
condensate, the critical rate (and velocity) would be less. If any water is produced
with condensate, use the water chart. Therefore, critical velocity correlations is a
quick method to assess if flow is critical or not or is approaching critical. Note X-
axis should be in psi.
Use of Nodal Analysis to predict if flow is above/below critical

Nodal Analysis is a model of the well. It usually has a reservoir inflow relationship
and an outflow curve plotted. The outflow curve shows what pressure is needed at
the bottom of the tubing to overcome the friction in the tubing (or other flow path),
weight of gas/liquid in the tubing (gravity effects), and WHP. Some tubing correla-
tions also account for fluid acceleration which is important only at high flow rates.
Fig. 2.2 shows some of the possibilities for the relationship of the tubing perfor-
mance curve relative to the inflow (reservoir) curve.
So a nodal tubing performance is stable toward the right of the minimum in the
tubing curve. If the tubing curve intersects the inflow performance relationship
(IPR) curve at the right of the minimum then a stable rate is predicted at the inter-
section. Even with no IPR if the tubing curve is slanting up and toward the right,
the tubing is stable for that range of flows.
Turner unloading rate for well producing water

3000
4-1/2 OD 3.958 ID
3-1/2 2.992
2500
2-7/8 2.441
2-3/8 1.995
2000 2-1/16 1.751
Rate (Mcfd)
1500
1000
500
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Flowing pressure (psi)
Figure 2.1 Critical flow rate versus pressure and tubing size.
Figure 2.2 Some Nodal concepts.
Approximate flow regime illustration
Dispersed bubble
0.7
Annular
Bubble
mist
VsI (ft/s)
Slug or churn
0.07
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Vsg (ft/s)
Figure 2.3 Example flow regime map.
Multiphase flow regimes

Based on various authors and multiphase pressure drop prediction models, there
are a number of flow regime maps available in the literature. One must check the
accuracy of the flow regime map with the performance of the well before select-
ing the map. One such example of the flow regime map is shown in Fig. 2.3 as
discussed in the Introduction, Chapter 1. This map has entries regarding

superficial velocity of gas and liquid. The superficial velocities are calculated as
if only liquid and only gas are flowing in the conduit. Fig. 2.3 is followed by the
calculations used to enter the example flow regime map and generate the round
dot flow condition.
Input data and calculations for flow regime map to generate the round dot in
Fig. 2.3.
Input API 30
Input Tbg ID 1:995 in:
Input WG 1:00
Input bbls=mmscf 88:00
input WC 0:95
Input Mscf=D 320:00
Calculated lip density 0:99
Calculated BPD 28:16
Calbulated Tbg area 0:0217 ft2
Input pressure 100:00 psi
Input temperature 120:00 F
Input Z factor 0:90
Calculated Scf=D 320; 000:00
0:08 ft=s
Calculate Vsl
0:03 m=s
170:70 ft=s 25:18998 in situ ft=s
Calculate Vsg
52:03 m=s 7:677905 in situ m=s
where Vsl and Vsg are calculated using the following formulas:

Vsl 5 BPD 3 5:615= 86; 400 3 areatbg Vsg 5 Scf=D=ð86; 400 3 tubing areaÞ
Vsg 5 Scf=D=ð86; 400 3 tubing areaÞ
Multiply by: 14=7=P0 ðT 1 460Þ 3 Z=520 to convert to in situ gas velocity
WG 5 Water gravity; Vsl 5 superficial liquid velocity; and
Vsg 5 superficial gas velocity
From the above example the calculated round dot in the flow regime map
corresponding to the above input data is inside the annular-mist flow regime. Thus,
according to the example flow regime map, the well is not liquid loaded in this
condition. Actually, this condition is for the critical velocity as predicted by
Turner’s model for critical velociy and critical rate. However, critical velocity, flow
regime maps, and Nodal Analysis are all predictive techniques and it is wise to
verify these methods with field symptoms which are discussed next.
2.3 Field symptoms of liquid loading

The shape of a well’s decline curve can be an important indication of downhole
liquid loading problems. Decline curves should be analyzed for long periods
looking for changes in the general trend. Fig. 2.4 shows a smooth target “goal” that
is fit to earlier time data. The round dots are from the production data. One can see
that the production data near the bottom of the plot are falling below the “goal”
decline curve. Since this is a well that has been flowing above critical before the
data falls below the goal, the production falling off can be an indication of declin-
ing below the critical flow and the well is now flowing below critical. If so, then it
is time to consider some artificial lift to try to return production to the goal.
Actually, most operators, once they get the idea at what rate critical occurs for
wells in the field, will install artificial lift before critical so they do not have to
experience the drop in production shown later. Also one can do some work when
wells seem to drop off and see what critical correlation, if any, best predicts when
the well may drop below the goal decline curve. Possibilities on the graph, shown
in Fig. 2.4, are Turner/Coleman critical models taken at the surface/bottom hole.
One aspect of comparing data to the goal decline curve to detect liquid loading
is that there could be something else dropping the flow rates. For instance, the well
may be sanding up and needs to be cleaned out. A hole in the tubing is another
posssibility. The operator has to always consider that initial drops in production
may be due to well damage or solids, etc. before concluding that it is due to the
rates dropping below critical.
Figure 2.4 Decline curve analysis.

Figure 2.5 Drop of data below the decline curve well below liquid loading.
Fig. 2.5 shows a drop below the goal decline curve well below the critical. This
is a well where the rate declined below critical and an artificial lift is installed to
keep the well producing along the target decline curve. The drop below the decline
curve is an indication that the artificial lift (perhaps plunger) is experiencing some
problems which need to be diagnosed in attempt to bring production back to the tar-
get or decline curve. If plunger lift is being used, the problems could be a worn or
sticking plunger or the cycle for the plunger needs adjustment back to more opti-
mum control. If other methods of AL are being used then the AL system must be
diagnosed with troubleshooting techniques particular to that system.
2.3.1 Increase in difference between surface values of casing

and tubing pressures
If liquids begin to accumulate at the bottom of the wellbore, the casing pressure
will rise to support the additional liquids in the tubing.
In packerless completions, where this phenomenon can be observed, the presence
of liquids in the tubing is shown as an increase in the surface casing pressure as the
fluids bring the reservoir to a lower flow, higher pressure production point. The gas
produced from the reservoir percolates into the tubing casing annulus. This gas is
exposed to the higher formation pressure, causing an increase in the surface casing
pressure. Therefore an incease in the difference between tubing and casing
pressures is an indcator of liquid loading. These effects are illustrated in Fig. 2.5
but the changes may/may not be linear with time as shown.
Finally, estimates of the tubing pressure gradient can be made in a flowing well
without a packer by measuring the difference in the tubing and casing pressures. In
a packerless production well the free gas will separate from the liquids in the well-
bore and rise into the annulus. The fluid level in a flowing well will remain
depressed at the tubing intake depth, except when “heading” occurs or a tubing leak
is present.
During “heading” the liquid level in the annulus periodically rises and then
falls back to the tubing intake. In a flowing well, however, the difference in the
surface casing and tubing pressures is an indication of the pressure loss in the
production tubing. The weight of the gas column in the casing can be computed
easily. Comparing the difference between casing and tubing pressures with a dry
gas gradient for the casing can give an estimate of the higher tubing gradient due
to liquids accumulating or loading in the tubing. This will also allow the compari-
son to multiphase flow pressure drop correlations to check for accuracy for differ-
ent correlations (Fig. 2.6).
2.3.2 Pressure survey showing liquid level

Flowing or static well pressure surveys are available to determine the liquid level in a
gas well and thereby whether the well is loading with liquids. Pressure surveys mea-
sure the pressure with depth of the well either during shut-in or flowing.
The measured pressure gradient is a direct function of the density of the medium and
the depth, and the pressure with depth should be nearly linear for a single static fluid.
Figure 2.6 Casing and tubing pressure indications.

Pressure survey to determine liquid loading
Depth
Gas gradient above liquid
Liquid level
Water gradient below liquid
Some gas may bubble up through

liquid column
Pressure
Figure 2.7 Pressure survey schematic.
Since the density of the gas is significantly lower than that of water or conden-
sate, the measured gradient curve will exhibit a sharp change of slope when the tool
encounters standing liquid in the tubing. Thus the pressure survey provides an accu-
rate means of determining the liquid level in the wellbore. If the liquid level is
higher than the perforations, liquid loading problems are indicated.
Fig. 2.7 illustrates the basic principle associated with the pressure survey. Note
that the gas and liquid production rates can change the slopes measured by the survey,
giving a higher gas gradient because of some liquids dispersed and a lower liquid gra-
dient due to the presence of gas in the liquid. Also note that the liquid level in a shut-
in gas well can be measured acoustically by shooting a liquid level down the tubing.
Although it was previously done with a wireline pressure survey, a fluid level can be
shot down the tubing with special cautions (echometer technique) to detect a fluid
level with no wireline pressure survey (see Section 2.3.4).
2.3.3 Appearance of slug flow at surface of well

Fig. 2.3 shows that if you are in the annular-mist regime at first, you can move to
the slug flow regime as you move to less gas on the X-axis. In practice, if you are
operating a gas well when it is strong, you can see mist flow. But if it liquid loads
then you move into the slug flow regime. One indication of liquid loading is that
you see slugs of liquid being produced (you can hear them at the well) where there
were no slugs of liquid before. Actually by the time you start seeing the slug flow
at the surface, a good portion of the well downhole is most likely already liquid
loaded, so this indicator is sort of an after-fact indicator. However, it is still an indi-
cator and if you see slug flow at the surface, the well is liquid loaded (unless well
damage dropped the gas flow and put you into the slug flow regime).
In the past, this has also caught some operators by surprise as they had smooth
data from the flow measurement orifice while in mist flow, but suddenly got spikes
in the readings when slugs start coming through. This may not be an issue now as
most will have liquid KO’s in front of the gas measuring orifice to handle the
liquids before measurement. However, you can still hear slugs if they are present in
the wellhead before the liquids are knocked out.
2.3.4 Acoustic fluid level measurements in gas wells

(Echometer)
Determination of liquid loading can be made by other methods mentioned earlier
including critical velocity, field symptoms, and wireline pressure survey to look for
a liquid level in the well. However, a nonintrusive fluid shot down the tubing, right
after the well is shut-in, can also be used to look for liquids that might have been
accumulating in the well if it is in the process of being liquid loaded.
An acoustic fluid level in a gas well starts when the microphone attached at
the surface records the sudden change in the pressure at the surface of the wellbore
when the fluid-level shot is initiated. The sudden change in pressure creates a
pressure wave that travels away from the surface at the speed of sound, through the
gas composition in the wellbore. Echoes of pressure waves back to the microphone
are produced as slices of the traveling pressure waves are reflected by changes in
diameter in the path of the traveling wave inside the tubing or annulus of the
wellbore. The greater the change in diameter of the wellbore, larger are the echoes at
the surface, because more energy from the traveling wave is reflected back to the sur-
face. The echoes displayed on an acoustic trace have traveled from the surface to the
wellbore diameter change and back to the surface. When the recorded acoustic trace
is displayed, a reduction in the wellbore cross-section area is seen as a down-kick, an
increase as an up-kick, and typically the fluid level is the largest kick because almost
all of the traveling wave energy is reflected back to the surface.
Acoustic surveys on gas wells (shooting fluid levels down the tubing) answer the
following questions:
1. Is gas flowing? At what rate?
2. What is the depth to the top of the liquid?
3. Does liquid exist above the formation? In tubing?
4. What is the percentage of liquid in the fluid column?
5. Does the liquid above the formation restrict production?
6. Does surface pressure restrict production? How much is the flow rate restricted due to
backpressure from liquid loading?
7. What are the producing and static bottom-hole pressures (BHPs)?

8. Does tubing gas/liquid pressure push liquid out of tubing?
9. What is the maximum rate available from the well?
Acoustic surveys on wells:
1. Require stabilized conditions
2. Determination of liquid level
3. Measurement of surface pressure
4. Measurement of surface pressure buildup rate
5. Wellbore description
6. Oil, water, and gas densities
7. Oil, water, and gas production rates
8. Identify if shot acquired down tubing or casing annulus
9. Type of shot—implosion or explosion
Fig. 2.8 shows the stages of conditions that exist in gas wells with liquids. Type
1 is when the velocity is above critical and liquids are in the mist flow regime
creating little pressure drop. Type 2 is when gas flow is below critical and liquids
are accumulating in the well but some liquids are still coming to the surface.
A liquid level is in the well at the bottom with gas coming through it. A Type 3
well is where liquids are accumulating in the well and gas is flowing to the surface
but no liquids are transported to the surface. In the condition, a quick glance at this
lads to the conclusion that the well does not/never did produce liquid. This, how-
ever, would be false conclusion.
Figure 2.8 Types of flow that occur in the tubing when shooting acoustic fluid levels.
Source: Echometer.
A Type 1 well
1. Liquid being produced with the gas or condensing due to temperature and pressure
changes is uniformly distributed in the wellbore.
2. Gas velocity is sufficient to continuously carry liquid as a fine mist or small droplets to
the surface (above critical).
3. Gas velocity is sufficient to establish a relatively low and fairly uniform flowing pressure
gradient.
If you shut the well in and quickly shoot a fluid level down the tubing the appar-
ent fluid level (top of the mist in the tubing) will appear to be at the surface.
The longer you keep the well shut-in, the more the top of the mist flow will
move toward the bottom of the well with dry gas flowing above the mist level. This
is the condition that many high-flow wells flow in initially when they are high on
the decline curve. Later the wells can move into Types 2 and 3 conditions.
A Type 2 well
In Fig. 2.9 a casing fluid level shot on a Type 2 well is shown with an expanded
view near the end of the tubing. The well is operating in a stabilized condition with
gas only flowing up the tubing, with the surface casing valve closed, and with no
Figure 2.9 A “Type 2” well.

packer in the well. The fluid level is shot down the tubing immediately once the
well is shut-in and then shot down the casing either after the tubing shot or before
the well is shut-in. The casing fluid level shot confirms that the liquid level from
the casing shot is located at the end of the tubing as expected. A troubleshooting
technique is to shoot fluid level down the casing and confirm that the liquid level is
located at the end of the tubing, because a high fluid level in the casing often indi-
cates that there is a possible hole in the tubing.
The wellbore drawing displays the tubing gassy fluid level somewhere in
the well below the surface. If the well is continued to be shut-in, then the fluid
level will move downward as the gas flow into the tubing increases the tubing
surface pressure. The casing pressure will gradually increase to support the increas-
ing gas pressure in the tubing, thereby maintaining the liquid level at the end of the
tubing.
The tubing gas velocity is not high enough to lift this well’s 2087 ft of
accumulated gassy tubing liquids to the surface because the flowing gas rate
is below critical causing the well to be liquid loaded. Liquid loading accumulated
in the bottom of the tubing causes 553 psi of tubing backpressure to act
against the formation reducing inflow. Calculating the difference between casing
minus tubing pressure, 429 psi, is a simplified way of estimating the liquid load-
ing in the tubing. In this 10,536 ft deep well the fluid level shot shows there is
124 psi of additional liquid loading when compared to the difference between cas-
ing and tubing surface pressures. As the gas rate decreases, the concentration of
liquid at the bottom of the well increases. Depending on the well as the casing
pressure increases, the tubing liquid may unload from the bottom of the well.
When the tubing is set deep and the gas flow decreases as the pressure increases,
all flow from the formation can stop. When the tubing is set above the bottom of
the perforations, the accumulated liquid in the tubing is usually pushed out by the
increasing tubing pressure.
The simple picture of the well represents the flowing pressure gradient in
the well bores. There is a light gas gradient above the gas/liquid interface (close to
gradient of flowing gas), below the liquid level is a heavier gradient composed of
gas flowing through liquid. The liquid is held up by the gas flow (zero net liquid
flow) with gas bubbles or slugs percolating through the liquid. Below the end of the
tubing the liquid gradient is heavier due to reduced gas velocity.
A Type 3 well
Fluid is at the bottom of the well. Gas flow has stopped. No liquids are transported
to the surface. If the well is shut-in and a fluid shot is immediately made then the
fluid level will be indicated. While the well is shut-in the fluid level will move
down in the well as pressure builds up in the tubing. Fig. 2.10 shows the up-kick on
the acoustic trace from the increase in cross-sectional area at the top of the perfora-
tions, and the liquid level at 6069 ft has been pushed to the bottom of the
perforations.
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mercifully drugged with opium, and was probably unaware of her
fate; she was ordered to recite the Mussulman profession of faith;
this she was of course unable to do. Her hands were bound behind
her, a priest recited the profession of faith in her name, and the
executioner, saying “Be-ro!” (“Get thee gone!”) by a touch of his foot
launched her into eternity. Such executions are getting less common
in Persia than formerly.
In Shiraz, where intrigues among married women are very rife, the
husband’s relatives—and often the woman’s make common cause
with them—generally take the matter into their own hands, and either
fling the woman from a roof or into a well, or administer a dose of
poison; the adulterer generally taking refuge in flight, or getting off
with a severe bastinado if the affair is brought home to him;
generally, however, such things are hushed up. In any case no
notice is taken of them by officials, and no punishment is visited
upon the actors in these private tragedies.
I had a man-nurse for my children, one Abdul Hamid, by trade a
gold lacemaker, a native of Shiraz; he was the quietest and most
humble of little men—nearly a dwarf. I was told by him a curious
incident in his history. Marrying his cousin, a young and handsome
Shirazi, she was not long faithful to him; and his mother, who is
usually the master-spirit and guardian of her son’s honour in a
Persian household, finding that the lady’s amours were becoming
notorious, at length informed her son; there was unfortunately no
room for doubt; the husband ran with his woes to his mother and
brothers-in-law, respectable artisans; one of these the same evening
brought some corrosive sublimate, and the girl’s own mother, her
mother-in-law, her brothers, and her husband compelled her to
swallow a fatal dose of the drug.
Although in a few days the affair was common bazaar talk, no
notice was taken of the matter, the thing being looked on as a natural
ending to the woman’s intrigue. I asked my man one day if the story
were true; he replied, “Oh yes, sahib, it was her fate,” and proceeded
to inform me that he was on the best of terms with the family of his
late wife.
In the garden of Jahn-i-ma (my soul) is the grave of Rich the
traveller; he died in Shiraz when on his road home. Close to this
garden, in a small cemetery having a mud mosque, is the monolith
covering the grave of the poet Hafiz; it is a huge block of Yezd
marble beautifully carved with verses from the writings of the poet.
The Yezd marble is very similar in appearance to alabaster. It is a
favourite place of resort of the literary, who may be frequently seen
reading the works of the poet, and smoking or meditating over his
tomb. Around him are buried many who look on his works as
religious and inspired writings; some, and the major portion of
educated Persians, simply consider Hafiz as an Anacreontic
dreamer, and his works the ways of wickedness made bright.
A mile off is the tomb of Saadi, another poet, the author of the
moral tales upon whose teaching the mental course of most
Persians is guided. The first story forms the keynote to this system,
and explains the otherwise mysterious course pursued by most
Orientals, who usually prefer the crooked to the straight. The tale is
well known, and I may be permitted to quote it from memory. All
these “moral tales” are very concise. It is as follows:—
“Once a great king, having overcome his enemies in battle,
caused the principal captives to be brought bound into his presence.
On their arrival they commenced to revile him. The monarch, being
ignorant of their language, turned to his minister and requested him
to explain their speech. The minister, instead of faithfully repeating
their sentiments, said, that overcome with the magnificence of the
king, they were expressing their astonishment at his greatness, and
imploring his clemency. The king, pleased, ordered their release.
The moral is, ‘It is better to tell a lie that produces good, than to tell
the truth which produces evil.’”
Thus the tenets of the Persian sage and those of the Jesuits are
similar. To do evil is lawful, if a greater good be the result. I fear the
evil is often done without the expected good resulting.
A visit to the tomb of Saadi, or that of Hafiz, is common among the
Shirazis for the taking of omens or “fal,” as they are termed. For a
few coppers the dervish who usually acts as guardian to the tomb
produces his well-thumbed manuscript copy of the poet, and, after
an invocation to the Deity, he thrusts his knife into the closed volume
between the leaves. Taking the passage at the top of the right-hand
page, he recites it to the anxious inquirers, and, if they be ignorant
people, he generally manages to recite a passage favourable to their
wishes. Nothing serious is done in Persia without the taking an
omen, “fal,” the casting of lots, “istikhara,” or the decree of an
astrologer. It was a common thing for a patient to tell me that the
reason he consulted me was, that he had put all the names of the
doctors of the town in a bag, and mine had been drawn. I also was
commonly told that a man had refused his physic because the omen
was against it. They will close a bargain or not by an omen, start on
a journey or refrain from the same reason; and their action in such
little doubtful points as the staking in games is ruled in the same
manner. A common way to take an omen (in this case “istikhara,” for
“fal” is generally confined to the omen by the book, be it Hafiz, Saadi,
or the Koran) is to grasp the rosary haphazard (every Persian man
or woman carries a rosary) and count from the bead grasped till the
end is reached—good—doubtful—no; the last bead reached being
the decisive one.
On a taking the “fal” at the tomb of Hafiz by Captain T⸺, R.E.,
who was a gold medalist in Persian, a curious incident occurred. The
old dervish, taking the book of poems between his palms, muttered
the usual invocation to God, and opening the book proceeded to
recite some stanzas highly favourable to Captain T⸺’s proceeding
on his journey. But T⸺, taking the book from his hand, and looking
only at the first line, closed the volume and recited from memory that
line and some fifty that followed it. The dervish certainly was
nonplussed. Here was a Feringhi, who could not make himself
understood by even the servants (so different is the Persian of books
and that learnt in India from the colloquial), reciting correctly, and
with appropriate gesture, the poetry that he, the dervish, prided
himself on being familiar with. His eyes rolled, he looked with
astonishment on the gifted European, put his spectacles in his
pocket, bowed, and disappeared, not even waiting for the present
that he knew he could be sure of. We were naturally much surprised,
but we were cognisant of Captain T⸺’s being well versed in the
Persian classics; for did he not address my servant as “cupbearer,”
“sorki”? and did he not request, to the man’s astonishment, when
requiring beer, that he should bring “the soul-inspiring bowl”?—which
phrases, being poetical, were quite as Dutch to the servant as if a
London waiter were ordered to “fill high the bowl with Samian wine.”
Saadi, though more influencing the actions of the people, is less
read by the upper classes than Hafiz, to whom are paid almost
divine honours; and the humble tomb of the one, in its little unkept
garden, is little visited, while the handsome stone over the grave of
the other has generally a few reverent idlers round it.
CHAPTER XXVI.
SHIRAZ—PERSIAN CUSTOMS.
The Tazzia—Persian pulpit—Prince’s flirtations—Month of mourning—Details of

performance—Breast-beaters—Hymn in honour of the king—The performers
—Processions—Detail of the tragedy—Interludes—Rosehkhaneh—The
Ramazan—The Fast—Hospitalities—Zalābi—Religious affectation—Reading
poetry—A paraphrase—A quotation—Books and their covers—Calamdans—
Writing a letter—Sealing—Specimen of an ordinary letter—Apparent piety—
The evil eye—Talismans—I procure one.
While in Shiraz I made my first acquaintance with the Tazzias, or

religious representations, given by the grandees of the town, of the
various histories from the Koran leading up to the climax, the tragedy
of the saints Houssein and Hassan[28] and their wives and children.
Almost all of the wealthy did some public act or other in the
Mohurrim, the month of mourning for the martyred saints. The tazzia,
or dramatic representation, was given by the Zil-es-Sultan, the
Governor, in the garden of his palace, on a very large scale indeed,
and in a smaller way by the Muschir and the Kawam and others.
To the prince’s tazzia I went by his invitation each day, and the
young prince took great interest in the getting-up of the various
scenes in the story.
A platform, some thirty yards square, was formed by placing
together a number of takhts, or wooden platforms. These were
planked over, and a level stage made by placing on them big doors
and planks. The whole was carpeted with thick felts, and at one
corner was placed a pulpit, draped in black. This pulpit, like all
Oriental ones, is merely a flight of wooden steps, some eight feet
high, leading to a platform some two feet square, on which squats
the preacher or reader, as the case may be. The stage is placed
some twenty feet from the principal front of the prince’s palace, the
rooms of which thus form private boxes.
To the left spaces are roped off to accommodate the women, who
pour in in hundreds; they are all closely veiled. In the lower room,
also veiled, and facing the crowds of women, sit the prince’s ladies.
Above their apartment, at a large open window, is the prince himself,
and during the waits, and sometimes even during the most pathetic
parts, the young fellow amuses himself in ogling the ladies, the
better-looking of whom seize these opportunities of raising their veils
and casting coquettish glances in his direction. I have even known
him, when very young, to have a basin of frogs handy, and he would
toss the animals out among the thickest throng of the tightly-packed
women, and shriek with laughter at the cries and confusion
produced.
To the right of the platform were dense crowds of men, the
common people of Shiraz, while several large rooms opening
towards the stage were devoted to the invited of the better class,
officials and courtiers.
The whole crowd were protected from the sun, rain, and wind by a
huge tent provided for the purpose, and the raising of which had
taken a hard week’s work, all the soldiers of the two regiments in the
town being employed to aid an army of professional tent-pitchers.
This tent was without walls, thus permitting the free ingress and
egress of the performers of the tragedy and interludes, and the many
processions of horses, soldiers, camels, etc. It was sustained by four
huge masts.
During this month the whole of the community go into the deepest
mourning. Black is the only wear, and the poor seize the opportunity
to have their old clothes dyed, and so get an extra bit of wear out of
them, the more ceremonious going into mourning some days before
the commencement of Mohurrim, and remaining in black the whole
even of the following month.
Behind the stage is raised a huge scaffolding, covered with red
cloth, and hung with Cashmere shawls.
On this are arranged all the glass and crockery that the prince
possesses, and all he can borrow by hook or by crook, all his
mirrors, lamps, and chandeliers, and the whole are set off by rows of
brass candle-lamps hired from the bazaar, the general effect being
that of a very miscellaneous broker’s shop. Considerable care is,
however, devoted to this display, and its grandeur, or the reverse, is
one of the subjects of town talk for a week.
The women having been crowding in from an early hour, the wives
of the grandees and officials are accommodated with seats with the
princess and her ladies, while the less favoured have places retained
for them in good situations by their servants, and according to rank.
As noon approaches every seat is taken, and the stage surrounded
on all sides by a sea of faces, a path being, however, left all round it
for the processions to advance and make the circuit of the stage. All
being now ready the band plays a march, a gun is discharged, and
the Prince-Governor takes his place at his window.
A priest now ascends the pulpit, on the steps of which others are
seated, while a crowd of lesser moollahs squat at the base. In a
clear voice, every word of which is plainly heard in this assembly of
many thousands, the priest recites the facts of the death of Houssein
and Hassan. At the mention of these names the audience become
overwhelmed with grief, and, baring their breasts, smite them, crying,
“Ai Houssein, Wai Houssein, Ai Houssein jahn!” (“Oh, Houssein,
Woe for Houssein, Oh, dear Houssein!”) or at times join in the
choruses led by organised mourners, who, with clenched fist or open
hand, strike their breasts simultaneously at each mention of the
names Houssein Hassan, Houssein Hassan, till they are out of
breath, and their crimson and bruised chests force them to desist,
with one final shout or shriek of “Houssein.” Half-a-dozen volunteers
(these generally dervishes), as the sainted names are pronounced
by the hundreds of voices, strike themselves over each shoulder with
heavy chains. All the beholders are gradually worked up into a state
of excitement and enthusiasm, and the descriptions of the saints and
their children’s sufferings make even the heart of the European
listener sad.
And now a curious chant in honour of the king is sung by a band of
youths; after this the priests leave the stage, and the professional
exponents of the drama make their appearance dressed to sustain
the characters of the day. Small boys, chosen for their clear and
sympathetic voices, from among the singers of the town, sustain the
little parts of the granddaughters and grandsons of the prophet.
The wives are veiled, and these characters are played by bearded
men, as are the angels and prophets, who are also veiled by
glittering handkerchiefs.
Yezeed, the infidel king, and Shemr, the actual slayer of the saint,
are clad in gay attire, booted and helmeted, and, with shirts of chain-
mail on, rant as do the heroes of a Surrey melodrama; but the
language is effective, the action rapid, and the speeches, though
often long, accompanied by vigorous pantomime.
There are no actual acts, no scenery, no curtain, but as each
scene terminates the actors leave the stage; and a long procession
of horses, camels, and litters and biers, on which are carried the
kotol (dummies) of the dead saints, enters with much noise, music,
shouting, and drumming; followed and preceded by the volunteer
mourners and breast-beaters, shouting their cry of Hous-s-e-i-n H-a-
s-san, Houss-e-i-n H-a-s-san, and a simultaneous blow is struck
vigorously by hundreds of heavy hands on the bared breasts at the
last syllable of each name. Continual flourishes are played by the
band, and the noise is deafening, the excitement contagious.
The actors are mostly well up in their rôles; many of those
sustaining the principal characters have come from Ispahan, where
the tradition of the tazzia is handed down from father to son; and
year by year they have played the mournful tragedy, making it a
business as well as a religious act. They are fed, dressed, and paid
by the Governor. The numerous bands of well-drilled
supernumeraries who combat on the stage are eager volunteers.
Each speaking actor carries his part written out on a small scroll on
the palm of his hand, and calmly reads it when memory fails him.
Each act lasts from two to four hours. The drama itself goes on for
from a week to twelve days, and various interludes and acts of it are
performed; the most popular being the wedding of Kasim, from the
great amount of spectacle, the death of Houssein, the death of Ali
Akbar, and the Dar.
A ROSEH KHANA, OR PRAYER-MEETING.
(From a Native Drawing.)
This latter is more than usually comic, and relates to the supposed
conversion and immediate martyrdom of a Christian ambassador;
the former of which is effected by the sight of the head of Houssein.
The deaths of the various saints (imams) are portrayed with a
ridiculous minuteness, but so excited are the audience that they do
not appear to cause amusement. Thus, on the death of Ali Akbar, he
enters wounded and thirsty, and beats off some thirty assailants,
then after a long speech exits; then enter more assailants; re-enter
Ali Akbar, covered with arrows sewn on his clothing to the number of
sixty or so. He puts his assailants to flight, killing several, is
wounded, exit. Re-enter Ali Akbar, long speech; he has now only one
arm, puts assailants to flight, speech, exit; re-enter armless, his
sword in his mouth.
Enter a murderer. They fight. The murderer is slain.
Enter thirty assailants. At last Ali Akbar, after rolling up and down
the stage, is killed, to the immense relief of everybody.
His head is stuck on a long spear, the band strikes up, the
mourners shout Houssein! Hassan! for ten minutes, and the drama
for the day ceases.
There are other irregular interludes, Adam and Eve, Cain and
Abel, etc. Some of the scenes are very comic; as that between
Yezeed the tyrant and his physician.
On the day when the martyrdom of Houssein himself is portrayed,
the place is thronged. The cruel Shemr, generally very vigorously
represented, is at times roughly handled by the mob. The crowd are
often regaled with sherbets by the personage at whose cost the
tazzia is given, also pipes, and even coffee; and the amount
expended in pipes, coffee, tea, etc., to the numerous guests is very
considerable indeed.
Almost every house has its rosehkhaneh, or reading of prayers
and Scripture. These are generally given either to men or women;
and in the latter case, female readers and singers are employed.
When given to men, the moollahs officiate; and the reading takes
place from a pulpit hung with black, the roofs being crowded with
rows of veiled women.
The tazzias are not approved of by the higher classes of the
priesthood, but custom has made the people cling to them, and each
small village has its local tazzia. Wherever a tazzia or rosehkhaneh
is held, small black flags are exhibited at the door, and any one
walks in. By the performance of the tazzia the commemoration of the
death of Houssein and Hassan is annually brought home to the
Shiah Mahommedan, and the more fanatical yearly hold a sort of
Guy Fawkes day, when a comic tazzia, in ridicule of Omar, is held,
and the (from their point of view) usurper is finally conducted to the
infernal regions by the devil in person.
During the greater part of Mohurrim bands of boys visit the houses
of their quarter singing a long chant commemorative of the death of
the martyrs, and collecting a few pence at its conclusion.
The month of Ramazan is the fasting month of the Persians, and
the great majority of the people rigorously observe it, tasting no food
nor water, nor even smoking, from sunrise to sunset. Of course
when the month falls in the summer the penance is much more
serious.
The more ascetic go “peishwaz,” that is, observe the fast a few
days before it is really in force.
Only the sick, very aged, young children, and travellers are
exempt, and no one dares to openly break it, though, of course,
many of the more advanced or irreligious do so in secret.
In the night, an hour before dawn, the cry is, “Oh, water, water and
opium!” This is the warning given to the people to take their last
snack, the farewell cup of tea and pipe; and a copious draught of
water and an opium pill are generally swallowed just at the gun-fire
which announces daybreak.
Now the fast commences, and all compose themselves to sleep.
At nine or ten the usually early rising Persian gets up and prepares
to maunder through the day. He does no business save that which it
is absolutely impossible to avoid. Half the shops in the bazaar are
shut, or only opened for a few hours; the Government offices are
closed the greater part of the day; everything is put off “until after
Ramazan.”
Towards the latter part of the afternoon the streets become
thronged; as sunset approaches every one gets more lively, and at
the fire of the sunset gun the longed-for pipe is seized, a cup of tea
taken, and in half-an-hour every one sits down to a heavy meal.
Many parties are given in this month, the guests generally
spending the night at the host’s house.
A peculiar form of eatable, called zalābi, is prepared during
Ramazan. A thin paste of starch and sugar, mixed with sesamun oil,
is poured in streams upon heated copper trays, and a kind of fritter
produced, which is delicate-looking and rather appetising. When
eaten it is served cold.
A particular Mahommedan will not swallow his own saliva during
this month; and riders may be seen during Ramazan with their
mouths and nostrils carefully covered by the end of their turban, or
by a handkerchief, thus in their idea preventing the breaking of the
fast by the swallowing of dust, or animalculæ invisible to the eye.
Generally, however, this is merely affectation of religious scruple.
The most severe trial, however, setting apart the thirst produced in
hot weather, is the abstention from smoking; and a merchant or
shopkeeper, who has the tube of a water-pipe between his lips eight
hours out of the twenty-four, really suffers considerable
inconvenience from a fourteen hours’ abstention.
The long nights of Ramazan are enlivened by numerous festivities;
dinner-giving takes place throughout the month, and the number of
pipes smoked till two a.m. is considerable. The story-tellers are now
in great request, and drive a roaring trade going from house to
house. Poetry, too, is much recited and read aloud, the favourites
being Saadi, Hafiz, and Firdūsi. Story-books, cheaply printed and
roughly illustrated, are much read. They mostly contain short tales.
Here is one paraphrased, with a facsimile of the rude woodcut
illustrating the tale. I must premise that Mortaza Ali, the fourth
successor and son-in-law of Mahomet, was assassinated by a
fanatic; the caliphate having been previously usurped by Omar and
Abubekr, an old man the father-in-law of Mahomet, who succeeded
the prophet on his death. (So say the Shiah sect.)
Abdul, a lazy peasant, lay

A-snoring half the livelong day;
His thrifty wife to scold began—
“Arise, and work, O lazy man.”
Yawning, he rose, and, stretching, spake,
While half asleep and half awake,
“Ah, little wife, why should I rise?”
“To earn our bread,” the girl replies.
“Know, woman, if we work or not,
In winter cold and summer hot,
Great Allah feeds his slaves, and he
Will surely feed both you and me.”
The youthful peasant kissed his wife,
Then sallied forth in dread of strife.
With merry song and joyous lay,
Abdul beguiled the dusty way.
At length he reached a spreading plane,
“Beneath thy shade I will remain;
A brooklet and a shady tree,
There is no better place for me.”
He laid him down prepared to doze;
But suddenly he quickly rose,
And clambering the plane in fear,
Espied a dervish drawing near.
The dervish had the dullard air,
The maddened look, the vacant stare,
That bhang[29] and contemplation give.
He moved, but did not seem to live;
His gaze was savage and yet sad,
What we should call stark-staring mad.
All down his back his tangled hair
Flowed wild, unkempt; his head was bare;
A leopard’s skin was o’er him flung,
Around his neck huge beads were hung,
And in his hand—ah! there’s the rub—
He carried a portentous club,
Which Abdul’s eye had caught, you see,
And this is why he climbed the tree.
The dervish stopped and gazed around,
Then flung himself upon the ground.
“I ne’er have seen in God’s creation
A fitter spot for meditation.”
Smiled at the turf which ’neath him lay,
And said, “Yes, here I’ll spend the day.”
This Abdul heard, and shook with fear,
While from his eye there fell a tear.
“Oh, heaven!” exclaimed the trembling wight,
“He may, perhaps, too, stop the night.”
...
The dervish, squatting in the shade,
Five puppets small of clay has made;
And to the first he spake: “To thee
I give the name of Omar. See,
The second’s Ali Mortaza,
The mighty prophet’s son-in-law.
You, Abubekr, are the third”—
Abdul craned out his neck and heard;
“The fourth the prophet’s self shall be”—
Abdul here groaned, and shook the tree.
The dervish paused, then gave a nod,
“The fifth one—yes—the fifth one’s God.”
Poor Abdul heard the blasphemy,
And shook with fear and agony.
“Ah,” quoth the dervish, “Omar; well,
You doubtless grill in deepest hell;
You robbed our Ali—I have smashed you;
Had Ali pluck he might have thrashed you.
Ali; could you do naught yourself to save
From murder and an early grave?
Ah! Islam’s head too weak to rule,
I fear you were a torpid fool—
Half-hearted idiot—bah—pooh”—
He raised his club—“I smash you too.
And you, old Abubekr—triple ass,
Could you not aid him? I’ll not pass
You over,—there, take that!”
And Abubekr got a spiteful pat.
“While as for you,” the dervish cried—
Here Abdul’s ears were opened wide—
“Oh, prophet, you at least did know,
Why didn’t you avert the blow?
In highest heaven you sat and saw;
But didn’t help your son-in-law.”
Down came the club with heavy thud,
The prophet was but flattened mud.
The dervish turned him, bowing low,
“Allah,” he cried, “from you I’ll know
Why you did nothing; like the rest,
You were a lazy God at best.
When all mankind are in Thy hand
Why not despatch an angel band?
Or bid the earth to open wide
And swallow Omar in his pride?
What, silent too! ah, senseless clod!”—
The dervish raised his club to God.
Here Abdul screamed, and shouted, “Hold!
Ah, had you smashed Him—over-bold
And brainless dervish—as before,
Chaos would come again once more.”
The dervish heard—“Azraël!”[30] he cried,
Stared, and sunk back, and, shuddering, died,
And gave up his reluctant breath,
Thinking he heard the voice of Death.
Then cautious Abdul reached the ground,
Looked on the dervish, gazed around,
And softly to himself did cry,
“’Tis certain there is no one by.”
He searched the corpse, a purse appears,
And Abdul dries his frightened tears,
Hies to his smiling wife, says, “See!
From Allah, love, for you and me.”
“Husband,” quoth she, “God helps us all,
Both prince and beggar, great and small.”
Abdul replied, “But, girl, you see,
God would have perished but for me!”
Facsimile of Rude Persian Woodcut.
The reading of poetry is much in vogue among the upper classes

to promote sleep! and even the most ignorant can rattle off long
recitations. So common is the habit of introducing poetry, that
Europeans are looked on as very ignorant, because their
conversation is prosaic; and one of the staff obtained quite a
reputation as a well-read man in a curious manner. He was
acquainted with one (and only one) verse of Persian poetry, a very
well-known one. It was this:—
“For the mole on the cheek of that girl of Shiraz

I would give away Samarkand and Bokhara.”
Now the gentleman, on the mention of the word mole, cheek, girl,
Shiraz, Samarkand, or Bokhara, would instantly introduce the
quotation; and as Shiraz was the town we lived in, and Central Asian
affairs are continually on the tapis, Samarkand and Bokhara, unlikely
words as they were for general conversation, were invariably
introduced, and the inevitable quotation made. Unfortunately another
member of the staff, jealous of his rival’s reputation, betrayed him,
and Othello’s occupation went.
Books are treated with consideration in Persia. They are generally
bound in boards, and these are elaborately hand-painted, generally
with representations of birds and flowers. From two kerans to two
hundred may be paid for a pair of these boards. Sometimes a book
is bound in leather. This is, however, less common, save for account-
books. A sort of outer envelope of cloth or chintz is made, and the
book enclosed in it, thus preserving the binding and work at the
same time.
Great expense, too, is lavished on the pencase (kalam-dān); it is
nearly always of papier-maché, about seven inches long, one wide,
and one and a half deep; it draws open and contains the pens, which
are reeds, an ivory or bone block for nibbing them on, a tiny spoon
for moistening the ink, and a penknife, also the peculiar scissors for
trimming paper. At one extremity is a small box of silver or brass
containing a skein of silk, which absorbs a quantity of Chinese ink,
and is wetted with the tiny spoon as it dries up. A roll of paper is also
carried at the girdle, and a few adhesive strips of thin coloured paper
are provided for the closing of letters.
When it is wished to write a letter, the Persian sits if he can, but
this is not a sine quâ non; he tears from his roll of polished paper
(made in the country) a piece of the needful size, and commencing
in the right-hand top corner, he proceeds to fill his sheet, writing from
right to left, and leaving at the left-hand side of his sheet a large
margin of at least an inch; should he reach the bottom of the page,
and have still more to say, he turns the paper round and proceeds to
fill the margin. He then concludes, reads the letter, and with his
scissors carefully trims off the torn edges, and cuts off all needless
paper. If it be an important letter he now seals it at the right-hand
bottom corner, or at the end; the sealing is often repeated on the
back, and is equivalent to our signature. He damps the paper with
his tongue, inks his seal, breathes on it, and presses it sharply on
the paper. A permanent and very distinct impression is the result. He
now cuts a tiny piece off one corner, for to send a four-cornered
letter brings ill-luck, the Persians say. The letter is either rolled up
and squeezed flat, or folded as we should fold a spill; it is thus about
three to four inches long, and half an inch to an inch wide. A strip of
adhesive paper is rolled round it, and the end of this is sealed in the
same manner as before. The letter is now addressed.
Titles are continually used in writing letters, and the language is
usually high-flown and even bombastic. Thus an ordinary invitation
to dinner would be couched from one merchant to another:—
“To the high, the great, the influential, the descendant of the
Prophet Lord Ali Baba; please God you are in health. It is my
representation that to-morrow your slave will be delighted to be
honoured, in the house of your slave, with your illustrious and
pleasant company to dinner. I trust your Excellency’s health is good.
I have no further representation to make.”
Or after a long string of compliments and inquiries after the health
of the correspondent, comes the “mutlub,” or essence of the letter,
which is expressed thus:—“and please send by bearer your horse. I
have no further petition to make.”
A Persian is apparently very pious in his conversation, the name of
God being continually introduced, but these phrases have merely the
meaning of affirmatives or negatives.
Thus:—“Inshallah (please God), you will ride out to-morrow.”
“Alhamdillillah (thank God), I have nothing to do. Inshallah, I will.”
“Bismillah” (in the name of God), handing a pipe.
Friend admiring it: “Mashallah” (God is great). And so on.
Many of these phrases in which the name of God is used are with
the intention of avoiding the evil eye. Nothing must be admired, in so
many words, without one of these invocations.
Thus, one must not say, “What a fine boy!” on seeing a Persian
son, but “Mashallah” (praise God). In fact, the word “Mashallah,”
engraved on gold or silver and ornamented with pearls, is commonly
worn sewn to the caps of young children, and the word is often
written and worn as an amulet to protect a fine horse. For the same
reason a blue bead is often put in the tail of a horse, or sewn on the
caps of the children of the poor. Cats’ eyes are frequently worn for
this protection from the evil eye, and a hand[31] with one finger
extended I have seen used. This hand was, of course, quite different
from the metal open hand which surmounts religious buildings and
banners, all the fingers of which are extended. Talismans (“Telism”)
are constantly worn; they are generally enclosed in metallic cases
and affixed to the arm (“Bazūbund”). They are often verses from the
Koran, at other times merely figures rudely drawn, or a collection of
letters placed in some eccentric figure, as the well-known
Abracadabra; often the repetition of some of the names of God being
simple invocations.
A Persian is very loath to let these talismans be seen. They are
generally obtained from dervishes, priests, or old women.
During the cholera time in Shiraz I was attending the daughter of
the then high priest. I happened to see the old gentleman, who was
sitting surrounded by a crowd of friends, petitioners, and parasites.
He was writing charms against the cholera. I, out of curiosity, asked
him for one; it was simply a strip of paper on which was written a
mere scribble, which meant nothing at all.
I took it and carefully put it away. He told me that when attacked
by cholera I had but to swallow it, and it would prove an effectual
remedy.
I thanked him very seriously, and went my way. The next day he
called on me and presented me with two sheep and a huge cake of
sugar-candy, weighing thirty pounds. I did not quite see why he gave
me the present, but he laughingly told me that my serious reception
of his talisman had convinced the many bystanders of its great
value, and a charm desired by an unbelieving European doctor must
be potent indeed.
“You see, you might have laughed at my beard; you did not. I am
grateful. But if I could only say you had eaten my charm, ah—then.”
“Well,” I replied, “say so if you like,” and our interview ended.
CHAPTER XXVII.
SHIRAZ.
Bagh-i-Takht—Jews’ burial-ground—Christians’ cemetery—Its desecration—

Sergeant Collins’s murder—Capture and execution of the robbers—How it
was brought home to them—Memorial to Collins—Health of the staff—
Persians as servants—Persian cuisine—Kabobs, varieties of—English
dinners—Confectionery—Fruits—Vegetables—Pickles, etc.—Cook-shops—
Trotters—Mode of selling meat—Game—Eggs—Wild vegetables—Potatoes—
Disinclination to use new seeds, and its cause—Narcissus—General use of
flower decoration—Tame birds—Wild birds—White ants—Damaging the line
—Hamilton poles.
Behind the town of Shiraz, under the hills, lies the Bagh-i-Takht, or
“throne garden.” In addition to its large size, it is remarkable for a
peculiar building on terraces, once very magnificent. These terraces
are faced by a wall of glazed tiles, white, blue, black, and yellow.
Placed behind a tank so large as to be almost a lake, this curious
construction is reflected in the water, and presents a sufficiently
strange appearance. On some of the terraces are rows of orange-
trees, and on others a succession of fountains; these, alas! play no
more. The terraces are very narrow, and do not at first strike the eye
as such, and appear a many-coloured wall with rows of trees,
apparently growing out of it, and the whole crowned by a lofty
building, having more large trees within its walls, and then the sky;
the reflection of this and its consequent doubling forms a very
striking, if rococo, picture. At either side is a lofty summer-house of
several stories, and at the further corners of the tank are low towers,
which serve as points of vantage from which the curious view can be
admired.
The whole is more like a representation made upon screens of
canvas than a solid structure, and it looks like the pictures exhibited
at the Surrey Gardens in old days, from which the beholders were

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2 Recognizing symptoms of liquid loading in gas wells 7

4.2 Nodal example showing liquid loading and solutions 38

6.3.2 Feasibility charts 82

7 Hydraulic pumping 127

8 Liquid unloading using chemicals for wells and pipelines 139

9 Progressing cavity pumps 151

9.3 Water production 154

10 Use of beam pumps to deliquefy gas wells 167

10.7 Summary 207

11 Gas lift 209

12 Electrical submersible pumps 237

12.3.3 Seal thrust bearing 257

13 Coal bed methane (CBM) and shale 309

14 Production automation 329

Appendix A: Development of critical velocity equations 433

Gas Well Deliquification. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815897-5.00001-9

U.S. Natural Gas Number of Gas and Gas Condensate Wells

Figure 1.1 Number of gas wells.

1.2 Multiphase flow in a gas well

Approximate flow regime illustration

1.3 Liquid loading

1.4 Deliquification techniques

1.5 Most used systems for deliquification

be used in combination with all systems for maximum performance), combination

Gas Well Deliquification. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815897-5.00002-0

Indications of loading can be from:

2.2 Predictive indications of liquid loading

2.2.1 Predict or verify liquid loading using critical velocity

Use of Nodal Analysis to predict if flow is above/below critical

Turner unloading rate for well producing water

Figure 2.2 Some Nodal concepts.

Approximate flow regime illustration

Figure 2.3 Example flow regime map.

Multiphase flow regimes

discussed in the Introduction, Chapter 1. This map has entries regarding

2.3 Field symptoms of liquid loading

Figure 2.4 Decline curve analysis.

2.3.1 Increase in difference between surface values of casing

2.3.2 Pressure survey showing liquid level

Figure 2.6 Casing and tubing pressure indications.

Pressure survey to determine liquid loading

Gas gradient above liquid

Water gradient below liquid

Some gas may bubble up through