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Knud Erik Jørgensen
INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS
THEORY
A New Introduction
SECOND EDITION
International Relations Theory
Also by Knud Erik Jørgensen
2nd edition
1 Introduction 1
Main theoretical traditions 1
Understanding the 21st century by focusing on the 20th century 3
The structure of the book 4
The structure of each chapter on theoretical traditions 5
v
vi Contents
Conclusion110
Questions110
Further reading 111
Websites for further information 112
Bibliography 277
Glossary 302
Index 311
List of Boxes, Tables and
Figures
Boxes
Tables
x
List of Boxes, Tables and Figures xi
Figures
xiv
Preface and Acknowledgements xv
Few books are produced solely by the author and I owe a great deal to all
those people who have been part of the dispersed team behind this one. At
Palgrave, Steven Kennedy did not forget to point out that it was time for an
update of the textbook and when Stephen Wenham took over he supported
the project with great enthusiasm, patience and commitment. I am also most
grateful to Palgrave’s anonymous reviewers, not only for finding valuable
time to review my proposals and progress over time but also for their very
encouraging and constructive comments.
I am also indebted to my colleagues Tonny Brems Knudsen, Jørgen Dige
Pedersen, Mehdi Mozaffari, Mette Skak, Georg Sørensen, Anders Wivel and
Clemens Stubbe Østergaard who kindly devoted precious time to comment-
ing on drafts of individual chapters and in particular to Morten Valbjørn for
his very thorough, helpful and sympathetic comments on the whole book.
Teaching teaches the teacher (too). This book is based on what I believe
are the most valuable lessons I have learned from teaching both introduc-
tory and advanced courses. The ideas behind the book have been tested in
courses both at my home university and at the (former) European Summer
University in Grenoble, France. I would like to thank the students in Yaşar
University’s IR501 class for their most valuable feedback when I tried out
some of the ideas that ended up in the book. Though it is difficult to mea-
sure the direct impact of such experiences, I am fairly convinced they have
been crucial for shaping the book. Finally, I should mention my involvement
in designing a new two-year master’s programme, International Studies, at
Aarhus University. I would like to thank all the students involved for their
most valuable feedback.
I presented papers at the 2006 and 2008 Annual Convention of the
International Studies Association outlining the key principles behind the
text and incorporating draft material for feedback. I was very fortunate
to have Edward Weisband, Virginia Tech and Dan Lindley, University of
Notre Dame, as my discussants. All were merciless and meticulous in point-
ing out a number of weaknesses, yet, at the same time, very supportive of
the project overall. I would also like to thank Carmen Mendes at Coim-
bra University for testing the chapter on theory building and informing me
Preface and Acknowledgements xvii
Note: Figure 8.2 in this book was previously published in the volume The
Social Construction of Europe that I co-edited with Thomas Christiansen
and Antje Wiener; it is reproduced here by kind permission of Sage. It was
also published in the Journal of European Public Policy, 1999 special issue,
and is reproduced here by kind permission of Routledge.
Chapter 1
Introduction
1
2 International Relations Theory
• Liberalism
The liberal tradition is cultivated by theorists who believe that not only
change but also progress is possible, although progress does not necessarily
come easy. According to liberal theorists, human reason and rationality
explain why human beings are capable of making progress possible. They also
believe that international politics need not be characterized by anarchy and
war. Anarchy can be moulded by means of international institutions, and
economic interdependence reduces the benefits of war and therefore the like-
lihood of war. Because democratic states tend to be more peaceful (at least
vis-à-vis one another), the increasing number of democratic states leads to an
enlargement of the global zones of peace.
• Realism
Theorists within this tradition are characterized by a strong focus on the
role of power politics and by their professional pessimism concerning inter-
national progress. They assume that history repeats itself endlessly and they
can therefore be said to represent a circular conception of history. Realist
theories are strongly state-centric, focus primarily on conflicts and dismiss
the importance of international institutions and n on-governmental actors.
The heyday of realism seems to have been the Cold War and it has had a
particularly strong position in the United States. The tradition should not be
mixed up with realism in art or philosophy.
feature, theorists conceive of IPE in most diverse ways. Some consider IPE to
be simply the employment of economic approaches and research techniques
in the study of politics. Others draw on the Marxist tradition, emphasizing
the determining effects of economic factors on politics. Still others extend
(political) realism by adding attention to economic factors. As we find IPE
theorists on most continents, IPE is one of the truly global traditions.
they often engage in lively debates across the boundaries of traditions. These
debates are excellent tools to strengthen our understanding of the essential
contestation of theoretical reflections. Second, Chapter 11 provides a toolkit
to be employed when engaging in ‘do it yourself’ (DIY) theorizing. Finally,
Chapter 12 summarizes, concludes and outlines perspectives.
6
Why Theorize International Relations? 7
What is theory?
But what actually is a theory and which theory should we use? On this there
is a range of views. Some authors take a narrow view, starting out by select-
ing one particular category of theory and then systematically introducing
it in the following chapters. Some teachers and students like this method,
because they can subsequently avoid having to bother with other concep-
tions of theory. Moreover, the reasons for choosing a given conception of
theory and neglecting the rest can be presented in just a few sentences. James
Rosenau and Mary Durfee thus explain:
Aware that our own expertise, such as it may be, lies in the realm of
empirical theory, the ensuing discussion makes no pretense of being rele-
vant to thinking theoretically in a moral context. All the precepts that
follow are concerned only with those mental qualities that may render
us more thoroughgoing in our empirical theorizing. (1995: 181–2)
8 International Relations Theory
In this manner, Rosenau and Durfee claim that they do ‘empirical theory’
and leave the rest basically untouched. Stephen van Evera is also brief in
his indirect dismissal of broader conceptions. He simply defines theories as
‘general statements that describe and explain the causes or effects of classes
of phenomena. They are composed of causal laws or hypotheses, explana-
tions, and antecedent conditions’ (1997: 7–8). In this fashion, he opts for an
exclusive focus on causal or explanatory theory and does so by means of a
narrow definition of theory.
The two quotations represent a very widespread yet narrow conception
of theory that implies an unfortunate reduction of the research and teach-
ing agenda. In contrast, this book favours a relatively broad conception of
theory. But this raises immediately the problem of how broad such a concep-
tion of theory should be. Is there a boundary somewhere? In his introduction
to Theories of International Relations, Scott Burchill points out that:
one of the purposes of this book will be to argue that the term ‘theory’
is not limited to its ‘scientific’ or positivist formulation and that explan-
atory theories, of the kind which flow from the adoption of a positivist
methodology, are only one type of international theory. (2001: 1)
In a similar fashion, this book introduces not one but several avenues of
theorizing. But if there is more than one conception of theory, how many con-
ceptions should we cover – and which ones? In this context, Chris Brown’s
understanding of theory is most helpful. He goes beyond a narrow monist
conception (which would highlight one conception as the one and only) and
claims that there are essentially three categories of theory:
Theoretical traditions
After about ten weeks a slight improvement showed itself, first in her
taking food voluntarily, then in speaking. By degrees she became
reasonable, and in about four months from the time she was first
seen was perfectly well. The medication used was very slight, but
she was thoroughly fed, took bromide of sodium and ergot for a time,
and occasionally a dose of paraldehyde to produce sleep. She had
two efficient nurses, who carefully carried out all directions, and who
never yielded a point, but tried to be always as kind as firm. This
case is instructive, not only because of its phenomena, but also
because of the method of feeding and managing the patient and the
result of treatment.
In exhibiting the patient I first placed his arms and legs and body and
head in various positions, where they remained until he was
commanded to place them in other positions. His mouth was
opened, one eye was opened and the other was shut, and he so
remained until ordered to close his mouth and eyes. In most of these
experiments the acts performed were accompanied by remarks that
the patient would do thus and so as he was directed.
The case was that of a sailor aged forty-two years, of previous good
health. The attacks to be described followed a boiler explosion, by
which he was projected with great force into the water, but from
which he received no contusion nor other appreciable injury. There
was no history of any nervous trouble in his family. It was the
patient's duty to heave the lead. The officer noticed that he was
neglecting his business, and spoke to him in consequence, but he
paid no attention to what was said to him. “He was in the attitude he
had assumed in the act of heaving the lead, the left foot planted in
advance, the body leaning slightly forward, the right arm extended,
and the line held in the left hand. The fingers were partially flexed,
and the sounding-line was paying out through them in this half-
closed condition. The eyes were not set and staring, as is the case in
epilepsy, but they were moving about in a kind of wandering gaze, as
in one lost in thought with the mind away off. The whole duration of
the trance was about five minutes.”
I do not believe that this ground is well taken. The conditions present
in petit mal are sometimes somewhat similar to, but not identical
with, those of genuine catalepsy. In the first place, the loss of
consciousness, although more complete and more absolute—or
rather, strictly speaking, more profound—than in genuine catalepsy,
is of much briefer duration. The vertigo or vertiginous phenomena
which always accompany genuine petit mal are rarely if ever present
in catalepsy. To say that the mental disturbance in catalepsy and in
epilepsy is identical is to admit an imperfect acquaintanceship with
both disorders. The mental state during the attack of either disorder
it is only possible to study by general inspection or by certain test-
experiments.
Powerful tonics, such as quinine, iron, salts of zinc and silver, should
be used in connection with nutrients, such as cod-liver oil,
peptonized beef preparations, milk, and cream, to build up cataleptic
cases in the intervals between the attacks.
ECSTASY.
“A few moments afterward you might have seen her brow light
up and become radiant. The blood, however, did not mantle her
visage; on the contrary, she grew slightly pale, as if Nature
somewhat succumbed in the presence of the apparition which
manifested itself to her. All her features assumed a lofty and still
more lofty expression, and entered, as it were, a superior
region, a country of glory, significant of sentiments and things
which are not found below. Her mouth, half open, was gasping
with admiration and seemed to aspire to heaven. Her eyes, fixed
and blissful, contemplated an invisible beauty, which no one
else perceived, but whose presence was felt by all, seen by all,
so to say, by reverberation on the countenance of the child. This
poor little peasant-girl, so ordinary in her habitual state, seemed
to have ceased to belong to this earth.
“It was the Angel of Innocence, leaving the world for a moment
behind and falling in adoration at the moment the eternal gates
are opened and the first view of paradise flashes on the sight.
“At a certain moment her taper went out; she stretched out her
hand that the person nearest to her might relight it.
“Some one having wished to touch the wild rose with a stick,
she eagerly made him a sign to desist, and an expression of
fear passed over her countenance. ‘I was afraid,’ she said
afterward with simplicity, ‘that he might have touched the Lady
and done her harm.’”